Curriculum

Unit II: Computer Networks

 Data Communication terminologies: Concept of Channel, Bandwidth (Hz, KHz, MHz) and Data
transfer rate (bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps, Tbps).
 Transmission media: Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, optical fiber, infraared, radio link,
microwave link and satellite link.
 Network devices: Modem, RJ45 connector, Ethernet Card, Router, Switch, Gateway, WiFi card.
 Network Topologies and types: Bus, star, Tree, PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN.
 Network Protocol: TCP/IP, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), PPP, HTTP, SMTP, POP3, Remote
Login (Telnet) and Internet, Wireless / Mobile Communication protocol such as GSM, GPRS and
WLL.
 Mobile Telecommunication Technologies: 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G; Mobile processors; Electronic
mail protocols such as SMTP, POP3, Protocols for Chat and Video Conferencing: VoIP, Wireless
technologies such as Wi-Fi and WiMax
 Network Security Concepts: Threats and prevention from Viruses, Worms, Trojan horse, Spams
Use of Cookies, Protection using Firewall, https; India IT Act, Cyber Law, Cyber Crimes, IPR
issues, hacking.
 Introduction To Web services: WWW, Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), Extensible Markup
Language (XML); Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP); Domain Names; URL; Website, Web
browser, Web Servers; Web Hosting.
Computer Network /Network
is a group of independent / autonomous computers (and other devices) interconnected so that they
exchange data / information , exchange files, or allow electronic communications, following set of
protocols. The computers on a network may be linked through wired or wireless technologies (cables,
telephone lines, radio waves etc. )

NODE
Each of the devices on the network seeking to use resources; each node has a unique address.

Workgroup
All computers are peers; no computer has control over another computer.

Advantages of networking (over stand alone machines)

 Resource sharing ( files , applications / software , peripherals, storage)

 Improved communication
 Reduced communication cost
 Reliability of data
Data can be Backed up (copied and stored ) on multiple computers in a network.
If because of some problem ( e.g. hardware crash ) data is corrupted , data can be retrieved from
backup.
DATA recovery

 Central storage of data

 Files can be stored on a central file server that are available to all nodes .central processing of data
reduces data duplicity and data redundancy .data consistency
 Access to remote database
 Site (software) licenses are likely to be cheaper than buying several standalone licenses.

Sharing peripherals (e.g.printer )saves money

Distributed Processing system – better performance , increased speed

Disadvantages of networking
 COST - Purchasing the network cabling , devices and file servers involve expenditure .
 Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network manager usually needs to
be employed.
 Central storage faulty - If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become
inaccessible. . The computers can still be used but are isolated.
 Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.
 Security Issue- There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security
procedures are needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.

Network Interface Unit (NIU) / Terminal Access Point (TAP) / Network Interface card(NIC)

A network interface unit is a device that is required in any computer which has to become part of
network.A NIC translates the computer’s binary information into electronic signals transferable over the
network.

The NIC manufacturer assigns a unique physical address to each NIC card and this physical address
is known as the MAC (Media Access control) address.
TYPES OF NETWORKS
Based on the size and the coverage area, networks are categorized into the following types:
 Local Area Networks (LANs)
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
 Personal Area Networks (PANs)

LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)

 A local-area network (LAN) is a computer network that spans a relatively small geographical area
like single room, building, office, school , home, hospital etc
 The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of
computers
 Size is limited to a few kilometers.
 Data transmits at a very fast rate (speed from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps )
 Its set up involves lower cost as compared to MAN's and WAN's. It uses relatively inexpensive
hardware (Such as hub/switch, network adapters and Ethernet cables)
 LAN's can be either wired (twisted pair cables / coaxial cables/ OPTICAL FIBER) or wireless.
 If wired ,the extent of the cable defines the LAN
 A computer is attached to a LAN using a Network Interface Card (NIC), a communications device
inside each computer, printer or other machine attached to the network.
 LAN is easy to design and maintain
 privately owned
 Error and noise are the least (since less distance) MOST RELIABLE
  The fault tolerance of a LAN is more, There is less congestion in this network. For example : A
bunch of students playing Counter Strike in the same room (without internet).
 Fault tolerance is the property that enables a system to continue operating properly in the event of
the failure of (or one or more faults within) some of its components.

