Practical - Fabric Analysis

Fabric analysis is an important aspect of fabric structure. The importance cannot be over emphasized
especially at industrial scale. Textile industries are poised to satisfy customers demands all the time. In
an attempt to meet such demand, a fabric analysis unit usually a section of quality control department is
set-up to enable industries meet the customers need through reproducing their order sample to as
exact as possible in large commercial quantity.

Consider a sample of fabric material required for analysis. Key areas of interest include:

1. Yarn material used (Cotton, Polyester, Cotton/Polyester Blend etc)

2. Yarn type used in the fabric production
3. Warp yarn count
4. Weft yarn count
5. Yarn twist direction for warp
6. Yarn twist direction for weft
7. Fabric sett/Crimp percent
8. Fabric construction/design
9. Equipment used
10. Chemical treatment
11. Packaging/Delivery Style

Identification of answers to the above interest shall provide a working tool for the various
production/processing departments in order to meet customers’ need.

1.Yarn material used (Cotton, Polyester, Cotton/Polyester Blend)

Sample of yarn or fabric (finished or unfinished) is subjected to two main types of identification
technique to identify the type of fibre used in the spinning of the yarn. These techniques are:
Non-technical (feeling test and burning test) and technical (microscopic test and chemical test).
Various fibres have their characteristics which will provide guide to identifying the raw material
type.

2.Yarn type used in the fabric production

Yarns could be machine spun (open-end or ring spun) or orifice spun (natural or man-made)

3.Warp yarn count

Warp yarn numbering is a number that determine the fineness or coarseness of a warp yarn.
Various measuring units exist for the numbering depending on the type of raw material. Most
common are Cotton Count ranging from (50 S to 10S) (fine to coarse). Tex and De nier are other
common forms of warp yarn number.

4.Weft yarn count

Weft yarn numbering is a number that determines the fineness or coarseness of a weft yarn.
Various measuring units exist for the numbering depending on the type of raw material. Most

27
 common are Cotton Count ranging from (50 S to 10S) (fine to coarse). Tex and Denier are other
common forms of weft yarn number.

5.Yarn twist direction for warp

Yarn twist is applicable mainly on spun yarns. It is a measure of the number of turns made by
the machine part in an attempt to wrap the fibrous materials around it to obtain a continuous
coherent strand suitable for fabric production.

6.Yarn twist direction for weft

The direction of the mechanical action on the fibrous material determines if the yarns are Z-
twist or S-twist. This is only applicable on spun yarns.

7.Fabric sett

These are set of numbers that determines the number of warp yarns laid on a unit length on the
surface of the produced fabric in relation to the weft yarns. It is normally represented thus: 30 X
40. This means 30 warp yarns are laid parallel to the selvedge on the surface of the fabric in
relation to 40 weft yarns laid across it in a given unit of measurement usually centimeters or
inches. This is irrespective of the coarseness or fineness of the yarn. Pick counting glasses are
used as a major tool required.

8.Fabric construction/design

At this point, pick counting glasses are used to magnify the fabric and transfer the structure into
a graph sheet. This is the pattern of movement of the yarns within the fabric.

9.Equipment used

The type of equipment used is a strong factor in replicating job sample order. For example,
fringed selvedges are common on Airjet machines whereas tucked-in selvedges are common on
projectile machines. In addition, the overall woven fabric thickness is higher on shuttle loom as
compared to shuttleless weaving machine because of different shed heights between the two.

10.Chemical treatment

Once fabric is produced, it is important to give it the chemical treatment based on the user
preference. At this stage, multiple processes ranging from scouring to bleaching or dyeing
requires one form of chemical or the other. The fabric analyst should take cognizance of all
these stages of production to maximize customer’s satisfaction.

11.Packaging/Delivery Style

Delivery could be in rolls or folded depending on width, weight and method of delivery to the
market. For export markets, labeling standards must be strictly adhered to.

28
Job Order Card (JOC)

Job Order Cards are template designed to carry information concerning the outcome of analysis carried
out on a specific customer’s order sample fabric material. The card is expected to accompany the
material at every stage in process. This card can be likened to a sick person’s hospital card that contains
the record/history of the patient’s detailed health status at every stage of treatment.

Please note that various departments could introduce their specific job index card within the
department to give necessary information on work-in-progress concerning the order. Typical example is
Warp preparation job index card which is valid during warping processes at the weaving preparatory
department or section. It contains the type warping (direct or sectional), count and color of yarn for
creeling, number and type of packages required, warp length per beam and the total number of beams
required for the order. Other information could include: total number of breakages recorded during
warping; machine mechanical status during warping; name of the machine operator (winder) and so on.

