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Impact of Subliminal Advertising on Consumer Buying Behaviour:

An Empirical Study on Young Indian Consumers

Article  in  Global Business Review · August 2018

DOI: 10.1177/0972150918791378

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Article

Impact of Subliminal Advertising Global Business Review

19(6) 1–22
on Consumer Buying Behaviour: © 2018 IMI
SAGE Publications
An Empirical Study on Young Indian sagepub.in/home.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0972150918791378
Consumers http://journals.sagepub.com/home/gbr

Shakeel Ahmad Sofi1

Fayaz Ahmad Nika2
Mohd Shoib Shah3
Ather Sidiq Zarger4

Abstract
The main aim of this study is to examine the impact of subliminal messages in TV advertisements on
consumer behaviour. Though there are number of ways through which impact of subliminal advertisements
can be unearthed, in the current study, behavioural approach was adopted, which included discussion
on case study (group discussion on subliminal ads) followed by response on a questionnaire. A sample of
390 respondents was chosen from Kashmir division through multi-stage random sampling framework,
which, by and large, consisted of young students being a part of higher education in the state of Jammu
and Kashmir. Data was collected through structured questionnaire which was reliability tested and
validated as well. Apart from exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor, discriminant analysis
was also utilized for reliability, validity and data analysis, respectively. On the whole, the observations
have been found considerable and it has been observed that mostly subliminal exposure inveigles
young consumers and seduces them into illicit relationships through the subconscious mechanism.
Besides it, subliminal advertising has paramount significance in determining purchase intentions and
compulsive buying tendencies of a young consumer. Consumers under study have shown significant
differences in their compulsive buying propensity after having being exposed to subliminal advertising.
The present study has greater importance for welfare advocates who can utilize present work and
suggestions, in particular, to safeguard youth from the tactics of subliminal exposure.

1
Senior Research Fellow, Department of Management Studies, Central University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir,
India.
2
 Associate Professor, Department of Management Studies, Central University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
3
 Research Scholar, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, National Institute of Technology Srinagar, Hazratbal, Srinagar,
Jammu and Kashmir, India.
4
 Research Scholar, National Institute of Technology Srinagar, Hazratbal, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India.

Corresponding author:
Shakeel Ahmad Sofi, Senior Research Fellow, Department of Management Studies, Central University of Kashmir, Administrative
Block, Nowgam Campus-II (Near Puhroo Chowk, Nowgam ByePass), Srinagar 190015, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
E-mail: Shakeel.sofi@ymail.com
2 Global Business Review 19(6)

Keywords
Subliminal ads, subjugation, emotions, cognitions, irrational behaviour

Introduction
The birth of subliminal advertising dates back to 1957 when a market researcher named James Vicary
inserted the words ‘Eat Popcorn’ and ‘Drink Coca-Cola’ into a movie. The words appeared for a single
frame, allegedly long enough for the subconscious mind to pick up, but too short for the viewer to be
aware of it. The subliminal ads supposedly created 18.1 per cent increase in Coke sales and 57.8 per cent
increase in popcorn sales. Vicary’s results turned out to be a hoax. But more recent experiments have
shown that subliminal messages actually can affect behaviour in small ways. William Peter Blatty, author
of The Exorcist, prominently spoke out against subliminals when the movie adaptation of his book came
under fire for allegedly including subliminal messaging. He said there are no subliminal images. If you
can see it, it is not subliminal. ‘So do advertisers consciously choose to include subliminal messages in
their ads? Can they harness subliminal power to associate their products with sex and power? If so, does
it actually affect the consumer’s buying decision?’
However, hundreds of experiments conducted over the last 85 years have established that people are
influenced by certain latent information in the advertisements which usually bypasses consumer’s
conscious mechanism. This phenomenon is known as ‘subliminal perception’ and has been popularized
in science fiction stories. Subliminal message is a visual or auditory message presented so fast or at so
low intensity that people cannot detect it. Literally speaking of subliminal messages, it means below
threshold. There has been continuous research in subliminal messages in biological sciences, psychology
and other social science fields including management as well. A highly publicized study in the 1950s by
James Vicary incorporated a subliminal message in an add, ‘Drink Coca-Cola, Eat Popcorn’, and the
effect was increase in sales after movie at refreshment box (Russel, Rowe, & Smouse, 1991).
Advertisements are not only important to an advertiser but to a consumer as well, as it is an important
source of information for consumers and technique of generating sales for advertisers. The advertisers
have always been alert to catch the potential buyers’ unawareness by igniting their state of mind to
feelings and emotions which prompt them to buy the product as the message contained therein is more
addressed to the psyche than the vision. Furthermore, in a study related to advertisement effects, it has
been seen that advertising appeals (both rational and emotional) have a positive effect on advertising
attitude and purchase intention. In the same study, it was found that consumers are prone to pay more
attention to emotional persuasive messages while they pay less attention to rational appeals like
information and quality (Akbari, 2015). Though there are a number of ways that can be adopted to
subliminally persuade consumers like music in ads, the back ground language influence, love messages
in advertisements, social proof/cult feelings, there are certain messages which may conflict with the
sound principles of business ethics (Sofi & Nika, 2013). Therefore, certain aspects need to be addressed
like how far is it reasonable to have so much pornography which is apparent in most of the advertisements?
What about the half sexual actions? How far is it ethical to use metaphor in advertisements and more
importantly the question of celebrity endorsement? Therefore, the current study focused mainly on three
categories of advertisements, that is, pornography and half sexual actions, metaphor and celebrity
endorsement. Pornography and sexual actions in advertisement may help promote a product but
implications associated with such advertisements like inclination/excitement may tempt the youth
viewers to satisfy their biological needs through illicit relationships, causing anxiety and stress which
may force them to become drug addicts catching them in a vicious circle (Sofi & Nika, 2013).
Sofi et al. 3