MAN (Metropolitan area Network)

 covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller area as compared to WAN.
 used to connect various LAN’s (formed by connecting multiple LANs) across several blocks of
buildings to entire cities., campus of colleges or universities etc,
 It may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider).
 The data transfer rate is moderate , Speeds of MAN ranges in terms of Mbps.
 It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
 The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network.
 It is costly as compared to LAN.
 MAN is owned and operated by a single entity such as government body or large corporation.
Examples -the part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the
customer or the cable TV network in a city.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

 spans large geographical area (possibly several continents).
 Speed generally lower than LAN, MAN
 WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed, since it involves increased distance and
increased number of servers and terminals etc. Speeds of WAN ranges from few kilobits per second
(Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps).
 WAN may transmit data over high-speed phone lines (PSTN) and wireless links such as satellites.

 WAN wiring is often owned by local or long distance telephone companies or cable television
operators. Users may connect their home PCs to a WAN with the help of modems and telephone
lines.
  WAN is difficult to design and maintain.
 Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there is more congestion in the network.
 Due to long distance transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
 Devices used for transmission of data through WAN are: Optic wires, Microwaves and Satellites.
 may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public.

Most common example of WAN is Internet.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

 A personal area network (PAN) is the interconnection of electronic information technology devices
centered on an individual person's workspace, typically within a range of 10 meters. (such as
computers, smartphones, tablets and personal digital assistants.)
 WPAN ( wireless ) devices lend themselves well to adhoc networking. Adhoc networks in which
devices connect directly to each other . Technologies - Bluetooth and Infrared.

Conclusion –
There are many advantages of LAN over MAN and WAN, such as LAN’s provide excellent reliability,
high data transmission rate, they can easily be managed, and shares peripheral devices too. Local
Area Network cannot cover cities or towns and for that Metropolitan Area Network is needed, which can
connect city or a group of cities together. Further, for connecting Country or a group of Countries one
requires Wide Area Network.

NETWORK ARCHITECTURES
1. Client server (also called Tiered- since levels)
2. Peer- to – peer

Client server Architecture

Client-server architecture, architecture of a computer network in which many clients (remote
processors) request and receive service from a centralized server (host computer). 
The server is a high configuration computer (with high processing power and huge storage ), which
manages resources of the network and provides services for the other computers on the network.
It has Network OS installed so as to give user access to resources.
e.g. file server, database server, web server, print server

(Both machine and software running on it are referred to as server e.g. web server listens on a port for
HTTP requests and send HTTP responses upon receiving requests)

 Routers
 Bridges
 Switches
 Hubs
 Gateway
 Repeaters

Peer- to –peer architecture(network of nodes)

Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks
or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the application.
Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or network bandwidth,
directly available to other network participants, without the need for central coordination by servers or
stable hosts.[1] Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client-
server model in which the consumption and supply of resources is divided. Emerging collaborative P2P
systems are going beyond the era of peers doing similar things while sharing resources, and are looking for
diverse peers that can bring in unique resources and capabilities to a virtual community thereby
empowering it to engage in greater tasks beyond those that can be accomplished by individual peers, yet
that are beneficial to all the peers.[2]
While P2P systems had previously been used in many application domains,[3] the architecture was
popularized by the file sharing system Napster, originally released in 1999. 

HISTORY OF INTERNET / EVOLUTION OF INTERNET

The history of the Internet has its origin in the efforts to build and interconnect computer networks that
arose from research and development in the United States and involved international collaboration,
particularly with researchers in the United Kingdom and France. 

ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) network)

 was the network that became the basis for the Internet. In 1969,  ARPANET was developed under the
direction of the U.S. DOD Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) ,with the interconnection of four
university computers.
The name Arpanet came from the U.S. military arm that funded it, the Advanced Research Projects
Agency. When Arpanet was created, it connected five sites: UCLA, Stanford, UC Santa Barbara, the
University of Utah and BBN Technologies.

National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET)

was a program of coordinated, evolving projects sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF)
from 1985 to 1995 to promote advanced research and education networking in the United States. The
program created several nationwide backbone computer networks in support of these initiatives. Initially
created to link researchers to the NSF-funded supercomputing centers, through further public funding and
private industry partnerships it developed into a major part of the Internet backbone.

The National Science Foundation permitted only government agencies and universities to use the network
until 1989 when the first commercial Internet service provider emerged. By 1991, the NSF removed
restrictions on access and the commercial ISP business grew rapidly.

Internet : is a worldwide/ global network of networks of computers, a networking infrastructure. It

connects millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which any computer can
communicate with any other computer as long as they are both connected to the Internet. Information
that travels over the Internet does so using a variety of protocols.
World Wide Web(WWW)
The World Wide Web (commonly shortened to the Web) is a system of interlinked, hypertext documents
accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, user views web pages that may contain text, images,
videos, and other multimedia and navigates between them using hyperlinks.

