CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Soap may be defined as a chemical compound or mixture of chemical

compound resulting from the interaction of fatty acids or fatty glycerides with a

metal radical (organic base). It is any water soluble salt of whose fatty acid

which contains eight or more carbon atoms. Soap is class of product that serves

for cleaning of human, property and surrounding. Hence, soap in its various

forms, is in high demand. In all society, for generation its use has increased

until its manufacture has become an industry essential to the comfort and health

of civilized man. Soap is known for its laundry and cleaning purpose, though

calcium soap has been used in animal feed formulation (Desal, and Joseph,

1991).

Soap depends for its washing action on the fact that its molecules possess one

ionic (polar, water-attracting or hydrophilic) end and one covalent (non-polar,

water repelling or hydrophobic) end which attracts oils and greases (Namiesnik.

et al., 2011) Thus, soap molecules can make water and oils come into an

emulsion which can be washed away. Soaps are essentially the sodium or

potassium salts of various fatty acids.

Soaps also contain additives for some desired qualities. These include salt; soda

ash, colour, citric acid, sodium silicate, sodium bicarbonate, perfume, borax

1
trisodium phosphate and magnesium sulphate. A combination of inexpensive

builders, example soda ash with more effective (an expensive) tetrasodium

pyrophosphate or sodium triphosphate, is sometimes superior to the phosphate

used alone.

Basically, all soaps are made by saponification (Karl, 1991). Hydrolysis of

naturally occurring fat and oil by sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) or potassium

hydroxide (caustic potash).. Various additives have been used to impact some

specific characteristics to the product. The quality and properties affecting soap

and also the processing depends on the factors such as the nature and the type of

oil used, the type of Alkali and the proportion of mixture of both major raw

materials.

Figure 1.0: Structure of Soap

1.2 Statement of Problems

2
The production of quality soaps at cheaper rate has been a hitch to many soap

producers; this has led to the production of soaps with poor qualities and high

cost of production.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of Study

The aim of this work is to study the quality of soap produced from carrot. The

objectives of this work are:

1. To produce soap that can be used on both hard and soft water.

2. To produce soap of high quality that can be used for both bathing and

laundry.

3. To produce soap of high cleaning action that also lathers well in water.

4. To identify the medicinal properties of carrot;

1.4 Justification

Carrot is essentially good in the production of quality and cheap multipurpose

soaps that are firm to touch, with high cleaning action and formation of

excellent lather in both hard and soft waters.

1.5 Significance of Study

The significant of this study tends to connect the relationship that has to do with

cleanliness and health.

1.6 Scope of Study

3
The scope of this work covers the procurement of carrot and other essential

soap materials from various Markets in Kaduna, using the materials in carrying

out the research and testing / analyzing the results obtained. This work will

embrace quality and cost effectiveness.

1.7 LIMITATIONS

Unavailability of blender specially designed for soap production to intermix the

lye and fat so that trace stage can be reached in minutes instead of hours.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this research work the literature review includes the Theoretical Framework,

Health Benefits of Carrots, Anti-Diabetic and Anti-Hypertensive Benefits of

Carrot, Hepatoprotective and Renoprotective Benefits of Carrot, Wound

Healing Benefits, Benefits and Uses of Carrot Oil and Overview of Soap

Making.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

Carrot is one of the primary sources of β-carotene which is rich in antioxidant

(Gul et al., 2015). Antioxidant that presence in the β-carotene can increase the

immune system function, inhibit the growth of the specific type of cancer such

as lung cancer and also protection against sunburn (V et al., 2013). Lip balm

formulation in this research used all-natural ingredients including carrot, virgin

coconut oil (VCO) and beeswax. VCO contains vitamin E that acts as an

antioxidant, moisturiser and helps to increase the shelf life of oil-based products

(Rizvi et al., 2014) while beeswax has a high melting point and more stable

(Kadu et al., 2015) as compared to another base like cocoa butter. The

formulated lip balms were analysed in the stability test at two different

temperatures. Critical physicochemical properties like texture, colour, pH and

spread ability that affect the performance of lip balm to the lips were also
5
evaluated. A cosmetic product that undergoes physicochemical analysis

increases the confidence level of buyers to try the lip balm and make the

product becomes more trusted.

2.3 Health Benefits of Carrots

Antioxidant, Anticarcinogen, and Immunoenhancer Benefits

Like many other colored vegetables carrot is a gold mine of antioxidants.

Carotenoids, polyphenols and vitamins present in carrot act as antioxidants,

anticarcinogens, and immunoenhancers. Carotenoids widely distributed in

orange carrots are potent antioxidants which can neutralize the effect of free

radicals. They have been shown to have inhibition mutagenesis activity

contributing to decrease risk of some cancers (Dias, 2012).

Zhang and Hamauzuet (2004) reported that flavonoids and phenolic derivates,

present in carrot roots play also an important role as anti- oxidants. They also

exert anticarcinogenic activities, reduce inflammatory insult, and modulate

immune response (Dias, 2012).