Metaphor is being used in advertisements where actions and messages shown are directed at something
else than only the product information like the advertisement of Hero Honda Igniter, though the
advertisement was about the bike there are certain things in this advertisement that should be taken into
consideration, like why in this advertisement, an employee who has recently purchased Igniter is shown
to have lured a female who incidentally happens to be his boss. The metaphor is that by purchasing
Igniter you will be able to get hold of a girlfriend and another case of metaphor is that you will not
just be able to have a girlfriend, but you will be able to get hold of that celebrity which others die for.
Celebrity endorsement mostly affects youth because of their vulnerability and it is believed that
endorsements which promote fictitious and misleading information often affect a consumer’s behaviour
or decisions about the product or service. There are certain clinical devices like Tachistocope which may
directly measure the impact of subliminal advertisements. However, in the area of behavioural sciences
people can get response from consumers by using developed stimulus instruments (Sofi & Nika, 2013).
Furthermore, there are different models of consumer behaviour like economic man, where consumer
is supposed to make rational decisions and psychodynamic model, where behaviour of an individual
is determined by biological drives, rather than by an individual’s cognition, or environmental stimuli.
This process where consumer makes decisions on the basis of emotions and not on the basis of cognitive
abilities, is irrational behaviour which this research proposal is intended to study. If consumer’s
emotional capabilities are lesser than cognitive capabilities, then consumer would make rational deci-
sions, and if his/her emotional capabilities overcome cognitive capabilities, then whatever decisions
consumer makes would be irrational on the whole and this irrational decision making may lead to com-
pulsive buying. This may primarily be because of internal factors or external stimuli like subliminal
advertisements, and here focus has been to inspect the impact of subliminal exposure on internal aspects
like cognition, affection, advertisement evaluation and advertisement involvement. To make further
advances in this direction, it was also studied to ascertain the impact of feelings and emotions generated
by subliminal exposure on buying behaviour of a young consumer (Sofi & Nika, 2013).
The controversy of subliminal tactics started way back in the 1950s and it has been used for increasing
sales and also to bring changes in consumer behaviour, and is wide spread phenomena in the present
context as well. Subliminal messages also create anxiety and as a result of it people tend to lessen their
anxiety through smoking, drugs and over eating. Persuasion is about messaging one-to-one or one-to-
many. Subliminal persuasion occurs when people are able to successfully implant a message in the mind
of a person or a group of people who are targeted for change without their conscious evaluation of the
transformation, and they are encouraged to spread the idea organically to their associates. Subliminal
persuasion is about getting people to change their minds, to change their beliefs, and to accept new
information as not only being correct, but having the necessity to spread it. Advertising, marketing,
movie making, public relations, propaganda, negotiation and religion, all rely on subliminal persuasion
to entice their prospective consumers (Sofi & Nika, 2013).
The complete article has been divided into six sections. The first section focuses on the introduction
and background of the study. The next section deals with literature review. Furthermore, the third section
primarily focuses on the methods and materials used in the current study. The subsequent section
highlights data analysis and discussion and conclusion. The final section concludes the study with
suggestions.
4 Global Business Review 19(6)

Literature Review
Subliminal message is visual or auditory message presented so fast or at so low intensity that people
cannot detect it. Literally speaking of subliminal messages, it means below threshold. There has been
continuous research regarding subliminal messages in biological and other social science fields.
For example, Cheesman and Merikle (1986) cited the Psychodynamic Activation theory and theorized
how subliminal messages work in an individual and according to this theory, subliminal message
provides a subliminal stimulation which conscious mind may be unaware of, to either the visual or
auditory cortex of the brain. According to this theory, the subliminal message bypasses the gatekeeper in
the conscious mind and plants those messages straight into an individual’s subconsciousness part. James
Vicary, a researcher by profession, had claimed in a press release that subliminal messages had motivated
movie viewers to purchase popcorn and coca cola (Packard & Miller, 1957). He used a technique called
Tachistoscope to project the words ‘Drink Coca-Cola’ and ‘Eat Popcorn’ for 1/3,000 of a second at five
second intervals during the presentation of a movie entitled Picnic. Soon after Coca Cola study, subliminal
messages caught the attention of the business world. Federal funding started being sponsored for related
research projects (Russel et al., 1991). The public and academia viewed subliminal messages as a channel
that indirectly creates antisocial behaviour such as early sex stimulation in children, change in the value
system of an individual, cultural change, suicidal acts and drug use (Taylor, 1987). A number of research
studies have been conducted on two types of subliminal messages which include auditory and visual
messages (Moore, 1982). According to Urban (1992), the phenomenon of visual subliminal stimulation
is real; however, the disagreement continues on the effectiveness of these messages. The visual stimulus
can be in terms of graphics and videos, whereas auditory includes audio message such as back ground
message in music and music itself.

Research Gap
The topic of subliminal advertising is still an emerging field and a number of studies have reported mixed
results with some showing positive impact of subliminal ads on consumer behaviour (Wilfong, 2002).
There have been only few studies in the field of consumer behaviour and subliminal advertising while
taking subliminal as external stimuli and all the studies conducted so far have been in foreign countries
only. The field of subliminal advertising has hardly caught the interest of researchers in Asia, particularly
in India, and there is dearth of literature in the subject in this part of the world. How subjects exposed to
subliminal ads report or behave after being exposed to subliminal ads still remains unexplored and there is
paucity of literature confirmation in this regard. No study has been conducted so far to see the impact of
subliminal ads on cognitive and affective dimensions which shape the buying behaviour/compulsive
buying behaviour of an individual. The subject of subliminal advertising has hardly caught the attention of
researchers which is evident from the absence of literature from India’s perspective.
After going through the past literature, it could be observed that though cognition and affection have
been examined in the past, the imbalance in both the determinants while controlling different attributes
of external provoker like advertisement is still deficient of scientific research confirmation. Furthermore,
previous studies mostly lacked the application of superior statistical measures, which is paramount in the
assessment of the findings and this limitation has been done away with the exploitation of a number of
statistical measures in the current endeavour. It would not be an exaggeration to state that only little
attention has been paid towards the association between/among different variables like cognition,
affection and demographic attributes of consumers.
Sofi et al. 5

Subliminal advertising is still unexplored in Asia as it has different cultural, social, economic and
environmental setting and there is a lack of research evidence from the perspective of compulsive buying
and advertisements. The application of subliminal advertising on studying compulsive buying behaviour
of youth has been almost negligible and therefore calls for attention of researchers to broaden the canvass
of research and help in generation and addition of knowledge.
There is a wider gap and deficiency across research studies so far as the application of determinants
of cognition and affection with respect to youth of different characteristics is concerned. The present
study has adopted a comprehensive mechanism to study the subject in a holistic manner. The field of
consumer behaviour and subliminal advertising together is still an open field that provides enough
opportunities for researchers from different fields.