The World Wide Web consists of all the public Web sites connected to the Internet worldwide, including
the client devices (such as computers and cell phones) that access Web content. WWW is just one of
many applications of the Internet and computer networks.

The World Wide Web is based on these technologies:

 HTML - Hypertext Markup Language
 HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 Web servers and Web browsers

Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web interchangeably, but in fact the two terms
are not synonymous. The Internet and the Web are two separate but related things.

WWW is an information-sharing model that is built on top of the Internet. The Web uses the HTTP
protocol which is one of the many
protocols used over the Internet, to
transmit data. Web services use
HTTP to allow applications to
communicate for exchanging business
logic and using the Web to share
information. The Web also utilizes
browsers, such as Internet Explorer or
Firefox, to access Web documents
called Web pages that are linked to
each other via hyperlinks. Web
documents also contain graphics,
sounds, text and video.

Applications of Internet - for sending/receiving e-mail which depends on SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol), Usenet news groups, instant messaging and FTP(File Transfer Protocol). So the Web is just a
large portion of the Internet, but the two terms are not synonymous and should not be confused.   

Web 2.0  refers to web applications that facilitate information sharing, collaboration ease of use,
participatory culture and interoperability (i.e., compatible with other products, systems, and devices) for
end users.
Familiar examples of Web 2.0
sites and tools include wikis and
blogs (PBworks and
WordPress), social
networking sites (Facebook and
Twitter), image and video hosting
sites (Flicker and YouTube),
and applications to generate
Web content for education, business,
and social purposes (Wikipedia,
Weebly, and Instagram).
A Web 2.0 site allows users to interact and collaborate with each other as creators (prosumers) of user-
generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to websites where users (consumers) are limited to
the passive viewing of content that was created for them.

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
In large networks, there may be more than one paths for transmitting data from sender to receiver.
Selecting a path that data must take out of the available options is called switching. There are two popular
switching techniques – circuit switching and packet switching.

Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path/ end to end physical
connection between sender and receiver. In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is
established then the dedicated path will remain to exist for the entire duration of conversation, until the
connection is terminated.
- In circuit switching the routing decision is made when the path is set up across the given network. After
the link has been sets in between the sender and the receiver then the information is forwarded
continuously over the provided link. When any network node wants to send data, be it audio, video, text or
any other type of information, a call request signal is sent to the receiver and acknowledged back to
ensure availability of dedicated path. This dedicated path is then used to send data. ARPANET used circuit
switching for communication over the network.
Advantages of Circuit Switching
Circuit switching provides these advantages over other switching techniques −
 Once path is set up, the only delay is in data transmission speed
 No problem of congestion or garbled message
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
Circuit switching has its disadvantages too −
 Long set up time is required
 A request token must travel to the receiver and then acknowledged before any transmission can
happen
 Line may be held up for a long time
Packet Switching
The major problem with circuit switching is that it needs a dedicated line for transmission. In packet
switching, data is broken down into small packets with each packet having source and destination
addresses, travelling from one router to the next router.
Packet switching is the method by which the internet works. To get from one device to another the data
packets will have to travel through network adapters, switches, routers and other network nodes. The
route taken by each packet might vary and at times there might be a lot of data travelling through these
nodes meaning packets will be queued. This will result in varying times it takes to send data from one
device to another depending on the traffic load in the network.
Packet switching steps
1. Data split into chunks (packets)
2. Each packet has a from address, to address, packet no, total no of packets , and payload (data
chunk)
3. If data requires multiple chunks, then the order of each packet is noted
4. Packets sent onto the network, moving from router to router taking different paths (set by the
router). Each packet's journey time can, therefore, differ.
5. Once packets arrive, they are re-ordered
6. Message sent from recipient to sender indicating that the message has been received
7. If no confirmation message, sender transmits data again
8. LOST & GARBLED packets
TCP / IP
A datagram is a basic transfer unit associated with a packet-switched network. Datagrams are typically
structured in header and payload sections. Datagrams provide a connectionless communication service
across a packet-switched network.
As packet switching doesn't define a set route for data to be sent by, any disruption in the network can be
circumnavigated by re-routing:

How do we make sure that the packets are read in the correct order?
Packet NO.
What happens if a packet gets permanently lost on the way to a host?
The packet will be resent until a confirmation message is returned from the recipient

Q For the following packets (Green, Blue, Red), assuming each step from router to router takes an equal
time. What order will the packets arrive at their destination? How do we make sure that the packets are
read in the correct order?