Zaini et al. (2010) reported the anti-carcinogenic effect of carrot juice extracts

on myeloid and lymphoid leuke- mia cell lines. In vitro analysis was done on 72

hours incubation of carrot juice extracts in leukemia cell lines and non-tumor

control cells. It was observed that carrot juice extract possessed the ability to

induce apoptosis and cause cell cycle arrest in leukemia cell lines. The effect

6
was less prominent in myeloid and hematopoietic stem cells. Those

investigators considered that β-carotene and falcarinol present in the carrot juice

extract may have been responsible for this beneficial effect of “kill” leukemia

cells and inhibit their progression.

Darroudi et al. (1988) reported the anti-clastogenic activity of carrot on Chinese

hamster ovary (CHO) cells and human lymphocytes. In pre-treated rats, fresh

carrot juice was shown to attenuate the increase in the frequencies of sister-

chromatid exchanges induced by cyclophosphamide in wild-type and mutant

CHO cells.

Larsen et al. (2005) investigated the impact of carrot and its constituent

falcarinol against development of azoxymethane (AOM)-induced colon

preneoplastic lesions in rat colon. Rats were assorted and treated with AOM and

fed with carrot and falcarinol isolated from carrot. The results showed that there

was a significant re- duction in tumors and aberrant crypt foci (ACF) in rats fed

with carrot and falcarinol. The investigators con- cluded that this evidence

indicates that dietary treatment with carrot and falcarinol has the potential to

delay or retard the development of large ACF and colon tumors.

Purup et al. (2009) reported that extracts of carrot which contain different

amounts of falcarinol, falcarindiol, and falcarindiol 3-acetate had significant

inhibithory effects on both normal and cancer cell proliferation. The study

7
suggests that the aliphatic C17-polyacetylenes are the potential anti-cancer

principles of carrots and that the synergistic interation between bioactive

polyacetylenes may be important for their bioactivity. Other studies have

reported that falcarinol exerts cytotoxic activity against several human tumor

cell lines in vitro, destroying pre-cancerous cells in the tumors (Saita et al.,

1993).

Ekam et al. (2006) assessed the immunomodullatory effect of carrot-extracted

carotenoid using 24 albino rats. The percentage variation in lymphocytes,

eosinophils, monocytes and platelet count was evaluated. Interestingly,

carotenoid administered rats showed a significant increase in lymphocytes,

eosinoplils, monocytes and platelet concentration. The beneficial effect was due

to carrot’s α- and β-carotenoids.

A deficiency in vitamin A can cause eye’s photoreceptors to deteriorate, which

leads to vision problems. β- carotene (the carotenoid with the most provitamin

A activity) in carrots helps to protect vision, especially night vision and also

provides protection against macular degeneration and development of senile

cataract, the leading cause of blindness in aged people (Dias et al., 2012).

Eating carrots rich in β-carotene may restore vision, lending truth to the old

adage that carrots are good for your eyes. Carrots are one of the richest sources

of provitamin A and a hight intake of carotenoids linked with a significant

decrease in post-menopausal breast cancer (Swamy et al., 2014). Research has

8
shown also that smokers who eat carrots more than once a week have a lower

risk of lung cancer (Pisani et al., 1986), while a β-carotene rich diet may also

protect against prostate cancer (Wu, 2004). The curative effect of carotenoids

and anti- oxidant polyphenols, and dietary fibers against bladder cancer and

other carcinomas has also been reported by Hung et al. (2006).

Carotenoids of carrots that have no vitamin A activity (lycopen, lutein, and

zeaxanthin) may shrink also a di- abetic’s risk of developing diabetic

retinopathy since as observed recently type 2 diabetics who had lower levels of

no vitamin A activity carotenoids, lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin, had

corresponding higher levels of retinopathy (Dias, 2012).

Besides cart loads of β-carotene and other carotenoids, carrots contain vitamins

such as vitamin C and K, thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), pyridoxine (B6) and

folates (B9), necessary for metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and healthy

growth (Dias, 2012). Vitamin C promotes the absorption of non-heme iron and

is required for fighting infections and vitamin K helps preventing bleeding.

Thiamin (B1) has highly beneficial effects on our nervous system and mental

attitude; riboflavin is necessary for cell respiration, and red blood cell

formation; pyridoxine inhibits the formation of homocysteine and reduces the

risk of heart disease; and folates may reduce the risk of heart attack by lowering

homocysteine levels. High levels of homocysteine have been found to be

associated with an increased risk of hardening of arteries due to the

9
accumulation of fatty plaques. It also pro- tects against birth defects in babies

(Dias, 2012).

2.4 Anti-Diabetic and Anti-Hypertensive Benefits of Carrot

Nutritionist generally recommends eating carrots in moderation because they

contain more sugar than any other vegetable. This recommendation was based

on the first journal article ever published on the carrot glycemic index (GI), in

1981, indicated that we quickly digest the carbohydrates in carrots. That study

showed the carrots had a GI of 92 (where glucose = 100). A later study that got

much less attention showed the carrots had a GI of 39 ± 7 and the carrot juice of

45 ± 4 (Cale not pub). Recent research (Coyne et al., 2005) demonstrates a

significant association between vitamin A-rich carotenoids and diabetes status.

According to these investigators higher blood glucose levels, as well as higher

fasting levels of insulin, were observed in study participants with lower level of

carotenoids. Ca- rotenoid levels also decreased as the severity of glucose

intolerance increased. These findings suggest that carrot and vitamin A-rich

carotenoids might help diabetics to manage their condition.