The information is summarized into a card that helps in facilitating the production processes and the
cost accountants can determine the selling price through the card if well prepared. The book therefore
provides an in-depth analysis of the basic weaves in each of the chapters showing a typical job-order
card using the following tools on 1.6.1:

1.Pick Counting Glass

2.Scissors

29
Fig. 7 a, b – Some Accessories for Fabric Analysis

SAMPLE OF JOB ORDER CARD - 1

TITLE: ORDER No.

CUSTOMER

SAMPLE SIZE:

SAMPLE TYPE:
SPUN YARN
FILAMENT YARN
WOVEN FABRIC – DYED
WOVEN FABRIC- PRINTED
WOVEN FABRIC – BLEACHED
WOVEN FABRIC – GREY
BAFT
OTHERS
(SPECIFY)______________
RAW
MATERIAL:
YARN TYPE:

SAMPLE No:
WARP WEFT YARN WARP YARN WEFT YARN FABRIC SETT: CRIMP % - WARP/WEFT
YARN COUNT COUNT TWIST TWIST

CHEMICAL
TREATMENT:

REPEAT SIZE:

DESIGN CODE:

SPECIAL
EQUIPMENT:
SCORE:

30
1.4 DRAFT, DENTING AND LIFTING PLANS OF BASIC WEAVES
1.4.1 Draft
Draft in weaving in a simple term refers to the number of heald shafts (Harnesses) used to produce a
given design and the order is which the warp ends are threaded through the heald eyes of the heald
wires arranged on the heald shaft. The principle of drafting is such that ends which work in different
order require separate heald shafts, whereas identically working warp ends are drawn through the same
shaft.

Types of draft:
1) Straight draft
2) Skip draft
3) Pointed draft /V- draft
4) Broken draft
5) Group draft
6) Combined draft
7) Curved draft
8) Divided draft
9) Stepped draft

1.4.1.1. Straight draft

This draft is the simplest types of draft and form the basis of many others drafts. There each successive
thread is drawn on each successive shaft. The first thread is drawn through the first heald shaft and the
second through the second heald shafts and so on. So, the number of heald shafts equals to the number
of warp threads in a repeat. This type of drafting pattern is suitable in twill designs. Straight drafts are
two types: -
 Z-entering and S- entering

X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
Fig.8a: Z entering straight draft Fig. 8b: S entering straight draft

31
1.4.1.2. Skip draft:
This draft is used in weaving the fabrics with a high density of warp threads. In the case of this type of
entering, the number of shafts are usually higher than maximum required especially on large beams,
especially plain weaves. This system is particularly useful in weaving very densely fabric. The advantages
of using skip drafting system are: -
I. Less friction;
II. Less crowding threads and
III. Less end breakage
X X
X X
X X
X X
Fig. 9: Skip draft

X X X X
X X X X
Fig. 10: Normal draft

1.4.1.3. Pointed draft/V- draft

Point drafts are used for the weaves which are symmetrical about the centre .This draft is produce in
case of waved or diamond effects on fabric. In this system a straight draft is returned in the opposite
direction. In this case, the first and last heald shafts of design contain only one end whereas the middle
shafts contain warps. Used to produce fabric with symmetrical design e.g. zig-zag twill, Diamond.

X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
Fig. 11: Pointed draft

Note: the number of heald shafts is always one more then the half of the number of warps in one
entering repeat.

1.4.1.4. Broken draft

This draft may be considered as modified pointed draft. It is also a combination straight drafts of
different direction of construction. In broken draft a break in continuation occurs where the warp thread
reverses its direction. This direction is reversed not on the last or first shaft as in pointed draft. The
broken draft is applied for producing herring bone, twill, diaper designs etc. This draft is applied for
producing herringbone twills, diaper design etc.

32
 X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
Fig. 12: Broken draft

1.4.1.5. Grouped draft

This type of drafts is not common when weaving a uniform yarn weave or colour. It is used for producing
check and stripe fabrics, in which strips have different weaves or their combination.

X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
Fig. 13: Grouped draft

Here in example the first 3 threads of warp are responsible for one type of strip and the next threads are
for another strip.

1.4.1.6. Curved draft

This draft is applied fancy weave having large warp repeat with a view to reduce the number of heald
shafts. There are irregular patterns and are not easily classified. They are commonly used to produce
decorated weave with large repeat unit.

X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
Fig. 14: Curved draft

In word it may be regarded as a type of pointed draft. But where number fixed pick point will occur.

1.4.1.7. Combined Draft

Various methods of drawing-in can be combined in one draft for producing a certain type of fabric. Two
or more drafts described above can be applied simultaneously, for example, straight and skip or sateen,
grouped and curved, and so on. Combined draft is the most complicated and can be chosen only if there
are some technological or economic reasons. The designer having a great experience can do it properly.
In producing some special type of fabrics different type of drafts are required to be mixed. For the

33
expected result to be obtained, weaver should be very skilled so that during warp breakage mending,
disorganization should not occur.