Green , Red
Blue

What happens if a router on the network fails? How will the packets get to their destination?
The packets will be re-routed around the failed node
Message Switching
 In this the source computer sends data or the message to the switching circuit which stores the data
in its buffer.
 Then using any free link to a further node / switching circuit ,data is sent .
 Entire message is sent to the destination. Not broken in packets . It reaches through different
intermediate nodes following the “store and forward” approach.
 No dedicated connection is required.

Comparison among Circuit switching , Message switching, packet switching

Difference between any two
Advantages / Disadvantages
 Star Topology

STAR TOPOLOGY DIAGRAM/ Layout

A star network consists of one central switch, hub or concentrator , which acts as a conduit (pipe) to
transmit messages. The hub and leaf nodes, and the transmission lines between them, form a graph with the
topology of a star.
 Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its
destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network.
This configuration is common with twisted pair cable. However, it can also be used with coaxial
cable or optical fibre cable.
Advantages
 Benefits from centralization / central control: Centralization allows the inspection of
traffic,analysis of the traffic and detection of suspicious behavior. (and control through mechanisms
like FIREWALL etc)

 Easy Isolation of devices: Each device is inherently isolated by the link that connects it to the hub.
This makes the isolation of individual devices straightforward and amounts to disconnecting each
device from the others. This isolation also prevents any non-centralized failure from affecting the
network.(e.g. VIRUS infected device )

 More reliable: Fault detection and isolation of faulty node is easy. Each link or device can be
probed individually.

 Simplicity/ simple protocols: This topology is easy to understand, establish, and navigate. There is
no need of complex routing or message passing protocols.
 Easy to expand and manage (add new node)
Connecting additional devices to the hub or , increasing its capacity, increases the size of the
network very easily.

 Better performance: star topology prevents the passing of data packets through an excessive
number of nodes. Although this topology places a huge overhead on the central hub, with adequate
capacity, the hub can handle very high utilization by one device without affecting others.
 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.

Disadvantages
 Long cable length required since each node connected all the way to central node
 Relatively expensive (long cable length , installation and maintenance , extra hardware – Hub /
switch increase cost).
 Central Node dependency- High dependence of the system on the functioning of the central hub
 Failure of the central hub renders the network inoperable
The performance and scalability of the network depends on the capabilities of the hub
 Network size is limited by the number of connections that can be made to the hub

Star Topology Conclusion

A Star Network Topology is best suited for smaller networks and works efficiently when there is
limited number of nodes. One has to ensure that the hub or the central node is always working and extra
security features should be added to the hub because it is the heart of the network.

Note : In School Lab LAN- twisted pair cable and Star topology used

Bus Topology

A bus topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all the nodes (workstations,
printers, laptops, servers etc) are connected to a single shared communication line / cable, called a bus ,
with a terminator at each end .The cable to which the nodes connect is called a "backbone".
All nodes are connected to the linear cable through T connectors. The terminator is used to absorb the
signal when the signal reaches the end, preventing signal bounce. In this topology, when a computer sends
out a signal, the signal travels the cable length in both directions from the sending computer. When the
signal reaches the end of the cable length, it bounces back and returns in the direction it came from. This is
known as signal bounce. Signal bounce may create problems in the computer network, because if another
signal is sent on the cable at the same time, the two signals will collide. Collisions in a computer
network can drastically reduce the performance of the computer network.
 Bus networks may have problems when two clients want to transmit at the same time on the same bus.
Thus systems which use bus network architectures normally have some scheme of collision handling or
collision avoidance for communication on the bus, quite often using Carrier Sense Multiple Access or the
presence of a bus master which controls access to the shared bus resource

Multiple Access: each station has access to the common bus

Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) is a media access control (MAC)
method used most notably in early Ethernet technology for local area networking.
It uses carrier-sensing to defer transmissions until no other stations are transmitting. This is used in
combination with collision detection in which a transmitting station detects collisions by sensing
transmissions from other stations while it is transmitting a frame. When this collision condition is detected,
the station stops transmitting that frame, transmits a jam signal, and then waits for a random time interval
before trying to resend the frame.
CSMA/CD is a modification of pure carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA). CSMA/CD is used to improve
CSMA performance by terminating transmission as soon as a collision is detected.

Carrier sense: each station first listens to check if no other station is transmitting before sending data
If medium is busy, station must wait a random interval and try again.

Advantages
 Relatively easy to install, simplest way to connect multiple clients
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
 cost effective

Disadvantages
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Complex protocols (common bus)
 No centralized control
 Fault detection and isolation (suppose a node is infected with virus ) is not easy
 Not easy to expand
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution.