Objectives of the Study

There has been a long controversy regarding the impact of subliminal advertisements, that is, to say
whether these kinds of advertisements do actually affect the feeling component of an individual, whether
it affects the cognitive part of a consumer whereby he/she then goes for compulsive buying. This research
proposal tried to explore some of the behavioural aspects of a consumer that can be affected by subliminal
advertisements like feelings, likely involvement in depicted behaviour, believability in actions and ideas
promoted through these advertisements, whether such advertisements create any confusion, compulsive
buying habits if any, purchase intensions and purchase privacy with exposed consumer groups. This study
was conducted in Kashmir province of J&K, and was divided into three major regions, namely central
Kashmir, north Kashmir and south Kashmir, and respondents under study were youth from both the
sexes in the age group of 18 to 35 years. The study was extended to educated youth whether employed,
unemployed or undergoing process of education. The main focus of the present research was to review
strategies and extent of subliminal advertising intended to lure youth to irrational and compulsive buying.
Through the application of exploratory factor analysis, overall subliminal exposure was disintegrated
into various reliable factors. Furthermore, path analysis was employed to examine the effect of subliminal
advertising on the buying behaviour of a young consumer. The primary purpose of the study was to test
various relationships through the application of structural equation modelling.
Furthermore, this study was intended to validate the applicability of subliminal advertisements in
relation to business ethics and corporate social responsibility. Primarily this endeavour was taken to
suggest remedial measures that would shape consumption pattern of the youth to safeguard them from
the evils of subliminal seduction.

Rationale of the Study

Advertising is one of the important elements of promotion mix. The main objective of advertising is to
inform and persuade consumers to buy the products of a company. Advertising is an art of telling
and selling. Advertising agencies invest a lot through time and money in creating advertisements so as
to achieve desired results. Their core endeavour remains to construct the advertisements which are
watchable and likeable by adding attractive elements to it. Advertisements are created in such a way so
as to have a greater impact on cognition and affection. Consumer involvement is also vital in getting the
desired impact so that consumer’s interest towards watching the advertisements should be enhanced.
Different messages, whether adopted for legal purpose or corrupting youth behaviour, may be extremely
6 Global Business Review 19(6)

helpful in enhancing viewer’s interest. This study was conducted to know how the advertisements are
perceived by the consumers, what is the impact of advertisements on few components of a consumer,
that is, cognition, affection, purchase privacy, likely involvement, ad confusion and demographic
variables as well. The aim of this research proposal was to find whether subliminal messages do or do
not tend to create differences in consumer behaviour. Different consumer dimensions like cognition,
affection, emotional involvement that can be triggered after exposure to subliminal advertisements were
examined so as to see how consumers differ in their response to such advertisements as the degree of
each component determines the type of behaviour that consumers may show. Since the subliminal
advertising is blamed for promoting irrationality among youth viewers, from society point of view,
researcher felt it as prime responsibility to examine whether these ads affect consumer behaviour and
evolve strategies that may be required to disfigure their effect through various rational measures.

Research Methodology

Research Design
The research design included both explorative and descriptive designs. Exploratory approach was
employed for preliminary identification of the problem and then descriptive research design was
employed for testing various propositions and for the classification of sample characteristics. Exploratory
design was primarily adopted to explore different constructs/variables for the study. Furthermore, data
were collected through cross-sectional ‘one-shot’ design.

Sampling Design
The area of study was Kashmir division of J&K state and data were collected from the institutions of
higher learning that included government colleges. The population above 18 years of age was considered
as a sample for the study. Majority of the population as said earlier included students studying in various
colleges of the Kashmir region. The population was further dived into three groups of early adulthood
(18–23 years), middle adulthood (24–29 years) and late adulthood (30–35 years). Furthermore, a sample
size of 390 was chosen for this study. The formula (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970) used for the calculation of
sample size is discussed in the following lines:

n = X 2 NP (1 - P) / {ME 2 * (N - 1) + (X 2 P (1 - P)}

where
n = Sample size
X 2 = Chi-square for the specified confidence level at 1 degree of freedom
N = Population size
P = Population proportion (0.50 in this study)
ME = Desired margin of error (expressed as proportion, 5%).

With 95 per cent significance level, 5 per cent acceptable margin of error, population of youth in Kashmir
being greater than 1 lakh but limited to 10,143,700, also with proportion being 0.50 and chi-square at one
degree of freedom at 95 per cent level is 3.84. After using these values in the aforementioned formula,
Sofi et al. 7

sample size calculated for all values greater than 1 lakh but less than 100,000,000 is 384. Furthermore,
the researcher decided to collect data in equal proportions from three regions vis-a-vis north, south and
central Kashmir. Additional six respondents were included for data collection which increased the
sample size to 390.
Making further inroads in this direction, multi-stage random sampling method was adopted for
this study and the Kashmir region was divided into three major areas as discussed earlier. Then, the
government degree colleges were taken from these three sub-regions. Total strength of the government
recognized colleges in the three sub-regions of Kashmir is 54. There are 20 colleges in central Kashmir,
18 in north Kashmir and 16 in south Kashmir. Sample size being 390, it was further divided by three
gropus (three regions) which reduced it to 130. Furthermore, 130 in a particular region were distributed
into five colleges which meant 26 respondents from each of the five selected colleges. At the final stage
of sampling, 26 students including both male and female from each of the selected colleges were brought
into a class room setting and were asked to undergo a group discussion on subliminal advertisements
followed by the feedback on the case study (on subliminal advertisements) in an enabling environment.
The selection of 26 students was made primarily on the basis of roll numbers assigned to the students and
on the basis of the department they belonged to. The population above 18 years of age in these three sub-
regions was considered as a sample for the study. Majority of the population, as said earlier, included
students studying in various colleges of the Kashmir province.