1.4.1.8. Divided draft

In this type of draft, the heald shafts are divided into two or more groups. For every groups suitable
draft is selected in pile weave two or more sets of warp thread are used. So, they require this type of
draft. For example: The ground warp thread of warp pile fabric is passed through the front heald shafts
and pile warp threads are passed through the back heald shafts. The draft is employed for derived
weaves, double warp weaves, two ply weaves, pile weaves.

X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X X
Fig. 15: Divided draft

1.4.1.9. Stepped draft:

These are based on a straight draft which is stepped by either omitting one or more consecutive shafts,
thus enlarging the weave to a lesser or greater extent. The draft is suitable for elongated twill weave.

X X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X
Fig. 16: Stepped draft

34
1.4.2. Denting

Correct denting plays a very important part in achieving an even and flawless fabric surface. The reed
spacing should be chosen that is wide enough to allow a knot in the yarn to slip through. Denting is
indicated on point paper on a horizontal line between the draft and the weave design. The number of
dents in a reed per 10cm is dependent on the warp density required and on the number of ends in a
weave repeat in combination with the total number of shafts in use. It is necessary to state that the
number of dents/10 cm in the reed which is to used, - reed count and the number of ends drawn into
one dent of the reed.

X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X

Fig. 17: 3end/dent between the draft and the design

For a densely sett warp yarns, 4 ends/dent is preferred to 2 end/dent as shown below:

X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X

35
Fig. 18: 2 ends/dent and 4 ends/dent

1.4.3. Lifting Plan

In order to produce the required weave, the designer has to provide a lifting plan for the purpose of
controlling the lifting and lowering of the shafts. In dobby shedding, the plan is used either for pegging a
set of lags or cutting a paper card. Lifting plans are indicated on the right-hand side of the weave the
design.

When a straight draft is used, the lifting plan is a copy of the weave design as shown in 45a below. The
weave repeat on example 45b extends over 16 ends and 8 picks. The peg plan or lifting plan is
developed from each end that is drawn on a separate shaft. Repeating ends are omitted in the plan.

O 4
O 3
O 2
O 1

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
X X
X X
X X
X X

O O O O 4
O O O O 3
O O O O 2
O O O O 1

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 1 2 3 4
X X
X X
X X
X X
X x
X X
X x
X X

Fig. 19a, b: Lifting plan

36
SAMPLE OF JOB ORDER CARD - 2

TITLE: ORDER No.

CUSTOMER

SAMPLE SIZE:

SAMPLE TYPE:
SPUN YARN
FILAMENT YARN
WOVEN FABRIC – DYED
WOVEN FABRIC- PRINTED
WOVEN FABRIC – BLEACHED
WOVEN FABRIC – GREY
BAFT
OTHERS
(SPECIFY)______________
RAW
MATERIAL:
YARN TYPE:

SAMPLE No:
WARP WEFT YARN WARP YARN WEFT YARN FABRIC SETT: CRIMP % - WARP/WEFT
YARN COUNT COUNT TWIST TWIST

CHEMICAL
TREATMENT:

REPEAT SIZE:

DESIGN CODE:

SPECIAL
EQUIPMENT:

37
 SCORE

Notes

38
39
40
41
SAMPLE OF JOB ORDER CARD - 3

TITLE: ORDER No.

CUSTOMER

SAMPLE SIZE:

42
 SAMPLE TYPE:
SPUN YARN
FILAMENT YARN
WOVEN FABRIC – DYED
WOVEN FABRIC- PRINTED
WOVEN FABRIC – BLEACHED
WOVEN FABRIC – GREY
BAFT
OTHERS
(SPECIFY)______________
RAW
MATERIAL:
YARN TYPE:

WARP WEFT YARN WARP YARN WEFT YARN FABRIC SETT: CRIMP % - WARP/WEFT
YARN COUNT COUNT TWIST TWIST

CHEMICAL
TREATMENT:

REPEAT SIZE:

DESIGN CODE:

SPECIAL
EQUIPMENT:

1.5 OTHER WAEVES

43
1.5.1. Huckaback

Features of Huckaback

1. The weave is characterized by a rough surface

2. It is produced by floating threads in groups
arranged on a plain weave basis
3. It repeats twice of an odd number: 10 X 10,
4. With these constructions, hardworking and
extremely thick, moisture absorbing fabrics are
produced.

44
 5. 10 X 10 is widely used repeat size
6. The weave can be divided diagonally into equal
parts

Uses of Huckaback
Linen and cotton are commonly used and in
L

coarser qualities. Particularly suitable for hand

towels, glass cloths, roller towels
Quilting, shirting, dress wear and table linen are
produced in finer qualities.