Tree Topology Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest
form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree of
devices.
This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus
(limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number
of hub connection points) alone.
  More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
 Costly

Ring Topology
 The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is
connected to two other nodes in the network and with the first and last nodes
being connected to each other, forming a ring – all data that is transmitted
between nodes in the network travels from one node to the next node in a S erv er

circular manner and the data generally flows in a single direction only.

Hybrid Topology
A combination of any two or more different basic network topologies.
1: Instances can occur where two basic network topologies, when connected together, can still retain the
basic network character, and therefore not be a hybrid network. For example, a tree network connected to
a tree network is still a tree network. Therefore, a hybrid network accrues only when two basic networks
are connected and the resulting network topology fails to meet one of the basic topology definitions. For
example, two star networks connected together exhibit hybrid network topologies.

2: A hybrid topology always accrues when two different basic network topologies are connected.

5-4-3 Rule
A consideration in setting up a tree topology using Ethernet protocol is the 5-4-3 rule.

One aspect of the Ethernet protocol requires that a signal sent out on the network cable reach every part of
the network within a specified length of time.
Each concentrator or repeater that a signal goes through adds a small amount of time. This leads to the rule
that between any two nodes on the network there can only be a maximum of 5 segments, connected
through 4 repeaters/concentrators. In addition, only 3 of the segments may be populated (trunk)
segments if they are made of coaxial cable. A populated segment is one which has one or more nodes
attached to it . In Figure 4, the 5-4-3 rule is adhered to. The furthest two nodes on the network have 4
segments and 3 repeaters/concentrators between them.
This rule does not apply to other network protocols or Ethernet networks where all fiber optic cabling or a
combination of a fiber backbone with UTP cabling is used. If there is a combination of fiber optic
backbone and UTP cabling, the rule is simply translated to 7-6-5 rule.

Considerations When Choosing a Topology

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not have
to purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used
with star topologies.

Guided transmission media

Most commonly used cables in wired networks are • Twisted Pair Cables • Co-axial cables • Optical Fibers

Twisted Pair Cable

 Two insulated copper wires twisted around each other in a double helix / arranged in regular spiral
pattern
 Number of pairs are bundled together in a cable
 Most common transmission media for both digital and analog signals
 Twisting of wires reduces crosstalk which is bleeding of a signal from one wire to
another.

Crosstalk is caused by the electric or magnetic fields of one telecommunication signal affecting a signal in
an adjacent circuit. In electronics, crosstalk is a disturbance, where in a signal transmitted on one circuit or
channel of a transmission system creates an undesired effect in another adjacent circuit or channel.
Crosstalk is usually caused by undesired capacitive, inductive, or conductive coupling from one circuit or
channel to another.

Bleeding of signal (Leakage )

USE 1. In local telephone communication

2. For digital data transmission over short distances upto 1 km
Advantages:
 Light WEIGHT, FLEXIBLE
 Easy to install and maintain hence most widely used
 Least expensive
 Suitable for small (Local) Networks
Disadvantages:
  Not suitable for long distance due to high attenuation.
 Low bandwidth support.
 Low Speed / data rate
 Susceptible to interference and noise

• Requires amplifiers every 5-6 km for analog signals

• Requires repeaters every 2-3 km for digital signals

Twisted pair are of two types

1. Unshielded twisted pairs(UTP)- Ordinary telephone wire
2. Shielded twisted pairs(STP) - Shielded with a metallic sheath and Reduces interference
STP offers greater protection from interference and crosstalk due to shielding.
But it is heavier and costlier than UTP.

CAT-5, CAT-6 specifications are mostly used in LAN

RJ-45 connector is used to connect this cable to the computer

UTP , STP (Unshielded , shielded twisted pair)cable

Coaxial cable

 Coaxial cable consists of a two coaxial conductors , one solid copper wire core surrounded by a
plastic cladding / dieletric(insulator) , shielded in a outer wire mesh.
 Central conductor carries signal and outer Shield prevents the noise, provides ground.

Types:
Coaxial cable comes in two sizes which are called thinnet and thicknet.
 Thicknet : segment length upto 500 m
 Thinnet : segment length upto 185 m
Advantages:

 Offers higher bandwidth & higher transfer rate compared to twisted pair
 It is easy to wire and easy to expand due to its flexibility.(compared to optical fiber)
 Coax is less sensitive to noise or interference compared to twisted pair cable.
  The external conductor in coaxial cable is utilized to increase effectiveness and shield attenuation.
This can be further improved with the use of the second foil or braid known as a jacket. The jacket
is used as protecting cover from the environment and makes the overall coaxial cable as a flame
retardant.
 Traditionally part of long distance telephone network
 Used to transmit both analog and digital signals

USE:
Most common use in cable TV networks

Disadvantages:

 Expensive than twisted pair wires.