Instrument
Structured instrument was used in the current study which consisted of several sub-sections, Section ‘A’
included demographic characteristics of respondents used for data collection; Section ‘B’ comprised
feelings items, ad involvement items, ad evaluation variables and items in negative form to judge
cognition of a consumer under study. While Section ‘C’ included compulsive buying variables, items to
identify purchase privacy and purchase intention of a consumer. Apart from demographics which
consisted of nominal scales, 5-point scale was adopted for rest of the items.
Furthermore, a case study reminiscent of advertisements that people usually watch on National
and Global TV channels was used as a supplementary material to obtain reliable data from the respond-
ents. It had three categories of advertisements designed to invoke and stimulate the consumers under
study. The categories included action-oriented advertisements, metaphor and celebrity endorsements.
The respondents under study were asked to mark how they feel when they are exposed to such type of
advertisements in routine line when they watch it on television? Case study was only a supplementary
material supplemented to make respondents aware about the study so that they could provide genuine
response.

Data Analysis and Discussion

Process of Factor Analysis

After collecting data from the respondents, data were analysed for determining underlying factors of
advertisement effect and purchase behaviour (outcome of an advertisement effect). Initially it was
performed over all 42 items in a combined form and 7 factors were produced by principal component
8 Global Business Review 19(6)

Table 1. Total Variance Explained

Extraction Sums of Squared Rotation Sums of Squared

Initial Eigen Values Loadings Loadings
% of Cumulative % of Cumulative % of Cumulative
Component Total Variance % Total Variance % Total Variance %
1 7.915 19.304 19.304 7.915 19.304 19.304 7.095 17.305 17.305
2 7.140 17.414 36.718 7.140 17.414 36.718 6.863 16.740 34.045
3 4.423 10.788 47.506 4.423 10.788 47.506 4.287 10.455 44.500
4 3.726 9.087 56.594 3.726 9.087 56.594 4.089 9.973 54.473
5 3.301 8.051 64.644 3.301 8.051 64.644 3.622 8.834 63.307
6 2.377 5.798 70.442 2.377 5.798 70.442 2.607 6.359 69.666
7 2.186 5.332 75.774 2.186 5.332 75.774 2.504 6.108 75.774
8 0.820 2.000 77.774
– – – –
41 0.001 0.001 100.000
Source: Authors.

analysis. After reviewing the seven underlying factors, the items of advertisement effect extracted four
factors, while purchase behaviour extracted three meaningful factors.
Comprehensive Process of Factor Analysis
Starting with KMO and Bartlett’s test, both the parameters (with KMO being 0.871) are in the well
acceptable level, and the null hypothesis, that the correlation matrix is identity matrix, is rejected by
Bartlett’s test of sphericity. The approximate chi-square associated with test statistics is 1.796E4 with
820 degrees of freedom which is significant at the 0.05 level ( p < 0.05).
Table 1 demonstrates the application of principal component analysis to subliminal exposure and
purchase behaviour problem. Under communalities initial column, it can be seen that the communality
for each of the variable from 1 to 41 is 1 as unities were inserted in the diagonal of the correlation matrix.
The column labelled ‘Initial Eigen Values’ gives the Eigen values. The Eigen values for each factor are
as expected in the decreasing order of magnitude as we go from Factor 1 to Factor 41. Only those factors
having Eigen value greater than 1 were retained which are 7 in this case and as is clear from Table 1, the
underlying factors account for 75.774 per cent of the total variance. Furthermore, Eigen extraction
(for sum of squired loadings) for each of the factor is in increasing order with highest for Factor 1 and
lowest being for Factor 7. The percentage of variance is again considerable in this case with Factor 1, 2
and 3 leading the variance. The all-important components of factor extraction, that is, ‘rotated component
matrix’ has almost similar results to that of sum of squired loadings. The rotated component findings are
important because these have to be used for further analysis. In this regard, it is again Factors 1, 2 and 3
which share the maximum portion of variance and have profound effect in the determination of results.
The factor extraction in the present problem can also be judged from Figure 1 and is clearly evident
from the plot that number of factors above Eigen value 1 are 7.
Determining Items Falling in the Respective Constructs/Factors
For the purpose of determining the respective items/observed items in a particular dimension, rotated
matrix was used and has been illustrated in Table 2. Initially component matrix was used to specify the
underlying items in the respective factors but because of the multi-co-linearity issues, rotated matrix was
exploited which clearly identified the underlying observed items in respective constructs.
Sofi et al. 9

Figure 1. Scree Plot

Source: Prepared by authors.
Disclaimer: This image is for representational purposes only. It may not appear well
in print.

Table 2. Rotated Component Matrix

Component
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
p1 0.912
p2 0.876
p3 0.855
p4 0.898
p5 0.913
p6 0.919
p7 0.905
p8 0.927
p9 0.913
p10 0.902
p11 0.849
p12 0.920
p13 0.918
p14 0.897
p15 0.890
p16 0.887
p17 0.866
p18 0.951
p19 0.852
p20 0.858
p21 0.763
(Table 2 continued)
10 Global Business Review 19(6)

(Table 2 continued)

Component
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
p22 0.963
p23 0.938
p24 0.920
p25 0.749
p26 0.939
p27 0.879
p28 0.963
p29 0.812
p30 0.812
p31 0.719
p32 0.651
p33 0.860
p34 0.851
p35 0.666
p36 0.805
p37 0.766
p38 0.678
p39 0.601
p40 0.887
p41 0.924
Source: Authors.

It is evident from the rotated matrix (see Table 2) that seven factors could only be retained and it has
given a clear picture with regard to item association in the particular factor/construct.
Interpretation of the Results and Construct Themes
Factor 1 includes p2, p3, p4, p14, p15, p16, p17, p19 and p20. It was named as Feelings/Affection that
consumers have after having being exposed to subliminal advertising.
Factor 2 includes p1, p5, p6, p7, p9, p10, p12 and p18. Based on the association of the observed items
in the construct, the factor was given a theme Advertisement Evaluation as subliminal advertisements
tend to dislocate consumers evaluation process. Factor 3 includes p21, p30, p31, p32, p36, p37, p38 and
p39 and it represented the compulsive buying nature of the young consumers. Factor 4 includes p22, p25,
p26, p28 and p29 and was renamed as Advertisement Involvement that consumers tend to have after
being exposed to subliminal ads. Factor 5 includes p33, p34, p35, p40 and p41 and was named as
Cognition of a consumer but its items were negative statements were reverse coded. Factor 6 includes
p23, p24 and p27 and was given the theme Purchase Intention. Finally, Factor 7 includes p8, p11 and
p13. It was renamed as Purchase Privacy.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Confirmatory factor analysis was carried on the data using EFA results.1 The results of the measurement
model being part of the structural equation modelling have been comprehensively discussed further.
Sofi et al. 11

Figure 2. Measurement Model

Source: Prepared by authors.
Notes: FEL: Feelings; ADI: ad involvement; COG: cognition; COM: compulsive buying; ADE: ad evaluation;
PINT: purchase intention; and PP: purchase privacy.
Disclaimer: This image is for representational purposes only. It may not appear well in print.