Huckaback Fabric Sample

1.5.2. Mock-leno

45
 Features of Mock-Leno

1. Crossing: In these ends are not made to cross each other

like true leno
2. Diagonal Similarity: Weave can be divided diagonally into
equal parts.
3. Repeat size: minimum repeat size used:  6x6.
4. Weave Effect: Open perforated weave.
5. Produced in ordinary way without special leno shafts.
6. Fabric surface: Rough

Uses of Mock-Leno

Towel, Canvas cloths, Cheap fabrics for window curtains,

Light dress fabrics, Blouses, Aprons Etc. Lastly, they are
generally employed in combination with other weaves in many
cases.

Mock-Leno Fabric Sample

46
1.5.3. Honeycomb

47
 Features of Honeycomb

1. Its weave depends on the diamond.

2. In repeats, the number of drawn and weft yarns can be both
equal and unequal.
3. The smallest design is (6 x 4), and the repeat is always a
multiple of 2.
4. Interlacing patterns are plain.
5. A similar effect is created on both sides of the fabric.
6. The surface of the cloth is uneven.
7. One cell is formed in each repeat.
8. The water absorption capacity of this weave is very high.
9. Drafting is always V-Draft i.e. pointed draft.

Uses of Honeycomb

1. Widely used in hand towels, glass cloths, roller towels, bath

mats, etc. due to high water holding capacity.
2. Used in making blankets, upholstery, etc.
3. Fabrics made from fine yarn are also used for making
dresses.
4. Used to make more decorative fabrics like – blankets and
brocades.
Honeycomb Fabric Sample

48
Fig. 20 a, b, c: details of some other weaves

Construction of Honeycomb

The honey comb weaves derive their name from their partial resemblance to the hexagonal honey comb
cells of wax in which bees store their honey. These weaves form ridges and hollows which give a cell-like
appearance to the textures. Both warp and weft threads float somewhat on both sides, which coupled
with the rough structure renders this class of fabric readily absorbent of moisture. The weaves are of
two classes, namely:
(i) Ordinary honeycomb and
(ii) Brighton honeycomb.

Step 1. On an 8 X 8 repeat size repeat, introduce a single diagonal line.

X X
X X
X X
X
X X
X X
X X
X
Fig. 21a: Construction of Honeycomb – step 1

Step 2. Introduce a motif.

X X
X X
X X
X
X X
X X
X X
X
Fig. 21b: Construction of Honeycomb weave step 2

49
Fig. 22: Honeycomb weave drawn image

(ii) Brighton Honeycomb

These weaves are characterized by the following features:

(a) Non-reversible cloths in which face appears different from back side of the cloth
(b) Constructed on straight drafts only
(c) Repeat size is a multiple of 4
(d) Length of longest float is N/2 – 1, where N is the repeat size
(e) A single diagonal line crosses a double diagonal line
(f) Formation of 4 cells per repeat i.e., two large and two small cells (ordinary honey comb forms
only one cell per repeat)
(g) The number of threads in a repeat must be a multiple of 4.

X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X
X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X X X
X 50 X
Fig. 23: Brighton Honeycomb design.

51
52
SAMPLE OF JOB ORDER CARD - 3

TITLE: ORDER No.

CUSTOMER

SAMPLE SIZE:

SAMPLE TYPE:
SPUN YARN
FILAMENT YARN
WOVEN FABRIC – DYED
WOVEN FABRIC- PRINTED
WOVEN FABRIC – BLEACHED
WOVEN FABRIC – GREY
BAFT
OTHERS
(SPECIFY)______________
RAW
MATERIAL:
YARN TYPE:

SAMPLE No:
WARP WEFT YARN WARP YARN WEFT YARN FABRIC SETT: CRIMP % - WARP/WEFT
YARN COUNT COUNT TWIST TWIST

CHEMICAL
TREATMENT:

REPEAT SIZE:

DESIGN CODE:

SPECIAL

53
 EQUIPMENT:

SCORE

2.1 PRINCIPLES OF GAUZE WEAVE

Gauze is a thin, translucent fabric with loose open weave. In technical terms “gauze” is a weave
structure in which the weft yarns are arranged in pairs and are crossed before and after each warp yarn
keeping weft firmly in place. When used for medical dressing, gauze is generally made of cotton. -
https://www.onlinetextileacademy.com

This weave structure is used to add stability to fabric, which is important when using fine yarns loosely
spaced. However, this weave structure can be used with any weight of yarn, and can be seen in some
rustic textiles made from coarse hand-spun plant fibre yarns.