 Less flexible than twisted pair cable
 Difficult to install as compared to twisted pair cable
 Not compatible with twisted wire cable.

Optical Fibres
 Thin strands of glass or glass like material designed to carry light from one source to another.
 Single-encoded beam of light transmitted by total internal reflection.
 Source converts (Modulates) the data signal into light using LED (Light Emitting Diodes) or
LASER diodes and sends it over the Optical fiber.

It consists of three parts:

1. The core : Innermost section , very thin strands or fibers of glass , through which the light travels.
2. The cladding : optical material (with optical properties different from core) which covers the core
and reflects light back to the core.
3.Jacket/ Protective coating : Outermost layer, surrounding one or more claddings. Made of plastic and
other materials Protects the fiber from environmental elements like moisture, damage, and crushing

Advantages
 Immune to any kind of EM interference /noise, since no electric signals are carried, information is
travelling on modulated light beam.
 Secure and High transmission capacity
 High speed (Speed of Light)
 Suitable for broadband communication
 Low attenuation hence allows transmission for very long distances at stretch
 Most efficient
 Highly suitable for harsh industrial environments

Disadvantages
 Fragile (can break easily), Installation is quite complicated and needs care.
 Connecting two Optical fibers is difficult.(Optical fibers are more difficult to solder)
 Most expensive
 Virtually impossible to tap, in order to incept the signal ,the fiber must be cut and detector inserted.
 High maintenance cost, may not be suitable for domestic purposes.

WHICH CABLE TO CHOOSE / IS BETTER

Factors - Cost, data transfer speed, distance, bandwidth
Twisted pair, used normally for LANS

UnGuided transmission media

  Transmission and reception are achieved using an antenna
 Transmitter sends out the EM signal into the medium
 Receiver picks up the signal from the surrounding medium
 Directional transmission
 Transmitter sends out a focused EM beam
 Transmitter and receiver antennae must be carefully aligned
 More suitable for higher frequency signals
 Omnidirectional transmission

1. Microwave
EM signals , Frequency higher than 3 Ghz
Microwaves are transmitted from the transmitters (Parabolic dish antenna) mounted on very high towers,
buildings or hills to send to the receivers at a long distance.
Microwaves are transmitted in line of sight fashion, and also propagated through the surfaces.
Antennas must be properly aligned /Needs line of sight

In the big cities where land is very costly and a lot of formalities have to be completed to get permission to
dig land for cabling, microwave antennas can be put on top of high rise buildings and communication can
be started in a short time.

Advantages
• Cheaper than digging cables etc
• Maintenance easier than cables.
• Easy communication over difficult terrains
• Possible over oceans (Suitable when cable cannot be used)
• Free from Land acquisition issues
Disadvantages
• Insecure transmission
• Susceptible to adverse weather conditions
• Attenuation may increase with bad weather
2. Radio Waves
 They are electromagnetic signals / radio frequencies in range of 3 KHz to 3 GHz . Signals are
modulated on high speed Radio wave freq using AM (Amplitude Modulation ) / FM (Frequency
Modulation ) / PM (Phase Modulation )
 Omnidirectional waves / Transmitted signal spreads out in all directions
 May be received by many antennae
 Used in AM and FM radio, television, cordless telephone, cellular phones, pagers and wireless
LAN etc.
 Travel long distances and can penetrate wall.

Advantages
• Cheaper than digging cables etc
• Maintenance easier than cables.
• Easy communication over difficult terrains
• Possible over oceans (Suitable when cable cannot be used)
 Covers large span of area
 Omnidirectional and can penetrate walls .
 NOT LINE OF SIGHT transmission, alignment of transmitter and receiver antennae not required

Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Insecure mode of communication
 Susceptible to bad weather/ Easily affected by rain, thunder storms etc.
3.Satellite Communication (MICROWAVE RELAY SYSTEM)
Geostationary satellites are placed around 36000 KM away from the earth’s surface.
In satellite communication transmitting station transmits the signals to the satellite. (called up-linking).
After receiving the signals (microwaves) , it amplifies them and transmit back to earth in whole visibility
area.
Receiving stations at different places can receive these signals. (called down-linking).

Microwave relay station between two or more ground stations

(also called earth stations)

Advantage
• Area coverage is too large
• Better than laying international cables. (Land acquisition etc)

Disadvantage
 Requires high investment
 High atmospheric losses above 30 Ghz limit carrier frequencies
  Requires licensing

Use • Television/telephone/private business networks

WHY Microwaves are used in Satellite Communication

Microwaves are used for their smaller wavelength, which allows antennas to point them directly at a
receiving antenna. ...
Another reason for the use of microwaves is their high frequency, which allows them to carry huge
amounts of information.