Overall, the scale was found to be reliable and both the construct validity and discriminant validity were
achieved for all the constructs and has been discussed in the following sections.
Specifying the Measurement Model
The estimates of structural relationships are likely to be biased unless the measurement instrument is
reliable and valid. In the present case, the measurement model is specified in a way that all the underlying
factors are allowed to correlate with each other and each of the factor is associated with designated items/
observed variables falling in the particular factor or construct. Researcher allowed all the seven factors
explored through the process of exploratory factor analysis to correlate with each other in a single
measurement model (Figure 2).
Assess Measurement Model Reliability and Validity
The important measures that are required to be examined in case of measurement model include model
fit indices, reliability and validity measures.
Model Fit Indices
The fit of the model was evaluated based on various fit indices including comparative fit indices (CFI),
goodness of fit indices (GFI), root mean square error approximation (RMSEA), etc. The results of the
CFA indicated that the model fits the data quite well [chi-square = 8027.589, probability level = 0.000
(  p < 0.05)], and CFI was found to be 0.92, GFI was 0.955, AGFI = 0.921, NFI = 0.901, TLI = 0.954,
PNFI = 0.938, RMR = 0.073 and RMSEA= 0.036.
Higher CFI, GFI, TLI, NFI and AGFI explain that the measurement model possess higher GFI and are
expected to be on higher side for reliable model. On the other hand, RMSEA and RMR, as expected, are
on lower side as they explain the error deviation in the model.
12 Global Business Review 19(6)

Table 3. Measurement Results

Item Item
Constructs Items Factors Loadings Errors CR (AVE) SQR AVE
Negative p4 FEL.1 0.892 0.413
Feelings p2 FEL.1 0.867 0.521
p3 FEL.1 0.843 0.569
p14 FEL.1 0.898 0.389
p15 FEL.1 0.875 0.5
p16 FEL.1 0.885 0.439
p17 FEL.1 0.853 0.546
p19 FEL.1 0.843 0.573
p20 FEL.1 0.84 0.619 0.93 0.60 0.77
ADI p22 ADI.1 1 0.001
p25 ADI.1 0.648 1.421
p26 ADI.1 0.937 0.282
p28 ADI.1 1 0.001
p29 ADI.1 0.746 0.925 0.88 0.59 0.77
COG p33 COG.1 0.826 0.758
p34 COG.1 0.82 0.818
p35 COG.1 0.569 1.634
p40 COG.1 0.836 0.736
p41 COG.1 0.947 0.263 0.83 0.44 0.66
COM p21 COM.1 0.713 0.11
p30 COM.1 0.76 0.23
p31 COM.1 0.697 0.89
p32 COM.1 0.609 0.12
p36 COM.1 0.743 0.11
p37 COM.1 0.797 0.23
p38 COM.1 0.589 1.641
p39 COM.1 0.507 0.542
p42 COM.1 0.834 –0.008 0.90 0.53 0.73
ADE p6 ADE.1 0.922 0.304
p10 ADE.1 0.895 0.401
p1 ADE.1 0.897 0.417
p5 ADE.1 0.903 0.391
p7 ADE.1 0.896 0.405
p9 ADE.1 0.904 0.393
p12 ADE.1 0.909 0.386
p18 ADE.1 0.963 0.146 0.89 0.70 0.84
PINT p23 PINT.1 1.002 0.326
p24 PINT.1 0.929 1.054
p27 PINT.1 0.754 0.166 0.82 0.61 0.78
PP p8 PP.1 0.96 0.7
p11 PP.1 0.755 0.33
p13 PP.1 0.918 1.293 0.75 0.50 0.71
Source: Authors.
Sofi et al. 13

Reliability and Convergent Validity

In addition to model–data fit, other psychometric properties of the scales such as composite reliability
(CR) and validity were also examined. In terms of CR (see Table 3), the constructs exceed the recom-
mended cut-off value of 0.60. Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that the scale is highly reliable based on
higher CR.
Furthermore, Table 3 shows that each of the item loadings (apart from few items) is greater than 0.50
which provides empirical support for the convergent validity. Also, AVE in Table 3 being higher than
minimum level of 0.50 for all the constructs proves that factors/constructs have attained convergent
validity as well. Only one construct has AVE lower than 0.50 but it was also retained since it is very close
to acceptable region.

All the constructs have CR and AVE which is above minimum level of (0.6 and 0.50, respectively).
Discriminant Validity
The estimates of correlations and their square root of average variance extracted (AVE; see Table 4)
indicated that scales are empirically distinct from each other. Formally, the SQRT (AVE) is larger than
the correlation coefficient; it indicates the discriminant validity of the constructs/scales (Fornell &
Larcker, 1981). One more measure that can be adopted to determine the discriminant validity is the
correlations in the path diagram as is shown in Figure 2, where correlations on curved paths are on lower
side as compared to item loadings. Overall the measurement model was found to be reliable and valid
given the evidence of model fit, reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity.
Furthermore, to get fitting results, the correlation and square root of AVE could be employed as well
for illustrating discriminant validity. Table 4 provides the comparison of correlation coefficients and
square root of AVE for each of the factors and it could be seen that SQRT (AVE) for every factor is more
than the corresponding correlation coefficient. Like FEELINGS and COG have correlation coefficient of
–0.168 and their corresponding SQRT (AVE) are 0.77 and 0.77, respectively, which are more than their
correlation coefficient. The story is same with all the factors which proves the discriminant validity of
the factors and scale on the whole.
CR and AVE were calculated using following formulas:
CR = | k = 0 (Item loadings) 2 / %| k = 0 (Item loadings) 2 + `| k = 0 (Error Items)/
n n n