2.1.1 Characteristics of Gauze/Leno Fabrics

 The gauze weave construction produces a fabric very light in weight and with an open mesh
effect.
 Leno weaves also produces curtain materials, some shirting and dress goods.
 This weave produces such light-weight fabrics have a strength that could not be provided by
plain weave.
 The gauze weave is sometimes referred to as the leno weave because it is made on a leno loom.
 On the leno loom, the action of one warp yarn is similar to the action the warp in the plain
weave.
 The doup attachment, a hairpin-like device at the heddle, alternately pulls the second warp yarn
up or down to the right or left with each pick passage. This causes the pair of warps to be
twisted, in effect, around each weft yarn.
 The leno is sometimes used in combination with the plain weave to produce a stripe or figure on
a plain back ground.
 The fabric weight varies depending upon the thickness of the yarns, which could be of spun,
filament or combinations of these yarns.

2.1.2 Uses and Type

54
Gauze was originally made of silk and was used for clothing. It is now used for many different things,
including gauze sponges for medical purposes. When used as a medical dressing, gauze is generally
made of cotton. It is especially useful for dressing wounds where other fabrics might stick to the burn or
laceration. Many modern medical types of gauze are covered with a plastic porous film such as Telfa or a
polyblend which prevents direct contact and further minimizes wound adhesion. Also, it can be
impregnated with a thick, creamy mixture of zinc oxide and calamine to promote healing, as in Unna's
boot.

In film and theatre, gauze is often fashioned into a scrim.

Gauze used in bookbinding is called mull, and is used in case binding to adhere the text block to the
book cover.

Modern gauze is also made of synthetic fibres, especially when used in clothing. It can also be made of
metal, such as a wire gauze placed on top of a Bunsen burner, used in a safety lamp or spark arrestor, or
used as a fence. - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauze.

2.1.3 Leno Weave

The class of fabrics commonly referred to as Leno fabrics includes a wide variety of materials all of which
are similar in structure in that certain warp threads or group of threads are caused to cross one another
in intersecting with the weft threads. This crossing of the warp threads gives the fabric a very firm
structure, and a fabric woven on leno principles is considerable stronger compared with similar fabrics
of the same parameters. The shedding means for leno weaving is necessarily different from that
employed for straight weaving. Leno weave and Gauze weave are terms used interchangeably by many
writers and scholars. They are referred to as Crossed Weave, due its unique pattern of construction. In
addition to the regular harnesses and headle eyes, a special shedding device known as doup is usually
required.

2.2 DIFFERNCES BETWEEN GAUZE AND LENO

The terms leno and gauze are used somewhat indiscriminately but generally it is accepted that whilst
leno may be applied to all structures in which some ends are transferred from one side to the other of
the standing or standard ends, the term gauze is reserved for open structures produced in a plain or
similar simple structure.

55
 Fig. 24a, b: Gauze, Leno Interlacement

3.0 CONSTRUCTIONAL PRINCIPLES OF CREPÉ, BEDFORD CORD, TERRY AND SIMPLE JACQUARD

3.1 Crepe Weave by Various Methods

Crepe weaves are structures that are sand-like on the fabric. It should be what might be termed as
“uniformly irregular” in appearance, balanced, non-directional and without prominent effects. In crepe
weaves, long floats in either warp or weft direction and aim to create an irregular surface are avoided
with small broken up effect.

All crepe finds a wide range of application in apparel. Various methods for developing crepe weaves
exist, thus: Sateen based method; Transposing weave; Quadrantal method and Extending base weave.

3.1.1 Sateen-Based Method

a c

56
 b
d

Fig. 25 a, b, c, d: Construction of Sateen based Crepe.

a – A sateen base is selected, b – Additional marks are chosen, c – Chosen marks added to all sateen
base marks and d – Crepe weave is completed.

3.1.2 Crepe by Transposing a weave

a. The predetermined repeat is divided into four equal squares.

b. A weave for square 1 is created and also entered into a diagonal opposite square.
c. Warp floats are exchanged for weft floats and vice versa and entered into square 2 and
also into the diagonally opposite square.
d. Crepe weave is finished and (e). 4-repeats of the finished crepe.

d ab c

57
2 1

(1)

21

. =

34

(2)

2
1

58
 Fig. 26a, b, c, d: Crepe by transposing weaves.

3.1.3 Crepe by quadrantal method

This method is also known as Reiser Crepe. It distributes marks by rotating a base clockwise or anti-
clockwise. From the normal position the base weave is turned three times by 90 O the new weave repeat
consists always of twice the number of threads as the base weave.



59
 .

b c d

60
Fig. 27a, b, c, d: Crepe by quadrantal method

Base weave: 2/2 broken twill. (1) – the base weave repeats on 4x4, but extended to 8x8. Base weave is
turned for 90O for the first time on (2), second time on (3) and third time on (4) and the base weaves are
entered into the uneven end and pick to complete the weave at (4). (5) repeated the completed crepe
on 4-repeats.