Chau et al. (2004) comparing the characteristics, properties and in vitro

hypoglycemic effects of various carrot water insoluble fiber-rich fractions,

observed that dietary fiber-rich fractions, which contained not only water

insoluble dietary fiber but also alcohol and water insoluble solides, isolated

from carrot pomace exhibited glucose-adsorption capacity and amylase in-

10
hibition activity. Dietary fiber transports also a significant amount of

polyphenols and carotenoids linked to the fibre matrix though the human gut

(Saura-Calixto et al., 2006). Chau et al. (2004) concluded that the enhanced

glucose adsorbance capacity and reduction of amylase activity of dietary fiber

of carrot might help control post-prandial serum glucose level. This study

confirmed the strong relationship between dietary fiber intake and lower risk of

type 2 diabetes (Dias, 2012). Several mechanisms have been proposed for this

inhibition, including improved insulin sensivity and/or de- crease insulin

requirement (Harold et al., 1985). More recently Poudyal et al. (2010) reported

the efficacy of purple carrot juice against metabolic syndrome. Purple carrot

diet was supplemented in a high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet-fed rat model.

Interestingly, there was a reduction in impaired glucose tolerance, endothelial

function and abdominal fat deposits. The purple carrot juice was rich in

anthocyanin and low in carotenoids. Authors concluded that the an- thocyanins

of the carrot juice were responsible for the beneficial effect.

Nicolle et al. (2003) reported that carrot showed cholesterol absorption

mitigating effects in experimental carrot fed rats. Regulation in bile acid

secretion and antioxidant status was also reported. A significant decrease in

liver cholesterol and triglyceride levels was also observed by these

investigators. Moreover, carrot consumption increased the vitamin E level in

plasma and increased the ferric reducing ability of plasma (Nicolle et al. 2003).

11
In another study these authors administered lyophilized carrot enriched diet to

mice. They observed that carrot ingestion decrease lipemia and improved

antioxidant status in mice. Also, it improved the level of vitamin E and

myocardial cells. The results suggested that carrot intake may exert a protective

effect against cardiovascular disease linked to atherosclerosis. The effect may

be due to the synergistic action of dietary fiber and antioxidant polyphenols in

carrot (Nicolle et al. 2003).

The consumption of carrots has also been associated with lower risk of heart

attacks in women (Gramenzi et al., 1990). In a recent study Griep et al. (2011)

examined the associations between fruit and vegetables of different colors and

their subgroups and 10-year coronary heart disease (CHD) incidence. They used

data from a prospective population-based cohort including 20,069 men and

women aged 20 - 65 years who were enrolled between 1993 and 1997. They

observed that eating more deep-orange-colored fruits and vegetables is

associated with a lower risk of CHD. In particular, carrots (their largest

contributor to total orange fruit and vegetables consumption with 60 %), were

associated with a 32% lower risk of CHD. They concluded that “a higher intake

of deep orange fruit and vegetables, and especially carrots, may protect against

CHD”.

Gilani et al. (2000) studied the anti-hypertensive effect of two cumarin

glycosides (DC-2 and DC-3) from car- rots. Dose dependent intravenous
12
administration of these glycoside compounds caused a decrease in arterial blood

pressure in normotensive anaesthetized rats. Moreover, in vitro studies by the

same investigators showed that the glycoside compounds caused inhibitory

effects on spontaneously beating guinea pig atria, as well as on the kt-induced

contractions of rabbit aorta. The authors concluded that the decreased blood

pressure observed in in vitro studies may be due to the calcium channel

blocking action of cumarin glycosides (DC-2 and DC-3) from carrots.

2.5 Hepatoprotective and Renoprotective Benefits of Carrot

Bishayee et al. (1995) observed that carrot extract help to protect liver from

acute injury by the toxic effects of en- vironmental chemicals. In its study the

effect of carrot extract on carbon tetrachloride (CC14)-induced acute liver

damage in mouse was evaluated. The increased serum enzyme levels by CC14-

induction were significantly lo- wered due to pre-treatment with the carrot

extract. The carrot extract also decreased the elevated serum bilirubin and urea

content due to CC14 administration. Increased activities of hepatic 5’-

nucleotidase, acid phosphatase, acid ribonuclease and decreased levels of

succinic dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphatase and cytochrome P-450

produced by CCl4 were reversed by the carrot extract in a dose-responsive way.

The investigators concluded that results of this study revealed that carrot could

afford a significant protective action in the alleviation of CCl4- induced

hepatocellular acute injury. Mills et al. (2008) measured the possible effects of

13
bioactive compounds in 4 biofortified flesh carrot cultivars (purple/orange,

purple/orange/red, orange/red, and orange) on the provitamin A bioefficacy and

antioxidant potential on the liver of Mongolian gerbils. Following a 4-wk

vitamin A depletion period and baseline kill, freeze-dried carrot powders were

mixed into purified feeds and fed to 6 groups of 11 Mongolian gerbils for 4 wk.

White flesh carrot fed control and vitamin A supplemented groups were used to

calculate carrot provitamin A bioefficacy. Antioxidant potential of carrot

powders, sera, and livers were deter- mined using the 2, 2’-azinobis-(3-

ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical cation decolorization assay and

carotenoid and retinol concentrations were determined by HPLC. The authors

observed that the antioxidant po- tential of the liver and vitamin A stores were

greater in Mongolian gerbils fed with colored flesh carrots compared with the

control gerbils fed with white flesh carrots and vitamin A supplemented groups.