AVE = | k = 0 Item Loadings 2 / %| k = 0 Item Loadings 2 + `| k = 0 (Error Items)/

n n n

Table 4. Fornell–Larcker Criteria

Feelings ADI COG COMP ADE PINT PP

Feelings 0.77
ADI –0.168 0.77
COG 0.088 –0.112 0.66
COMP –0.038 0.089 –0.116 0.73
ADE 0.119 0.069 0.022 0.081 0.84
PINT –0.161 0.179 –0.050 0.068 0.101 0.78
PP 0.149 –0.152 0.016 –0.028 –0.219 –0.119 0.71
Source: Authors.
14 Global Business Review 19(6)

Figure 3. Structural Model

Source: Prepared by authors.
Notes: FEL: feelings; ADI: ad involvement; COG: cognition; COM: compulsive buying; ADE: ad
evaluation; PINT: purchase intention; PP: purchase privacy; Add Effect: advertisement
effect; and Outcome: outcome of exposure.
Disclaimer: This image is for representational purposes only. It may not appear well in print.

Note: The estimates of correlations and their square root of AVE indicated that scales are empirically
distinct from each other. Formally, the SQRT (AVE) is larger than the correlation coefficient; it indicates
the discriminant validity of the constructs/scales. Overall the measurement model was found to be
appropriate given the evidence of model fit, reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity.

Specify the Structural Model/Nomological Validity

The structural model was specified based on theoretical frame work that subliminal exposure dislocates
cognition, feelings, evaluation process and increases involvement propensity of a young consumer
whereby he/she finds himself involved in unusual buying behaviour. Through this model, an effort has
been made to exhume how ad effect produced by subliminal exposure builds unplanned buying behaviour
mechanism within the consumers.
Sofi et al. 15

Table 5. Structural Coefficients

Estimate SE CR P
Determinants of Advertisement Effect
COG.1 Add Effect 1.000
ADI.1 Add Effect 0.778 0.442 –1.926 0.034
FEL.1 Add Effect 0.249 0.188 1.893 0.028
ADE.1 Add Effect 0.281 0.783 –1.637 0.002
Determinants of Outcome of Advertisement Effect
PINT.1 Outcome 0.254 0.013 2.113 0.035
PP.1 Outcome –0.092 0.502 –2.059 0.040
COMP.1 Outcome 1.000
Impact of Advertisement Effects on Outcome
Outcome Add Effect 0.79 0.621 1.272 0.012
Source: Authors.

Assess Structural Model Validity

As with measurement model, the proposed model was found to fit the data satisfactorily as the fit values
were well within acceptable ranges (chi-square = 10,364.744, p < 0.000, RMR = 0.154, GFI = 0.913,
CFI = 0.903 and RMSE = 0.048, NFI = 0.950, NNFI = 0.922).
Furthermore, from the review of structural model coefficients, it is clear that add effect determines
buying behaviour significantly as path estimate for add effect and outcome (0.79, p < 0.05) is significant.
Therefore, with 1 per cent increase in add effect, there would be 0.62 per cent increase in buying propen-
sity of a consumer which is some significant proportion that would entice majority of corporate organi-
zations to adopt it as a decisive strategy to corrupt young consumer’s mind and achieve unprecedented
sales.
The magnitude and significance of the loading estimates indicate that all four constructs of add effect
including advertisement involvement, cognition, advertisement evaluation and feelings are significant
predictors of advertisement effect on a consumer. Furthermore, the underlying constructs including
purchase privacy, purchase intention and compulsive buying are also significant predictors of the overall
endogenous variable outcome or buying behaviour (see Table 5).
Structural Model Coefficients Evaluation
To examine how exposure to subliminal advertising will create difference in the buying behaviour of a
young consumer, path model was tested across advertisement effect and outcome variable (purchase
behaviour as a result of effect created by subliminal advertising). Here advertsing effect generated by
sublimianl exposure was treated as an independent variable while as purchase behaviour was treated as
a dependent variable. Advertisement effect was meausred through four dimensions including cognition
of a consumer, advertisement involvement, ad evaluation and feelings of a consumer (see Figure 3).
The results of the structural cofficients clearly demonstrate that the predictor variable (exogeneous—
variable) significantly determines the buying behaviour (endogeneous—dependent variable) of a young
consumer. As the p value associated with the statistics is less than 0.05, it implies that the differences are
significant. In addition, the impact of advertisemnt effect on buying behaviour is represnted by an arrow
emerging from exogenous variable and is implied on endoogenous variable and its value is positive
significance as well (0.79). This clearly explains that as the effect (exposure to subliminal ads) increases,
16 Global Business Review 19(6)

there is a profound impact on purchase making of a consumer. With 1 per cent change in advertisement
effect, there is 0.79 per cent increase in outcome, that is, purchase behaviour in present case which is
significant and considerable as well.

Discriminant Analysis
To make further inroads and to examine how compulsiveness (dependent variable—taken separately)
would change across four advertisement effect dimensions (predictor variables), discriminant analysis
was employed. Here compulsive buying was disintegrated into two main factors of high and low
compulsiveness with 1 representing lower degree of compulsive buying and 2 representing higher
compulsive buying.
Following the preliminary exercise of summation and recording, Discriminant analysis was employed
across overall compulsiveness {Low-1 versus High-2} and corresponding predictor variables including
advertisement involvement, advertisement evaluation, cognition and feelings, respectively.
Based on the group means, that two groups namely low and high compulsiveness are widely
separated in terms of the factors respectively (Group 1: Feelings = 24.77, ADI = 09.87, COG = 10.98,
ADE = 20.33 and for Group 2: Feelings = 35.12, ADI = 15.97, COG = 13.07, ADE = 24.39). Furthermore,
the scattering (standard deviation) in the compulsiveness level of consumers is uniform across different
predictor variables (Group 1: Feelings = 11.51, ADI = 6.55, COG = 6.87, ADE = 10.27 and for Group 2:
Feelings = 10.08, ADI = 6.41, COG = 6.12, ADE = 11.31).
The significance of univariate F-ratio indicated that when predictors are considered individually,
feeling, ADI, cognition and ADE differentiate significantly between Group 1 and Group 2 as p-value
associated with predictor variables is less than 0.05 (Feelings: F = 0.12, p = 0.030; ADI: F = 2.731,
p = 0.049; COG: F = 1.681, p = 0.006; ADE: F = 3.48, p = 0.0131). This indicates that all the factors
are significant and largely determine the degree of compulsiveness of an individual.
Summary of Canonical Discriminant Functions
The Eigen value associated with the function is 0.719 and it accounts for 100 per cent of the explained
variance. In addition, the canonical correlation associated with the function is 0.816. The square of this
correlation (0.816)2 = 0.64, indicates that 64 per cent of the variance in the dependent variable
compulsiveness is explained or accounted for by this model.
Determine the Significance of the Discriminant Function
It would not be meaningful to interpret the analysis if the discriminant functions estimated were not
statistically significant. The null hypothesis that in the population, the means of all discriminant functions