4. Infrared Waves
• Used for short range communication (approx. 5m) and highly directional
• Cannot penetrate walls
• No licensing and no frequency allocation issues
• are used in a variety of wireless communications, monitoring, and control applications. Home-
entertainment remote control devices, Cordless mouse, and Intrusion detectors are some of the
devices that utilize infrared
• Affected by distance, noise and heat.

ADVANTAGES
• It is a line of sight transmission; therefore information passed to one device is not leaked to another
device.
• No government license is required for their use

DISADVANTAGES
• It is a line of sight transmission, therefore at a time only two devices can communicate.
• The waves do not cross any solid object in between
• Performance drops with longer distances

Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology uses radio waves in the frequency range of 2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz. This
technology is used for short range communication (approx. 10m) in a variety of devices for wireless
communication.

ADVANTAGES
• Line of sight between communicating devices is not required.

DISADVANTAGES
• Slow data transfer rate (upto 1Mbps).

Wifi Communication is similar to Bluetooth in operation but covers a larger range (50-200m)

Bandwidth
A communication channel refers either to a physical transmission medium such as a wire, or to a
logical connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel in telecommunications and
computer networking. A channel is used to convey an information signal. A channel has a certain
capacity for transmitting information, often measured by its bandwidth in Hz or its data rate in bits per
second.

Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate of a network . It measures how much data can be
sent over a specific connection in a given amount of time.
Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a continuous band of frequencies.
It is typically measured in hertz

Units- Hz, KHz, MHz

High bandwidth is called – Broadband
Low bandwidth is called - Narrowband

Data Transfer Rate

Data rate refers to the speed of data transfer through a channel. It is generally computed in bits per second
(bps).
Higher data rates are expressed as
Kbps ("Kilo" bits per second, i.e.1000 bps)
Mbps ("Mega" bits per second, i.e.1000 Kbps)
Gbps ("Giga" bits per second, i.e. 1000 Mbps)
Tbps ("Tera" bits per second, i.e. 1000 Gbps).

1 Bps = 1 Byte per second = 8 bits per second

1 kbps = 1 kilobit per second = 1024 bits per second
1 Mbps = 1 Megabit per second = 1024 Kbps
1 Gbps = 1 Gigabit per second = 1024 Mbps

KBps- kilo Bytes per second (Capital B)

MBps - Megabytes per second
GBps
TBps

Bit rate
No of bits sent per second

Baud rate
a unit of transmission speed , equal to the number of times an electrical signal can change state per second
OR rate at which electrical signals can change state .
• If a signal state change transmits 1 bit then baud per second is equal to bits transmitted per second.
• If a signal state change transmits 2 bits then no of bits transferred per second is twice the baud rate.
• If n bits are transmitted in a signal state change then bit rate = n x baud rate

Always, Baud rate <= Bit rate

No of symbols or no of different states = 2 n
If n=1 no of symbols/state =2 (binary)
Network devices
MAC (Media Access Control) ADDRESS and IP (Internet Protocol) ADDRESS

Both MAC Address and IP Address are used to uniquely identify a machine on the internet.  

MAC Address is the physical address of the computer. MAC Address is of six byte (48
bits ) ,hexadecimal address.
Chip maker manufacturer provides the MAC Address. It is permanent address.

IP Address is a unique identifier of a node connected to a network, its a logical address of the computer.
Internet Service Provider, ISP provides the IP Address.
IP Address is of 4 bytes or of 32 bits. It has 4 parts, separated by dots, each representing 8 bits, in the range
0 to 255.
Each of the 8 bits are known as octets, are separated by decimal points. This is known as "dotted decimal"
notation.
There are currently two versions: IP version 4 (IPv4)
and IP version 6 (IPv6).

IP v4
32 bit address, uses hierarchical addressing which divides networks into sub networks each with well defined no
of hosts.
IP v6

Exhaustion of IPv4 addresses gave rise to next gen. IP version 6

IPv4 was the first version of Internet Protocol . There are just over 4 billion IPv4 addresses. While that is a
lot of IP addresses, it is not enough to last forever. IPv4 and IPv6 are internet protocol version 4 and internet
protocol version 6, IP version 6 is the new version of Internet Protocol, which is way better than IP version 4
in terms of complexity and efficiency.