Mital et al. (2011) studied the renoprotective activity of carrot root extract on

renal ischemia reperfusion acute injury in rats. Rats with renal reperfusion

injury showed significantly decreased activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase

and glutathione, and a significant increase in malondialdehyde level. The study

revealed that carrot ex- tract exerts renoprotective activity against ischemia

reperfusion induced kidney acute injury, by reducing free radical scavenging

activity one of the mechanisms behind ischemia reperfusion damage of kidneys.

14
2.6 Wound Healing Benefits

Patil et al. (2012) report that animals treated with topical cream of ethanolic

extract of carrot root, formulated at different concentrations, showed significant

decreases in wound area, epithelization period and scar width when compared to

control group animals in an excision wound model. Meanwhile, rate of wound

contraction signifi- cantly increased. Moreover, there were also significant

increases in wound tensile strength, hydroxyproline con- tent and protein

content in animals treated with the topical cream formulation of ethanolic

extract of carrot seeds. The antioxidant and anti-microbial activities of ethanolic

extract of carrot root, mainly flavonoids and phenolic derivates, may be

involved in this increased curative property. Wound healing effects may also be

due to regula- tion of collagen expression and inhibition of elevated levels of

lipid peroxides.

2.7 Benefits and Uses of Carrot Oil

According to Healthline (2021), here is the main list of benefits of carrot oil for

face that you should know (Healthline, 2021):

1. Regulates Skin Sebum: Not only this, but it’s suitable for all skin types,

including sensitive skin. It has the power to balance out dry or oily skins as

it gives skin enough moisture without clogging pores.

2. Rejuvenates Skin: Carrot oil is used to protect the skin from ultraviolet

rays and has strong antiaging properties due to its rich content of vitamins

15
 A, C, and E. If you are looking for an oil to brighten and tone the skin,

using carrot oil for the face can boost dull, lacklustre skin to radiant and

glowing. Its high carotol content rejuvenates the skin cells.

3. Treat and Reduce Rosacea: Linoleic acid (beta-carotene) is anti-

inflammatory and is therefore ideal for treating the inflamed skin of

rosacea.

4. Fights Wrinkles: Carotenoids are the secret ingredient for fighting fine

lines and wrinkles, as this is a powerful antioxidant. As mentioned above,

vitamins A, C, and E work for this purpose. These antioxidants together

improve the elasticity and suppleness of the skin. It also minimises large

pores and tightens the skin.

5. Treats and Sooths Sun-Burned Skin: The linoleic acid content is good

for a multitude of skin ills, including skin that has been sunburned, because

of the anti-inflammatory effect. The healing effect of vitamin E sooths the

skin after sunburn.

6. Supports a Golden Tan: Carrot oil is in a lot of tanning oils, as it

stimulates the production of melanin in the skin if applied before sun

exposure. Apply before going outside to help you achieve that golden

goddess look, but make sure to still apply sun cream, as ‘the prune’ is not a

good look.

7. Natural Sun Cream: Whilst this should not be used in place of your usual

sun cream, carrot oil does have a property that protects the skin from UV
16
 damage. I repeat: you should not replace your sun cream with carrot seed

oil. Add a few drops into your sun cream instead (Healthline, 2021).

2.8 Overview of Soap Making

The origin of soap is not well documented; it appears to have been available to

the early civilizations of the Fertile Crescent after 2000 b.c. during this epoch

soap was used as a wound medication or hair dressing because the cleansing

properties had not yet been discovered. even the well chronicled baths of queen

cleopatra were absent of soap. Essential oils were used for her bathing rituals.

cleopatra used fine white sand as an abrasive agent for cleansing (Saveonscents,

2021).

The grand baths of early ancient rome employed cosmetics, essences, and oils

but no soap. later some romans understood the cleansing properties of soap, but

its use was not widespread. arabs in the arabian desert and later the turks were

the first societies to recognize the value of soap. when the turks invaded the

byzantine empire, soap was introduced to europe. however, isolated tribes of

vikings and celts discovered soap independently. the celts are even credited with

introducing soap to england around 1000 a.d (Saveonscents, 2021).

It is not until the 13th century that the history of soap making becomes more

concrete. marseilles emerged as the first great center of soap making and

remained an important producer through the middle ages. genoa, venice, and

17
bari in italy came to rival it, as did castila in spain. each of these regions had a

plentiful supply of olive oil and barilla (a fleshy plant whose ashes were used to

make lye). this formulation became the standard through the 17th century. in the

early 18th century, a number of poor olive harvests induced soap makers to

investigate the use of other oils rather than olive. parallel advances in steam

navigation improved the access to oils from far away ports. these changes

resulted in a modification of the basic soap formulation from olive oils to a

carefully selected blend of fats and oils (Saveonscents, 2021).

Though a fair amount of soap was being produced, it was most often used for

laundering. it is worth mentioning that until the 18th century people did not

consider cleanliness a positive virtue and bathing a social norm. in the 18th

century bathing came into vogue as a medical or restorative treatment. water

was considered a magical fluid which if correctly applied could be benefical for

all manner of infestation. as more doctors prescribed the water cure, the idea of

bathing slowly became acceptable. at the same time non medical bathing

became increasing popular in europe. advances in plumbing, including running

water and bathtubs which could be drained, took soap over its last hurdle for

mass acceptance. soap manufacturing thrived in europe and england

(Saveonscents, 2021).