Table 6. Standardized Coefficients and Structure Matrix

Function (Standardized) Function (Structure Matrix)

Factors 1 Factors 1
Feelings 0.184 ADE 0.681
ADI 0.547 ADI 0.604
COG –0.449 COG –0.474
ADE 0.638 Feelings 0.126
Source: Authors.
Sofi et al. 17

in all groups are equal can be statistically tested and is based on Wilks’ lambda. The significance level is
estimated based on chi-square transformation of the statistic. In testing the significance across overall
compulsiveness, it may be noted that the Wilks lambda associated with the function is 0.982 which
transforms to a chi-square of 47.390 with 4 degrees of freedom and this is significant beyond 0.05 level.
Interpret the Results
An examination of the standardized discriminant function coefficients for the overall degree of com-
pulsiveness is constructive. Given the low interactions between the predictors, one might use the
magnitude of standardized coefficients to suggest that feelings (as ADE = 0.68, ADI = 0.60, COG =
–0.47, Feelings = 0.13) is predominant factor in determining overall degree of compulsiveness (Table 6).

Figure 4. Sub-structural Model

Source: Prepared by authors.
Disclaimer: This image is for representational purposes only. It may not appear well in print.

Table 7. Structural Coefficients (Sub-model)

Estimate SE CR P
Outcome COG.1 –0.06 0.011 –0.588 0.556
Outcome FEL.1 0.52 0.025 2.186 0.029
Outcome ADE.1 0.54 0.025 2.199 0.028
Outcome ADI.1 0.34 0.016 1.974 0.048
Source: Authors.
18 Global Business Review 19(6)

But based on structure correlation matrix, it is clear that the first and foremost important factor (factors
of advertisement effect) is ADE followed by ADI, COG and feelings (ADE = 0.68, ADI = 0.60, COG =
–0.47, Feelings = 0.13).
The group centroid, giving the value of the discriminant function evaluated at the group means is
also discussed. Group 1, those who show low compulsiveness have negative value (–0.102) whereas
Group 2 has positive value of 0.182. Furthermore, some predictors are positive while some are negative.
This suggests that higher the value of ADI, ADE and feelings, cognition (reversed) higher would be
compulsiveness.

Sub-structural Model and Coefficients Assessment

To examine the effect of negative feelings on the outcome of a decision, a sub-structural model with
feelings, cognition, ad evaluation and ad involvement as predictors and purchase behaviour as endogenous
variable was tested (Figure 4).
Based on the results of structural model coefficients, it is clear that negative feelings have paramount
effect on outcome variable as the p-value for the statistics is significant ( p = 0.029 is less than 0.05)
(Table 7). Furthermore, it is positive significant and with percentage change in feelings there is 52 per
cent change in outcome variable.
The results are analogous with ADE.1 and ADI.1 and significant as well. It is only cognition where
results are not significant. Hence, higher the negative feelings and advertisement involvement, higher
would be compulsive buying, purchase intensions and purchase privacy.

Conclusion
From the review of previous studies and as has been shown in the current study, subliminal advertisements
do dislocate normal decision making of a young consumer. Furthermore, the after effect generated by
subliminal exposure has been found to have significant effect on overall buying behaviour of a young
consumer. The application of discriminant analysis has further revealed that all the predictor variables
are significant determinants of the compulsive buying behaviour, which could be the reason for undesirable
buying tendency shown by most of the young consumers in the present era. It is pertinent to mention here
that in today’s circumstances most of the young people get exposed to subliminal ads, be it through Print
and Electronic Media or Internet at large and therefore, are always susceptible to irrational buying
behaviour patterns.
Subliminal ads, be it through subconscious mechanism or through the process of indirect advertising,
as reported in this study and also in many other studies, do affect consumer buying behaviour. The
authors like Dave Lakhani (2008) and Vance Packard (1957), inflated it to some extent and they said that
subliminal ads are used as a technique not only to increase sales but are also used to divert youth and
involve them in such type of behaviour which is only hazardous to them. Advertisements are good source
of information for consumers that too available at cheap rates and it is because of these advertisements
that one has to pay only a little amount on newspapers. In addition, business organizations use advertise-
ments for generating sales which is their legitimate goal and can do it as per the Standards of Advertising
Councils.
But restrictions have been imposed by such bodies against number of messages that used to be part of
advertisements and no moral society would bear representation of products, messages, actions, celebrities
Sofi et al. 19