61
62
63
3.2 Bedford Cord Weave.
The main characteristics of these weaves are cords running in the warp directions that forms ridges.
It has fine sunken lines in between the ridges created by the cords. This structure is named after a
town Bedford in England where it was first produced. The cord effects so produced enable it to bring
out stripe effects in solid colors. Generally, cotton and worsted yarns are used in the production of
bedford cords. Cotton is used in weaving of lighter textures while worsted is used in weaving of
heavier textures. In the design of bedford cords, two series of warp threads are considered. The first
group constitutes the face threads which weave as cord and plain weave on alternate or pair of
picks. The other group of threads known as cutting ends weaves as plain. The cutting ends separate
the neighboring cords. The cords may be alternated by plain or twill weave weft way. (see fig. 14a
and 14b). Bedford cords are regular or irregular (see fig. 14c and 14d), as well as Bedf,kiujy76ord
cords with wadding ends or Bedford cords without wadding ends (see fig. 15a and 15b).

X X
X X
X X
X X

Fig.29a: Plain Weave-based regular Bedford Cord Design without wadding ends.

o o X X
X X o o
o o X X
X X O o
o o X X
X X o O
o o X X
X X o
Fig.29b: Plain Weave-based regular Bedford Cord Design without wadding ends.

X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
Fig. 29c: Plain Weave-based regular Bedford Cord Design without wadding ends.

X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
Fig.29d: Plain Weave-based regular Bedford Cord Design without wadding ends.

64
3.2.1 Wadding Ends
In the construction of Bedford cords, sometimes special threads known as wadding threads are
introduced in between the normal warp threads. The purpose of this is to increase the prominence
of the cords and also to increase the weight, bulk and strength of the fabric. The wadding threads
never interlace with weft, but lie perfectly straight between the ridges of their respective cords and
the floating weft at the back. Generally wadding threads are of considerably coarser counts of yarn
than the principal or face warp threads, and since they never interlace with weft but remain straight,
their construction during weaving is nil. This condition necessitates the wadding threads being
wound upon a separate warp beam, and held at greater tension than face warp threads during
weaving.

Cross-section of Bedford weave without wadding ends

Cross-section of Bedford weave with wadding ends

65
3.3. Construct fancy weaves using different colour combination;

Colour appearance on a fabric may be influenced by the nature of its weave. A weave which present
large continuous area of yarn to view e.g. Sateen gives high lustre than one where there are many
threads interlacing such as plain weave. The nature of this contributes to modify lustre as well as have a
bearing upon the colour.

The frequency of interlacing as well as the actual arrangement of the intersection points has a very
considerable effect on the appearance of the colour, e.g in plain weave fabric in which the warp is one
colour and the weft is another, the constituent colour tend to lose their separate identity and their
overall resultant hue will be a different colour.

On the other hand, if a cloth composes of similar colours woven in a bold 4x4 twill, the two shades will
stand apart each forming a distinct line and although each will influence the other, neither will lose its
own identity. A colour and Weave effect is the form or pattern in two or more colour produced by colour
and weave in combination.

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 4
Weft Yarns

3
2
1

1 2 3 4
Warp Yarns

Fig. 30: An example of 2/2 S-Twill on 4X4 Coloring.

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b

68
 d

Fig. 31a, b, c, d: 2/2 Z twill and 2/2 Matt weave on 4x4 and 2x2 color ordering respectively

69
c

70
Fig. 32 a, b, c, d: Some examples of color effect on weaves

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72
73
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3.4 Terrycloth,
Terry cloth, terry toweling, terry, or simply toweling is a fabric with loops that can absorb large amounts
of water. It can be manufactured by weaving or knitting. Toweling is woven on special looms that have
two beams of longitudinal warp through which the weft is inserted laterally. The first industrial
production of terrycloth towels, in 1850, was initiated by the English manufacturer Christy. (Wiki)
According to the  Oxford English Dictionary, the word may derive from French  tiré  'drawn', past
participle of  tirer  'draw out'.

3.4.1 Characteristics of Terry Fabrics

A high-quality terry fabric must have five important properties:
(i) a high rate of water absorption;
(ii) a high-level water absorption;
(iii) quick drying;
(iv) excellent mechanical comfort and
(v) excellent surface texture.
These properties are dominantly affected by the fibre characteristics.
Terry piles are constructed by using one series of weft threads and two series of warp threads; one for
the ground and the other for the pile. The ground warp interlaces with the ground weft to form the
ground cloth. This ground cloth holds the loops formed by the pile ends and allows the looped portion
to project on the fabric surface. The loops may be single sided (face) or double sided (face and
back). Fig. 33 a,b,c and d shows the different types of terry structures, schematically.