As soap was not here when they arrived, early settlers where required to make it

themselves. Making soap as far as the settlers were concerned was women's
18
business. The women stored cooking grease and animal fat all year long for

soap making day, a yearly event that preceded spring cleaning. Ashes from the

fireplaces were also stored to make lye. Rainwater was trickled through the

ashes to leach out the lye contained in the potassium salts of the burned wood. a

fresh egg was used to determine whether the lye was of proper strength. if it

sank slowly, all was well. if it floated, the lye was thought to be too strong, and

would have to be diluted; if it dropped, the lye was too weak, and would be run

through the "ash hopper" again or boiled down (Saveonscents, 2021).

Solid fats would have to be rendered, and then all fats boiled and skimmed to

rid it of extraneous hair, dirt, spices, and other debris. Then it would be strained

through a fine cloth. the lye was then stirred into the fats. If the mixture formed

a thick ingredient the project was successful. If it separated, they tried again.

This process would take most of the day to complete. Over 150 years passed

before some enterprising persons decided to produce soap for mass distribution

and consumption. These early soap entrepreneurs appeared in the mid 18th

century. They made rounds of local households, purchased their stored fat, and

sold the soap back to housewives. They were called tallow chandlers and soap

boilers (Saveonscents, 2021).

The soap was first peddled door to door. Eventually it was distributed in general

stores, where it was sold from enormous blocks. Customers would indicate how

much they wanted and the amount would be cut off and wrapped for carrying
19
home. in 1806 william colgate opened up a soap making concern in new york

called colgate & company which was to become the first great soap making

concern in this country. it was not until the 1830's that the company began

selling individual bars in uniform weights. in 1872 colgate introduced cashmere

bouquet, a perfumed soap (Saveonscents, 2021).

2.8.1 Types of Soap Making

According to Thenovastudio (2021), the following are the types of soap making

(Thenovastudio, 2021):

1. Melt & Pour: Melt & Pour Soap is a type of pre-made soap base,

manufactured for the purpose of crafting. You melt it down, add

colors/scents/additives and pour it. Once it’s hardened it’s ready to un-

mold & use immediately (the same day). It’s more properly termed “soap

crafting” rather than “soap making.” If you don’t want to work with lye

(sodium or potassium hydroxide), then this is the type you’d want to start

with (Thenovastudio, 2021).

2. Cold Process: In this popular soapmaking from scratch process, oils & fats

are melted into a liquid state, combined with a lye solution (sodium

hydroxide & distilled water, typically), then blended as it starts to saponify

(turn into soap). It’s poured into a mold, left for a few days, removed, &

cut into bars. CP soap needs 4-6 weeks to cure before using the “Cold

Process” (Thenovastudio, 2021).

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3. Hot Process: Hot Process Soap is surprisingly similar to Cold Process

Soap, except for one important distinction – after the oils & lye solution

have been mixed, the soap is then heated before it is poured into the mold.

There are several different types of Hot Process Soapmaking

(Thenovastudio, 2021).

4. Transparent: In order to make a soap that is transparent, or see-through,

additional ingredients must be added. This process is much more difficult,

& cannot be done 100% naturally (Thenovastudio, 2021).

5. Liquid: Liquid Soap must be made with heat (“hot process”) but includes a

different type of lye (potassium hydroxide) and much more water than the

other process use – especially because soapmakers intend the water to

evaporate in Cold & Hot Process soap (Thenovastudio, 2021).

2.8.2 Materials / Equipment Used

The following are the materials used (Legit, 2021);

 Hand gloves to protect your hands; Touching the soap directly with your

hands can cause crack skin

 Nose mask: to protect you from inhaling the concentrated chemicals

 Turning stick or long spatula

 Measuring spoon and a funnel (to add it to the bottles)

 Plastic bowls or buckets

 Bottles for packing

21
  Towel for wiping bottles dry and cleaning of hands when done

 Long sleeves, trousers, shoes, and socks to completely cover yourself to

protect from spillage over the skin (Legit, 2021).

2.8.3 Production steps in liquid soap Production

The following are the Method of liquid soap production which are stated as

follows:

 Add caustic soda solution into the texapon and stir till the whole salt is

fully dissolved. Caustic soda is very corrosive, make sure you are careful.

 Add the sulphonic acid little at a time till all is added to it. Stir gently as the

product may foam heavily.

 Continually add water to it and stir until the mixture turns whitish

 Add the dissolved STPP and keep stirring

 Add the dissolved SLS to the content and stir

 Add soda ash and stir

 Turn the mixture into the bowl containing the Antisol or Nitrosol and keep

stirring till the solution thickens. Stirring should be very slowly because

vigorous turning may lead to excess foaming

 Add the dissolved colourant.

 If the foaming is excessive, stop stirring till the foaming disappears and

turn again. You can as well dilute the mixture with water if it is too thick.

22
 Add fragrance and preservative and stir. When all the chemicals are well

mixed, leave the mixture to stay for some hours, and finally package into

bottles (Legit, 2021).

