EE 6002 – POWER SYSTEM TRANSIENTS

UNIT II - SWITCHING TRANSIENTS

1. Resistance Switching: (T1)
To reduce Restriking voltage, RRRV (Rate of Rise of Restriking Voltage) and severity of
transient oscillations, a resistance is connected across the circuit breaker. This is known as
Resistance Switching.

Objectives of Resistance Switching:

 To reduce switching surges and over voltages.
 For potential control across multibreaks per phase in the HV breakers.
 To reduce natural frequencies effects and breaker recovery voltage.
Analysis of Resistance Switching:
It can be made to find out the critical value of shunt resistance.
L → system inductance
C → stray capacitance
R → Resistor used to modify the transient

The voltage equation is given by,

 v L + v c =E−−−−−−−−−−−−1
di 1
L + ∫ i c dt =E−−−−−−−−2
dt C
i=i c +i R −−−−−−−−−−−−3
Sub the eqn 3 in eqn 2
d ( ic + i R )
L +v c =E
dt
d ic di
L + L R +v c= E−−−−−−5
dt dt
dq d ( C v c )
ic = = ; q=Cv
dt dt
2
d ic d ( C v c )
2
d vc
= =C −−−−−−6
dt dt
2
dt
2

v di 1 d vc
iR = c ; R = −−−−−−7
R dt R dt
Sub. the eqns 6& 7 in eqn 5,
d 2 vc L d vc
LC + + v c =E−−−−−8
d t 2 R dt
Taking Laplace transform,
L E
LC s2 v c ( s )+ s v ( s ) + v c ( s )= −−−−9
R c s
At initial conditions, v c ( 0 ) =0 ; v 'c ( 0 )=0 ;
1 1 E
LC [s ¿ ¿ 2 v c ( s ) + s v c ( s )+ v c ( s ) ]= ¿
RC LC s
¿¿
E 1
v c ( s )=
LCs 1 1
(s ¿ ¿ 2+ s+ )−−−−−10 ¿
RC LC
2
s+ ( RC1 ) s+( LC1 )is quadratic equation.
A , B=− ( ) √(1
2 RC
±
1 2
2 RC
− ) ( )
1
LC
2
b −4 ac ≥ 0

( ) ( )
2
1 1 1 2 1
− ≥0; ≥
2 RC LC 2 RC LC
2
1 1 1 4C
2 2
≥ ; 2≥
4 R C LC R LC

4C
L 2
≥R ;R ≤
2 1 L
4C
;R≤
1 L
2 C √
If R ≤
1 L
2 C √
,there will be no transient oscillation.

If R>
1 L
2 C √
, there will be transient oscillation.

R=
2 C √
1 L is called as critical resistance.
2. Capacitance Switching: (T1)
The capacitor banks or shunt capacitors plays vital role in power systems.
The shunt capacitors are employed to correct power factor or to provide voltage regulation
for the system.
Switching in and out of these capacitor banks in power system is called Capacitance
switching.
The capacitive switching requires special attention because, after current interruption, the
capacitive current causes high over voltages.

 The capacitor is fully charged to maximum voltage when the switch’s’ open.
 After switching, capacitor ‘c’ is isolated from source.
 After current zero, the capacitor tries to maintain the charge at peak. The voltage across the
switch reaches peak value of 2V.
  When a capacitor is connected to a system, the leading current flowing through the inductance,
causes the capacitor voltage to be higher than the open circuit voltage. This condition is called
as ‘Ferranti rise (or) Negative regulation’.
Effect of surge regulation on Capacitance switching:
When the capacitor is disconnected from the source, the voltage of the circuit breaker source
side is lowered to minimum, after some oscillations.
These oscillations are produced due to the presence of source inductance and stray capacitance
on source side.
The figure represents the capacitor voltage. In that ∆V represents the negative regulation.