Fig.33a, b, c, d: showing various loop formation style

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Fig. 34: Cross-sectional appearance of a 3-Pick Terry

G1 =- Ground warp 1, G2 – Ground warp 2, P1 – Pile Warp 1 (Face) P2 – Pile Warp 2, (Back)

3.5. Various Types of Terry Design

The various designs are given so that a ready comparison can be made. The circles in the designs
represent the interlacing of the ground warp threads, and the crosses (un-circled and circled) show the
interweaving of the face pile threads and back pile threads. Figs. 12.9 A, D, G and J show designs which
form loops on one side only. In A, D, G and J, the warp threads are arranged ground pile, and in B, E, H
and K the warp threads are arranged one ground, one face pile, one ground and one back pile. The
weaves C, F, J and L are arranged one ground, one face pile, one back pile and one ground.

3.5.1 Construction of 3,4,5,6 pick terry

O X O O X O X
X X O X O
X O O X O X O
G F G F G F G F G F G B
A B C

X O O X O X O
O X O O X O X
X X O X O
X O O X O X O
G F G F G F G B G F G B
D E F

O X O O X O X
X O O X O X O
O X O O X O X
X X O X O
X O O X O X O
G F G F G F G B G F G B
G H I

O X O O X O X
O X O O X O X
X O O X O X O
O X O O X O X
X X O X O
X O O X O X O
G F G F G F G B G F G B
J K L
Fig. 35: Construction of 3,4,5,6 – Pick Terry

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Figures A, B and C show the designs for a 3-pick terry. D, E and F show the designs for a 4-pick terry. G,
H and I show the designs for a 5-pick terry and J, K and L for a 6-pick terry respectively.
Most of the terry cloth is produced in the 3 pick structures. 4 pick weaves are used occasionally but the
amount of 5 pick or 6 pick cloth made at present is very small being restricted by the high cost of
production. In a 6-pick fabric six picks need to be inserted to make one horizontal row of loops as
opposed to only three in a 3-pick fabric. Also, to produce the same pile coverage in a 6 pick as in a 3-pick
cloth, twice as many picks per centimeter is required.

III.6Describe method of controlling pile height;

Figure 34 above show a method of weaving pile fabric whose pile height (H) after processing and
finishing is substantially increased, thus obtaining increased pile height (H) which may be multiple of the
original pile height (H) of the woven fabric. Specifically, the pile fabric is manufactured with multiple
loop heights combining the original woven pile heights and/or different multiples of the original pile
heights.

It is always a hot debated among the buyer and seller of terry towels. It is even one of the controversial
topics since the beginning of the industry.  

 As an industry standard it is mandatory to maintain, for example 17 to 21 piles per square inch
to enjoy the minimum luxury from a terry towel.
 The possibility to increase/decrease the number of piles depend on the yarns used at the base
of the terry towel where the piles are placed.
 There are considerable savings on the cost of raw material by using low priced thick yarns at
base which will contribute a major share of the unit weight of the towel and hence the
manufacturer can save the cost by minimizing the number of piles. In order hide the empty area
due to less number of piles, usually the manufacturers will go for thicker yarn on the pile and
the height will be minimized.
 In short it is important to maintain "at least" 2/20's (Minimum) and can be up to 2/24's
(Maximum for Hospitality Industry) which need to be Superior Ring Spun quality.

An adjustable pile height mechanism for producing a tufted floor covering comprising an adjustable bed
plate, a cam shaft, and a plurality of eccentric cams mounted on the cam shaft so as to contact the bed
plate. The cam shaft is adapted to be rotated so as to rotate the cams, and the rotational movement of
the cams raises and lowers the bed plate so as to adjust the pile height of the floor covering. A method
for adjusting the pile height of a floor covering further comprises the steps of loosening the presser foot
bracket bolt, raising the presser foot assembly, tightening the presser foot bracket bolt, disengaging the
clamp assembly, rotating the cam shaft so as to adjust the bed plate to the desired pile height, engaging
the clamp assembly, loosening the presser foot bracket bolt, lowering the presser foot assembly, and
tightening the presser foot bracket bolt.

3.7. Simple Jacquard design

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The jacquard is a shedding device attached to the top of the hand loom or a power loom and controls a
large number of warp threads with a view to produce the maximum variety of sheds (without the heald
shaft) for ornamenting the fabrics. Achieving intricate designs on the fabric was slow and labor-
intensive, with practical limitations on the complexity of the pattern. The first important improvement
of the draw loom took place in 1725, when BasileBouchon introduced the principle of applying a
perforated band of paper.

Fig.36: Simple Jacquard design sketch

The intended pattern is drawn and transferred as shown in the images above. Each square cell on the
design card is marked out in the chosen representation mark. Full marks are indicated where the pattern
line cross and occupies more than half of the square space and ignored if the pattern marks occupy less
than half of the square space on the design card.

Fig. 37: Initial and Final Sketch of a typical jacquard pattern.

The image (a) above represents the expected image to be woven onto the fabric surface. The image is
subject through various stages until replicated on the surface of the fabric. The steps below involve the
traditional and laborious method of converting an intricate pattern into punched card until the advent of
modern computerized jacquard design processes.