2.8.4 Method of Liquid Soap Production

The following are the Method of liquid soap production which are stated as

follows:

Process

 Add grated castile soap to boiling water and stir until dissolved.

 Add washing soda and stir.

 Add liquid castile soap and stir.

 Let mixture cool, then add essential oils.

 Transfer to a repurposed soap dispenser (Legit, 2021).

Chemicals Mixture

 Dissolve Antisol with 2 litres of water and let it stay for at least 24 hours;

If you are using Nitrosol, dissolve it with 5 litres of water and use

immediately.

 Dissolve caustic soda with 1 litre of water and keep it overnight for

fermentation to take place.

 Dissolve soda ash with 1 tin milk of water and keep it overnight.

 The next day, dissolve STPP with 1 cup of water and keep aside

 Dissolve SLS with 1 cup of water and keep aside

23
  Dissolve Texapon with sulphonic acid and keep aside

 Finally, dissolve the colourant with 1 cup of water (make sure you

dissolve the colour completely) (Legit, 2021).

Ingredients

 1 1/4 cups boiling water

 1/4 cup castile soap bar ( (grated, and tightly packed)

 1 tablespoon washing soda (use a little more for thicker soap)

 1/4 cup liquid castile soap

 10-30 drops of essential oil (optional)

 1/2 cup castile soap liquid

 1/2 cup distilled water

 1 tablespoon vitamin E oil (optional)

 1 tablespoon sweet almond oil or olive oil or jojoba oil (optional)

 15 drops tea tree essential oil (optional)

 5-10 drops lavender essential oil (optional) (Legit, 2021).

24
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the Theoretical Framework, Health Benefits of Carrots, Anti-

Diabetic and Anti-Hypertensive Benefits of Carrot, Hepatoprotective and

Renoprotective Benefits of Carrot, Wound Healing Benefits, Benefits and Uses

of Carrot Oil and Overview of Soap Making will be emphasized.

3.2 Collection of Sample

Carrot sample was purchased from oil-mill market located at Port Harcourt,

Rivers State. Carrot sample was washed under running tap water to remove all

residues and impurities. The clean sample was dried using cloth paper for

further use.

3.3 Preparation of Sample

The leaves were later cut into slices to reveal the tighter inner stem. Till when

ready for use.

3.4 Materials Used

25
The following are the Apparatus and Solvents used:

1. A retort stand

2. 500ml Separation funnel

3. 250ml and 100ml Beakers

4. Electronics weighting balance (500g/0.01g. DT-500B)

5. Water bath(KW 1000DC)

6. Mortar and pestle

7. 500ml Round bottom flask

8. Knife

9. Aluminum foil

10. Electric heater

11. Distilled water

12. N-hexane

13. Ethanol

14. Olive oil

3.5 Infused Carrot Oil Preparation

The preparation of carrot infused oil is illustrated in Figure 3.1. At first, the

carrot skin was peeled off using potato peeler before it was grated into small

pieces for extraction purpose. The extraction of carrot was carried out using a

maceration process by applying a conventional heating method at the

temperature of 90oC (Coelho et al., 2019). Next, the carrot was mixed with the

26
virgin coconut oil, VCO and heated for 2 min at a temperature of 40°C until the

VCO liquid became light orange. The mixture of VCO and grated carrot was

strained using a muslin cloth to separate the grated of carrot from the infused

oil. Then, the carrot infused oil was ready to be used in the lip balm

formulation. In this study, three different ratios (VCO to the carrot) of infused

oils which are 35:65, 38:62 and 43:57 were prepared. These ratios were set after

the trial, and error method was applied to find the best ratio range.

Figure 3.1: Infused oil preparation

3.6 Solvent Extraction Method

130g of the dry sample of carrot were weighed from the sliced carrot sample

and placed in a 500ml clean flat bottom flask. 600ml of N- hexane solvent were

poured into the 500ml flask and stopped. The flask and content were allowed to

stand for 24hrs; this was done to extract all the oil content in the carrot and for

complete extraction. After which the extract was decanted into another 500ml

beaker. 200ml of Ethanol were added to extract the essential oil since essential

27
oil is soluble in Ethanol. The mixture was then transferred to 500ml separating

funnel and separated by a process called liquid/liquid separation process.

The content of the separating funnel was and allowed to come to equilibrium,

which separated into two layers (depending on their different density). The

lower Ethanol extract and the upper Hexane layer were collected into two

separate 250ml beaker and were placed in a water bath at 78oC. This was done

to remove the Ethanol leaving only the natural essential oil. The yield of oil was

determined by weighing the extract on an electronic weighing balance. The

difference between the final weight of the beaker with extract and the initial

weight of the empty beaker gave the weight of essential oil.

3.7 Enfleurage Method

130g of the dry sample of carrot were weighed out and pounded with mortar

and pestle (to reveal the tighter inner stem). The pounded sample was then

placed in a 500ml beaker. About 70ml of light-flavored olive oil were warmed

and mixed with the mashed carrot (to allow for efficient absorption of the

essential oil). The beaker was covered with aluminum foil and shaken until the

carrot was distributed throughout the oil. It was then allowed to stand for

24hours at room temperature for proper absorption. 140ml Ethanol were added

to absorb the essential oil leaving behind the light-flavoured olive oil and the

carrot residue.
28
The Ethanol extract was decanted and placed on a water bath at 78 oC to

vaporize the Ethanol leaving behind the essential oil. The yield of oil was

determined by weighing on an electronic weighing balance. The difference

between the final weight of the beaker and the initial weight gave the yield of

essential oil.

