The carbon emissions associated with the generation of electricity from oil, gas, and coal per

kilowatt-hour (kWh) can vary depending on multiple factors, including the type and quality of
the fossil fuel, extraction and processing methods, and power generation efficiency. However, as
a general estimate, the average carbon emissions per kWh for each type of fossil fuel are:

1. Oil: Oil-based electricity generation is estimated to emit around 230 grams of carbon
dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per kWh. It's important to note that carbon emissions are also
released during crude oil extraction and transportation processes.
2. Gas: Natural gas, commonly used for electricity generation, typically emits around 490
grams of CO2e per kWh. However, emissions can vary based on the specific type of
natural gas (e.g., conventional gas, shale gas), as well as the combustion technology used
(e.g., combined cycle gas turbines, conventional gas turbines).
3. Coal: Coal is known to be the most carbon-intensive fossil fuel, with emissions ranging
from 820 grams of CO2e per kWh. However, emissions can vary depending on factors
such as the type of coal (e.g., bituminous, sub-bituminous, lignite), coal quality (e.g.,
high-quality anthracite vs lower-quality lignite), and combustion technology (e.g.,
pulverized coal, fluidized bed combustion).

It's important to note that these estimates are approximate and can vary based on numerous
factors. Additionally, technologies like carbon capture and storage (CCS) have the potential to
reduce carbon emissions from fossil fuel-based electricity generation, but they are not yet widely
deployed on a large scale. Transitioning to renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and
hydroelectric power can significantly reduce carbon emissions and contribute to mitigating
climate change.

Solar panels are a form of renewable energy technology that generates electricity
without emitting carbon dioxide (CO2) during their operation. However, there are some
carbon emissions associated with the production and manufacturing process of solar
panels, which are commonly referred to as "upfront" or "embodied" carbon emissions.
These emissions are linked to the extraction of raw materials, manufacturing,
transportation, and installation of solar panels.

The precise amount of carbon emissions associated with solar panels can vary
depending on factors such as the type of solar panel, manufacturing processes,
production location, and transportation distance. On average, the estimated embodied
carbon emissions for solar panels range from 20 to 41 grams of CO2 equivalent per
kilowatt (kW) of installed capacity. For example, for a standard residential solar panel
system with an installed capacity of 5 kW, the total embodied carbon emissions would
be approximately 100 to 250 kilograms of CO2 equivalent.

It's important to note that solar panels do not emit any carbon emissions during their
typical 25-30 year lifespan when they are operational, as they generate electricity from
sunlight without burning fossil fuels. Solar energy is considered a clean and renewable
energy source with very low operational carbon emissions compared to conventional
electricity generation methods.

It's worth mentioning that the environmental benefits of solar panels, including their
potential to offset carbon emissions from electricity generation over their lifetime,
generally outweigh the embodied carbon emissions associated with their production.
Solar energy is widely recognized as a crucial solution for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and mitigating climate change.

Life-cycle CO2 equivalent emissions (g/kWh)

900
800

700
600

500
400

300

200

100
0
1

Oil Gas Coal

Solar Panel Linear (Solar Panel)
References
Global Energy Review: CO2 Emissions in 2021 – Analysis - IEA. (n.d.). IEA.
https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-review-co2-emissions-in-2021-2
K. (2022, May 23). What Is the Carbon Footprint of Solar Panel Manufacturing? Solaris
Renewables. https://solarisrenewables.com/blog/carbon-footprint-of-solar-panel-manufacturing/
#:~:text=Solar%20panels%20produce%200%20grams,lbs%20of%20CO2%20per%20kWh
Life Cycle Assessment Harmonization. (n.d.). Energy Analysis | NREL.
https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/life-cycle-assessment.html
Where greenhouse gases come from - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). (n.d.).
https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/energy-and-the-environment/where-greenhouse-gases-
come-from.php