Capacitance switching with a Restrike:

 While opening, some circuit breaker do not interrupts the load or ensure the current zero at first
time.
 The current involved in capacitance switching is small, so that circuit breaker not able to make
zero current at first instant of opening.
 Consider a Restrike takes place when the voltage reaches its peak. During this instant, the
capacitor voltage subjected to oscillation due to this sudden disturbance.
The frequency of oscillations is
ω 1
f ❑0= o =
2π 1
2 π ( L/C ) 2
Where, L → Inductance of the supply,
C → Capacitor of the bank
The Restrike current will be the instantaneous voltage across the switch by the circuit breaker
divided by the surge impedance.
2V p
sinωt
( )
Restrike current = L 12
C

( )
1
C 2
Ires = 2 V p sinωt
L
Capacitance switching with Multiple Restrikes:
During capacitance switching, there is a chance of sequential Restrikes. In figure, R 2 represents
Restrikes and C2 represents subsequent clearings.
When the multiple Restrikes occurs, it is possible for a voltage of 4 p.u. to be developed across
the switch.

3. Load Switching: (T1)

 Power switching devices are employed for controlling inductive, resistive or capacitive loads.
  Inductive load includes transformers, solenoids and relays.
 Incandescent lamps are resistive loads, during turn-on, cold resistive inrush current is 12-18
times the steady state current.
 Capacitive loads, such as fluorescent lightning, also present inrush at turn-on.

The interaction of the load circuit on the switch arrangement and its communication depends on
three factors.
1. the type of load, usually inductive
2. switching mechanism classification
3. the switch characteristics required to fulfill the supply and load V-I characteristics.

Analysis of Load switching:

Switching on and switching off the load is frequently performed by switching devices, it may
be represented as parallel RL circuit.
When a load is switched off, the effective capacitance of the load becomes important for
transient generation.
When the current flows, the voltage across the load is V 0. During this time, ‘C’ will be charged by this
voltage and discharged through R and L.

Example of Load switching:

 In metal industry, arc furnaces are used. This type of loads require dedicated step down
transformer feeding low voltage and high current. They are characterized by low power factor and
frequent switching.
The power factor is improved by using capacitors to the high voltage bus and is switched with
the transformer and furnace.

Equivalent circuit for Switching Transient:

The current relation is given by,

1 dI
C∫
I dt+ L + IR=0−−−−−−−−1
dt
Differentiate the eqn 1 w.r.to t
2
I d I dI
+ L 2 + R =0
C dt dt
2
d I dI I
L 2 + R + =0−−−−−−−−2
dt dt C
2
d I R dI I
+ + =0
d t 2 L dt LC
Taking Laplace transform,
2 ' R R 1
s I ( s )−sI ( 0 )−I ( 0 ) +
sI ( s )− I ( 0 ) + I ( s )=0
L L LC
2 R 1 ' R
s I ( s ) + sI ( s ) + I ( s )=sI ( 0 )+ I ( 0 )+ I ( 0 )
L LC L
2 R
(
s + s+
L LC
1
) ' R
I ( s ) =sI ( 0 ) + I ( 0 )+ I ( 0 )−−−−3
L
The basic voltage representation is,
 di
L + IR=V c
dt
By initial condition,
'
L I ( 0 ) + I ( 0 ) R=V c ( 0 ) =0
L I ' ( 0 )=−I ( 0 ) R
' −R
L I ( 0 )= I ( 0 )−−−−−−−−4
L
Substitute the eqn 4 in eqn 3

( s + RL s+ LC1 ) I ( s) =sI ( 0) − RL I ( 0) + RL I ( 0 )
2

( s + RL s+ LC1 ) I ( s) =sI ( 0)
2

sI ( 0 )
I ( s) = −−−−−−5
(
2 R
s + s+
L
1
LC )
1
V c = ∫ I dt
C
1
V c ( s )= I ( s ) −−−−−−−−6
Cs
Substitute the eqn 5 in eqn 6
1 sI ( 0 )
V c ( s )=
Cs
(
2 R
s + s+
L
1
LC )
I (0) 1
V c ( s )=
C
(
2 R
s + s+
L LC
1
)
4. Current Suppression (or) Current Chopping: (T1)
When a small current is interrupted by a circuit breaker, the current may be brought to zero
abruptly and ahead of natural zero. This is known as ‘Current Chopping’. Current chopping leads to
dangerous over voltages.
At the instant, when current chopping occurs, the energy stored in the load inductance is
transferred to load side capacitance and it can be generated over voltages.
Interruption of Low Magnetizing Current:

Let the arc current will be ‘i’ when it is chopped down to zero value. The stored energy in
inductor will be discharged into capacitance. So the capacitor is charged to perspective voltage V,
1 2 1
Li = C V 2
2 2
2 2 L
V =i
C
V =i √ L/C

This voltage is extremely high as compared to the normal voltage. The frequency of oscillation is,
f n=1/2 π √ LC

While the transformer is energized, the core is being taken through a hysteresis cycle. The
energy is being put into the core during intervals QX and ZP.
Energy is proportional to the area of the hysteresis losses at each cycle.
When the current at peak point X, energy proportional to the triangular area of QXY is stored
in iron.
As the current declines to zero at the point Z, energy proportional to shaded area of XYZ is
retrieved. If current is chopped at the peak and is forced to divert into the capacitance.

The current relation is given by,

dV V 1
C + + ∫ Vdt=0−−−−−1
dt R L
Differentiate the eqn1w.r. to t
d 2 V 1 dV V
C 2
+ + =0
d t R dt L
2
d V 1 dV V
+ + =0−−−−−−2
dt 2
RC dt LC
Taking Laplace transform,
2 ' 1 1 1
s V ( s ) −sV ( 0 )−V ( 0 ) + sV ( s ) − V ( 0 )+ V ( s )=0
RC RC LC
2 1 1 ' 1
s V ( s) + sV ( s ) + V ( s )=sV ( 0 ) +V ( 0 ) + V (0)
RC LC RC

( s2 +
1
RC
s+
LC
1
)V ( s )=sV ( 0 ) +V ' ( 0 ) +
1
RC
V ( 0 )−−−−−3

Where, V(0) – voltage when switch chops

V’(0) – rate of change of voltage while chopping
−1
V ( 0 )=
C
∫ I c ( 0 ) dt
' −I c ( 0 )
V (0)= −−−−−−−4
C
Sub the eqn 4 in eqn 3,
I (0 )
(
s2 +
1
RC
s+
1
LC )
V ( s )=sV ( 0 ) +
RC
1
V ( 0 )− c
C
sV ( 0 ) 1 V ( 0) Ic(0) 1
V ( s )= + − −−−−5
( 2
s+
1
RC
s+
1
LC ) RC 2 1
(
s+
RC
s+
1
LC ) C
( s+
2 1
RC
s+
1
LC )
In eqn 5, the first and second terms represent the normal transients. It will occur if the transformer was
disconnected from the supply with no current chopping.
The third term represents abnormal transient.

5. Ferro resonance: (T1)

Resonance causes high voltage transients in the power system. In normal transmission line the
capacitance is small. Resonance occurred is rare at normal frequency.
Due to generated emf wave distorted, the resonance occurs at 5 th or higher order harmonics.
This phenomenon is called as ‘Ferro resonance’.
Scenes of Ferro resonance:
 Transformer feeder on double circuits becoming energized through the mutual capacitance
between lines and going into Ferro resonance.
 Possibility of Ferro resonance with a CVT capacitance voltage transformer under certain
operating voltage.
 The point ‘C’ is characterized by large magnetizing current and voltage.
 This over voltage appears between line and ground.
 The Ferro resonance can occur at lower frequency than the fundamental frequency.
Ferro resonance situations in practice:
First case:
 A switch is used to energize and de-energize the primary of the transformer.
 The lines are interconnected by a length of cable, where the switching device is mounted at the
top of pole.

 The switch is shown with only one pole is closed. It could be sustained, if one pole would stick
in the closed position.
 Some circuits of this kind use a fuse in series with the switch interrupts fault currents.
Second case:
 It might appear at first that with only on pole of switch closed, the transformer is not energized.
 There nevertheless remains a path for current through two of the phase windings and the cable
capacitance.
 This current can produce resonance and over voltages across the transformer and the cables.
 The lightning arrester connected at B and C bushings of transformer.
 If this condition sustained, repeated operation can destroy the arresters.