3.8 Hydrodistillation Method

130g of fresh carrot sample were placed into a 500ml round bottom flask

containing 250ml of distilled water. The flask was fitted with a rubber stopper

connected to a condenser and heated. Water at 00C flowed counter currently

through the condenser to condense the ensuring steam. When the water reached

100oC it started boiling ripping off the essential oil from the carrot. When the

carrot got heated up, the essential oil that was extracted from the leaf mixed

with the water vapour. Both passed through the condenser and the vapour was

condensed into liquid. With the use of ice block, cooling was made possible and

volatilization of the essential oil was avoided.

The condensate was directly collected using a 500ml beaker and then poured

into a separating funnel. This formed two layers of oil and water. The tap of the

separating funnel was opened to let out the water while the oil was immediately

collected into a 100ml stoppered. The bottle was closed tightly to prevent

29
vaporization of the essential oil. The oil was collected and the volume of oil

obtained was weighed.

3.9 Formulation of Perfume with Carrot Oil Produced

Apparatus and Reagents

 Pipette

 Funnel

 50ml and 120ml beakers

 Perfume bottle

 Fixatives (Surprise and Dream)

 Methanol

 Distilled water

 Carrot essential oil

Procedure: 10ml of carrot essential oil extract were measured and placed in a

120ml beaker containing 5ml of Methanol. 5ml of the Fixatives were added to

the mixture (to improve the longevity of the perfume). The solution were

shaken and poured into a 50ml bottle.

30
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the Solvent Extraction Method, Enfleurage Extraction Method,

Hydro Distillation Method and Physical and Chemical Properties of Carrot will

be discussed.
31
4.2 Solvent Extraction Method

The amount of essential oils obtained by solvent extraction method was 2.7g of

essential oil per 130g of dry carrot sample. This gives about 2.08% yield of

essential oil per 130g of dry carrot. The temperature used was 78 0C i.e. the

boiling point of ethanol. The volume of oil was measured at every 4hr interval

to determine the oil yield at varying time. As the time increases the Ethanol

solvent reduces thereby leaving the essential oil in the mixture.

Table 4.1: Weight of oil with respect to time

Weight of oil (g) Time (mins)

0.2 240

0.3 480

0.7 720

0.72 960

0.78 1200

4.3 Enfleurage Extraction Method

The essential oil produced by enfleurage method was 2.55g weight of essential

oil per 130g of dry carrot sample thereby producing 1.96% oil yield at 780C.

Table 4.2: Weight of oil with respect to time

32
Weight (g) Time (mins)

0.31 240

0.41 480

0.55 720

0.58 960

0.70 1200

4.4 Hydro Distillation Method

The result of hydro distillation process was 1.23g weight of 130g of carrot

sample giving 0.95% yield of oil.

Table 4.3: Weight of oil yield with respect to time

Weight (g) Time (mins)

0.10 240

0.14 480

0.26 720

0.35 960

0.38 1200

4.5 Physical and Chemical Properties of Carrot

The oil produced was pale yellow, with an aromatic camphoraceous odour,

pungent and cooling taste. Because of its high volatility, it was stored in a well

33
field air-tight container protected from light in cool place. The essential oil was

insoluble in water, miscible in alcohol and in oil.

Table 4.4: Result of Carrot oil Extraction

Method of extraction % yield

Solvent extraction 2.08

Enfleurage 1.96

Hydro distillation 0.95

From the experiment carried out it was observed that the best method used in

extraction is solvent extraction method because it gave more oil than any other

method. This conforms to works done by other researchers.

Enfleurage method, yielded less oil when compared to the solvent extraction

this is because most volatile content gets lost during the pounding process while

hydro distillation was low because the extraction of the essential oil was not

always complete due to variable rate of distillation caused by heat.

Carrot oil produced with this method is not usually used for soap production

because of the burnt smell of the essential oil. Experiment was not carried out

with steam distillation method because the equipments were not easily found

and they are expensive. This makes steam distillation a rare method of essential

34
oil extraction and literarily, steam distillation yield about 3-4% aromatic

compound of a given weight of sample.

CHAPTER FIVE
35
 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Introduction

It is important to ascertain that the objective of this study was on the Production

of Carrot Soap using Home Made Method. In the preceding chapter, the

relevant data collected for this study were presented, critically analyzed and

appropriate interpretation given. In this chapter, certain recommendations made

which in the opinion of the researcher will be of benefits in addressing the

Production of Carrot Soap using Home Made Method.

5.2 Summary of Findings

Carrot is the most important crop of Apiaceae family. It is a root vegetable that

has world- wide distribution. Carrots were first used for medical purposes and

gradually used as food. Written records in Europe indicated that carrots were

cultivated prior to the tenth century. The colors of the carrot root flesh maybe

white, yellow, orange, red, purple, or very dark purple, the first cultivated

carrots were yellow and purple fleshed cultivars. Orange carrots, today more

popular, were developed in the 15th and 16th centuries in Central Europe. A

rapid rise in the popularity of orange carrots was observed with the recognition

of its high provitamin A content (Simon, 2000).