in such a manner which is widespread across the Globe. Advertisements have to be there but regulations
such as described in the Advertising Standard Council of India (ASCI) need to be followed not only for
the legal purposes but for societal concerns as well. Everyone is talking about sustainable development,
and the important aspect of such development is what the next generations are going to have and so does
the consumer, but the subliminal exposure is only going to ruin the consumer which needs to be given a
deeper thought.
The market in today’s world is all frenzied and in this high competition, companies are very much
focused to use the strategies that can be decisive in capturing market share but the limit of such strategies
cannot be declared and not even anticipated. The business is all about making money and to achieve this
objective, people can use any strategy and subliminal advertising being one of those strategies. Different
media organizations are bombarded with subliminal ads with print and TV being on top of the list. Very
early in the morning, when people receive an information source called newspaper, the very first page of
Greater Kashmir (the Jammu and Kashmir newspaper) contains subliminal ads with seductive and
alluring woman promoting hair removal cream (VI-JOHN). Nowadays it also contains metaphor type of
ads, the example being new advertisement for Honda Activa in which one young boy who is driving
Honda Activa is carrying behind his girlfriend and few young boys on other roadside are stunned after
watching all this, which is subliminal persuasion through metaphor. Different newspapers like Times of
India and The Hindu are mostly flooded with these kind of subliminal ads. So this is the story of
information source called newspaper which nowadays is also used to induce people through the means
of subliminal persuasion.
Besides newspaper, the dangerous and highly influential source used for subliminal subjugation is
none other than the Internet. Yahoo, YouTube and Facebook are all used for this purpose. How many
times people see ads with pornographic pictures, half sexual actions and images on Facebook? Even
user may try to block such content but next day he/she again encounters same ads posted on his/her
Facebook wall. When a user logs on to www.yahoo.com, ‘the life line of Internet users’, the result is the
bombardment of subliminal ads and it won’t be exaggeration to claim that Internet has over shadowed
the older source of subliminal advertisements, that is, TV. The Internet and subliminal ads provide larger
scope for research because advertising agencies feel free to use any kind of advertisement on the Internet
which is known to everybody and everyone is shouting today that Internet has totally corrupted youth
and there are no other reasons but certainly the subliminal messages, actions and others as well.
TV has always been the important source of subliminal ads for all the categories be it pornography,
metaphors and celebrity endorsement. There is greater scope to further strengthen the technique of
subliminal persuasion through this medium. Some of the subliminal ads that run on cable TV like that of
Amul Macho, Axe, etc. strike an individual’s affective dimension to greater extent and induce the viewer
towards undesirable sexual relations. Product placement and idea implementation through movies is an
important source for advertising agency. The basic question that should be answered by advertising
agency is what is it that forces these agencies to use such images, messages and role models in ads? Why
to use half sexual actions, pornographic images and celebrities when the advertisement of the product
could have been simple as well? Why is the rate of pornography and half sexual actions in ads increasing
day by day? The answer is simple, corrupt youth, corrupt the affective dimensions of an individual and
he/she will be a part of aggressive and unplanned buying behaviour which is what experts wanted
consumers to get engaged in after the Second World War. Not only this, such techniques are used to
corrupt youth and divert them from their religion as well (Lakhani, 2008). As Davie Lakhani has written
in his book that people were thinking about invention of a technique that will help win wars without
using any weapons and that technique is none other than subliminal persuasion itself.
20 Global Business Review 19(6)

Managerial Implications
The subliminal exposure does entice young consumer into irrational buying and compulsive buying
behaviour as is reported in the current study. Therefore, the use of subliminal advertising calls for
unanimous efforts from all the stakeholders to devise the strategies that would control the effects of
subliminal exposure. The prime responsibility lies on the shoulders of the advertisers who should focus
on consumer sustainability and avoid troubling consumers through the illicit exposure of females in
advertisements. The guidelines formulated by ASCI must be followed not only for the legal purposes but
for societal concerns as well. The regulations of the council should be operationalized and all advertising
agencies should be forced to adhere to the formulated guidelines. In addition to this, all the important
ASCI codes including Fairness in Advertising, Advertising with Conscience, Honesty and Responsibility
in Advertising and more importantly the Decency in Advertising should form the base line for advertisers.
There should not be indiscriminate use of advertising in situations or for the promotion of products
which are regarded as hazardous or harmful to society or to individuals, particularly minors, to a degree
or of a type which is unacceptable to the society at large.
Furthermore, advertisements should contain nothing indecent, vulgar, especially in depiction of
women, or nothing repulsive which is likely, in the light of generally prevailing standards of decency and
propriety, to cause grave or widespread offence.
If this practice is not discontinued, it will have serious repercussions on the consumer world particu-
larly on youthful consumer. There is the need to sustain young mind to further strengthen the ambit
of intellect of this country and for this reason, efforts should be made not to subjugate young folk
through subliminal subjugation. The degree of subliminal exposure requires to be lessened if not
eradicated completely for safeguarding young consumer from the panorama of illicit relationships.
The increasing rate of criminal doings has a strong association with that of subliminal exposure as it
defeats the realm of coherent reasoning and therefore, calls for the attention of academicians, advertisers,
NGOs and all the policy makers to evolve strategies for better management of subliminal assaults.

Suggestions
Everyone needs to take cognizance so as to safeguard themselves and others from this dreadful weapon
of subliminal advertising. Some of the recommendations that were felt imperative have been listed as
follows:

1. The degree of nudity in TV advertisements needs to be limited to the extent as much as possible.
Nudity largely affects the degree of affection and influences the anti-social behaviour among
youth.
2. The metaphor strategy in advertisements should be restricted as it puts youth in a vicious state
wherein they find themselves involved in irrational and anti-social behaviour.
3. Parents ought to be highly vigilant about different activities that their children carry throughout
the day. They should enquire spending and particularly type of purchase pattern within their
children.
4. The religious scholars from different communities should be roped in and who could counsel the
youth about the reality of life and help understand youth, ‘that life is just not about watching nude
pictures or leveraging through masturbation and drugs’.
Sofi et al. 21

5. The use of Internet should be limited as well and it again needs vigilance of parents and other
elder family members at home. This is because Internet over the years has brought unrecognized
changes in the behaviour of youth.
6. Parents must make sure what their wards are watching on television and their rate of watching
TV should be limited.
7. The educated youth spends major portion of his/her life in the educational institutes. So universi-
ties and colleges should come up with different programmes highlighting the consequences of
subliminal advertising. These educational institutes can also start programmes to imbibe values
among youth wherein they can find ways to control their affection and generate higher cognition.
‘Spiritual classes can be a better option’.
8. The advertising agencies have social and moral obligation towards youth who they want to
corrupt through subliminal exposure. Therefore, they must recognize the need to safeguard the
youth who are considered to be future heroes of the Nation.
9. The advertising agencies need to reinstate the strategies with reference to subliminal ads. They
ought to focus on adding the value to the consumer likings and not to distort youth through such
exposure.

Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the anonymous referees of the journal for their extremely useful suggestions to improve
the quality of the article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of
this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Note
1. The findings presented here are the final version of whole process consumed to attain reliability and validity of
the instrument and because of space limitations it was not possible to highlight all the repetitions carried out till
reliability and validity was achieved.

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