STEP 1.

The sketch is produced on a design

graph sheets of papers. This can be as
wide as the repeat of the design.
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 STEP 2.

The design is hanged on a trammel

corresponding to the eye level of card
puncher, where the marked squared
according to the pattern where (marked and
unmarked squares) are identified and
keyboarded for punching onto the paper
accordingly.

STEP 3.

The punches are as shown where a hole on

the paper will allow the corresponding hook
to be lowered to the path of the knife that
lift the yarns passed through the strings.

STEP 4.

Each string replaces a

heald wires of the
heald shafts through
the eye of the string is
passed one warp yarn.
The yarns are lowered
or lifted with the aid
of a return spring
accordingly.

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Fig. 38: Stages in converting design idea to punched card

3.8 Card Cutting Instruction for simple jacquard

Card Cutting is the process of punching holes in Jacquard paper cards. The operator works a punching
machine, following the designer's instructions which are set out on Point-Paper. This is a highly skilled
art, and takes many years of practice to become proficient. Operating the card cutting machines can be
likened to typing on a keyboard.

The length of the card is determined by the repeat size

of the pattern. Each splitter on the card represents a
weft pick. The jacquard mechanism turns the splitters
per pick. The number of ends that makes the picks can
be multiplied across the width of the fabric. The factor of
the two factors determines the number of sets of the
strings.

Each of the hooks is positioned directly above a hole on

the punched card. In absence of a hole below the hook
on presenting a new splitter the corresponding hook
remain on the path of the knife to cause the lifting of the
string thus forming the shed.

The jacquard machine is mounted on top of the weaving

machine connected using the string and the dictating
pattern card is fixed to the jacquard mechanism
appropriately to control the shedding operation thus
transferring the pattern to the surface of the fabric.

Modern Jacquard
weaving machine
eliminates the usage
of punch cards. They
are electronically
controlled via a smart
card that stores the
designs and translated
for the movement of
the headless through
a display unit

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Fig. 39: Modern Jacquard Weaving Technology

3.9 Simple Warping and Checking Plan for stripe and Check fabrics

Fig. 40 (a), (b): Striped (a) and Check (b) woven fabric image

The figures above show the images of (a) striped effect and (b) check pattern. These fabrics have
common applications in school uniforms, shirting, suiting and sheeting. In both cases, a sectional
warping machine is required and dyed yarns are creelled according to the required stripe effect. There
are two types of warping in weaving preparation processes. The first is direct warping and the second is
sectional warping which is central in this topic of discourse.

Sectional warping is one of the important processes of textile weaving where equal length of yarn is
wound first in small sheets or sections on a drum. After that, it is transferred to the beam from the drum
in the form of a sheet. This type of warping

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Fig. 41: Creel (back) of the sectional warping

Sectional warping machine is a two-stage process which is used to produce fancy fabrics by using
colored yarns arranged according to the designed strip patterns.

The longitudinal stripe patterns are obtained through the sectional warping process whereas the check
effect could be obtained using the box motion in the shuttle looms and multi-color selection system in
the case of shuttleless weaving systems.

Fig. 42: Beaming (front) process of sectional warping.

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Fig. 43: Multi-color weft insertion system.

3.10 Yarn requirement calculation for stripe and check fabrics

To achieve the check and stripe effect, dyed or mixture of dyed and un-dyed yarns are used. Meeting
customers’ specification in the case of stripe or check materials is an important aspect textile business.
Colour yarn analysis must be correctly carried out to ensure the right positions, shade and proportion of
the combinations. It is important to note that equipment requirement for check weaves are more
complicated than that required for stripe weaves.

Consider a sample in stripe weave the following color combination and the corresponding number of
warp end per color of ends.

Warp Colors Red Yellow Brown Pink Green

50
30
White 35
75
40

Total number of end/repeat = (50+30+35+75+40) = 240 warp ends.

Total number of warp ends across the width = 2400 (without considering selvedges)

Total number of sections required for beaming = 2400/240 = 10.

*Possible number of ends/repeat is determined by creel capacity and the job order sample repeat size.
If the creel capacity is 10 package hangers per creel stand and there are 12 creel stands, it means that at
one side of the creel only 120 packages are possible and by extension, the creel capacity is 240 packages
since there are two sides on the creel. From the table above, it is obvious that the sample is not a check
fabric but a striped fabric since the weft is a uniform colour (white) in this case. And a single colour
machine can be used in weaving the sample.

Consider another sample of check fabric with the following color combination and the corresponding
number of warp and weft.

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 Ash Blue Green Purple Green Red
40 40 55 55 20 20
Green 20
Blue 18
Yellow 10
White 16

In the case of a check weave, punching of mini pattern card is required to control the multiple selection
of weft color insertion into the shed to interlace with the multiple warp yarn colors thus forming the
check effect.

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