Investigation reveals that it can cost a fortune to keep a supply of carrot soap on

hand. From the price, it is easy to wonder if the secret ingredients in some

36
moisturizers are gold dust. What few people realize is that the basic recipe for

any liquid soap is incredibly simple. Oil and water are combined and bonded

together with Potassium hydroxide to produce liquid soap.

The study was carried out to evaluate the production process of Carrot Soap

using Home Made Method. In achieving this aim, the following specific

objectives were laid out to formulate natural liquid hand soap with carrot oil at

various concentrations and identify the medicinal properties of carrot.

This might be due to lack of awareness of published results on the efficacy of

the extracts on several health related issues. Hence, the focus of this review is to

concisely document all reported biological properties of carrot extracts (infusion

and decoction) and essential oils. Similarly, suggestions regarding future

directions in this area of study were thoroughly prepared to ease the path

towards elucidation of inherent medicinal properties of carrot. This study will

be of immense benefit to other researchers who intend to know more on this

study and can also be used by non-researchers to build more on their research

work. This study contributes to knowledge and could serve as a guide for other

study.

5.3 Conclusion

37
In essence, the research work was successfully researched to meet the objectives

set at the beginning of the project work. While one cannot completely rule out

one form of limitation or the other, it was a success to a greater extent. On the

whole, the research has been a worthwhile exercise. It has afforded the

researcher the opportunity to really appraise the situation on the ground and

allow one to bring out areas that might need attention for the improvement of

the research work.

5.4 Recommendation

Based on the findings, the following recommendations are hereby suggested:

Only few across the counter information were provided for in the research

work, it is strongly recommended for subsequent researcher to expand the scope

of the research work.

38
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 APPROVAL PAGE

This is to certify that this project work, “Production of Carrot Soap using

Home Made Method”, was written by Student’s Name with Registration

number Your Matric / Registration Number and has been read and approved

for the award of (Degree, ND, or HND) in the department of (Your

Department), Your School (SIAS, SBMT, SHSS), Institution Address.

…………………………………

………………………….

Project Supervisor’s Name DATE

(Project Supervisor)

…………………………………

………………………….

Your HOD’s Name DATE

(Head of Department)

69
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to God for his enabling grace, and to all computer

enthusiasts who help to make life a pleasant experience.

70
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe my indebtedness to my Supervisor (Name of your Supervisor), the Head

of Department (Name of your HOD) the Lecturers in the department of (Your

Department), Book Authors and Profound Scholars of existing/related research

work for your moral support that facilitated the successful completion of my

(Tertiary Institution level). I am grateful to God Almighty and my parent for

their financial support in my career. I really appreciate you all for everything,

Thank you very much.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PRELIMINARY PAGES

Title page
72
Approval page

Dedication

Acknowledgement

Table of Contents

Abstract

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Background of Study

1.3 Statement of Problems

1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study

1.5 Significance of Study

1.6 Scope of Study

1.7 Limitations of the Study

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.3 Health Benefits of Carrots

2.4 Anti-Diabetic and Anti-Hypertensive Benefits of Carrot

2.5 Hepatoprotective and Renoprotective Benefits of Carrot

2.6 Wound Healing Benefits

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2.7 Benefits and Uses of Carrot Oil

2.8 Overview of Soap Making

2.8.1 Types of Soap Making

2.8.2 Materials / Equipment Used

2.8.3 Production steps in liquid soap Production

2.8.4 Method of Liquid Soap Production

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Collection of Sample

3.3 Preparation of Sample

3.4 Materials Used

3.5 Infused Carrot Oil Preparation

3.6 Solvent Extraction Method

3.7 Enfleurage Method

3.8 Hydrodistillation Method

3.9 Formulation of Perfume with Carrot Oil Produced

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Solvent Extraction Method

4.3 Enfleurage Extraction Method

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4.4 Hydro Distillation Method

4.5 Physical and Chemical Properties of Carrot

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Summary of Findings

5.3 Conclusion

5.4 Recommendation

REFERENCES

ABSTRACT

Carrot is one of the most popular root vegetables in the world and one of the

most important sources of carotenoids. Carotenoids contain five to six C in a

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ring, where they can be straight or branched chains. The study was carried out

to evaluate the production process of Carrot Soap using Home Made Method.

In achieving this aim, the following specific objectives were laid out to

formulate natural liquid hand soap with carrot oil at various concentrations

and identify the medicinal properties of carrot. Investigation reveals that it can

cost a fortune to keep a supply of carrot soap on hand. From the price, it is easy

to wonder if the secret ingredients in some moisturizers are gold dust. What few

people realize is that the basic recipe for any liquid soap is incredibly simple.

Oil and water are combined and bonded together with Potassium hydroxide to

produce liquid soap. This might be due to lack of awareness of published results

on the efficacy of the extracts on several health related issues. Hence, the focus

of this review is to concisely document all reported biological properties of

carrot extracts (infusion and decoction) and essential oils. Similarly,

suggestions regarding future directions in this area of study were thoroughly

prepared to ease the path towards elucidation of inherent medicinal properties

of carrot. This study will be of immense benefit to other researchers who intend

to know more on this study and can also be used by non-researchers to build

more on their research work. This study contributes to knowledge and could

serve as a guide for other study.

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