IPv6 is a newer numbering system to replace IPv4. It was deployed in 1999 and provides far more IP
addresses, which should meet the need well into the future. The major difference between IPv4 and IPv6 is
the number of IP addresses. Although there are slightly more than 4 billion IPv4 addresses, there are
more than 16 billion-billion IPv6 addresses.

Internet Protocol version 4 Internet Protocol version 6

(IPv4) (IPv6)

Address size 32-bit number 128-bit number

Dotted decimal notation : Hexadecimal notation:

Address format
192.168.0.202 3FFE:0400:2807:8AC9::/64

Number of
addresses 2^32 2^128

Computer hardware devices which are used to connect computers, printers, or any other electronic device to a
computer network are called Network Devices. These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way
with some specific functionality over same or different networks. Some devices are installed on the device, like
Internal modem, NIC card or RJ45 connector, whereas some are part of the network, like router, switch, etc.
Ethernet Card / Network Interface card NIC /Network adapter card / NIU
A network interface unit / card is a device that is required in any computer which has to become part of network.
It connects to a network using a network cable.
Ethernet card- computers which are part of Ethernet have to install this card. Contains connection for coaxial as
well as twisted pair cables or optical cable
For coaxial cable – 10 Base 2 – BNC connector is used

For LANs - twisted pair (CAT 5 , CAT 6 cables )- RJ 45 connector is used

RJ45 is a type of connector commonly used for Ethernet networking. It looks similar to a telephone jack, but is
slightly wider (has 8 pins). Ethernet cables are sometimes also called RJ45 cables.

RJ11 (Registered Jack ) connector– 6 pins , used for telephone lines

WiFi card / wireless network interface controller

small and portable cards
which connects to a wireless network, rather than a wired network.

Wi-Fi transmission is through the radio waves, these signals are picked up by Wi-Fi receivers such as computers
and cell phones equipped with Wi-Fi cards. The devices need to be within the range of a Wi-Fi network to receive
the signals and produces a wireless internet connection. Once a connection is established between user and the
network, the user is prompted with a login screen and password for establishing is a secure connection. Wi-Fi
cards can be external or internal. If a Wi-Fi card is not installed inside your computer, you may purchase an
external USB antenna attachment and connect it to your device. Many computers and mobile devices are now a
days equipped with wireless networking capability and do not require a Wi-Fi card.

MODEM( MODdulator DEModulator)

is a peripheral device that enables a computer to transmit data over, telephone lines. The computers operate
digitally using binary language, transmission mediums are analog. A modem converts digital information to
analog signal and also demodulates analog carrier signal to decode the transmitted information(data).

Conversion of digital signals to analog signals – Modulation

Conversion of analog signals to digital signals- Demodulation
Internal Modem, External Modem
For broadband- MODEM not required

MODULATION: technique of changing characteristics of signal being transmitted so that it carries data.
Demodulation- process of obtaining data back from the signal received
Hub
Multi slot concentrator, Most basic network device used to connect several computers (or devices ) together , used
in a LAN to connect computers.
Least Intelligent , cheapest and least complicated network device
Hubs will not store MAC address of a device when communication takes place.
• If A wants to send the message to B, it sends to all other ports .
• Hubs supports 8, 12, 24 ports i.e. no. of computers/devices connected.

Hub has no routing tables or intelligence on where to send information and broadcasts all network data across
each connection.

How Hub functions

Uses Broadcast, When a computer A sends message to B, all computers are receving it but only the computer B
works on the message , rest others ignore it.
In Broadcast- when 1 comp is sending msg channel is busy so no other device can send at the same time, Media
Access Control is an issue.
HUB HAS SHARED BANDWIDTH

Switch
Network device used to segment N/W into diff subnetworks or subnets or LAN segments

A network switch also connects computers to each other, like a hub. Where the switch differs from a hub is in the
way it handles packets of data. When a switch receives a packet of data, it determines what computer or device
the packet is intended for and sends it to that computer only. It does not broadcast the packet to all computers as a
hub does which means bandwidth is not shared and makes the network much more efficient. For this reason
alone, switches are usually preferred over a hub.

Multiple devices can send data at a time.

• It is used within LAN to connect computers.
• Switch stores IP & MAC address of a node when data communication takes place.
• Switches are available with 8, 12, 24, 48 and 64 ports.

NOTE: Switches are intelligent hub.

But the terms Switch and Hub are used interchangeably sometimes.
It operates at Data Link layer and uses MAC(Physical address)

SWITCH HAS DEDICATED BANDWIDTH

Repeater
A repeater is a network device that increases the power of a signal / amplifies the signal if the provided original
signal is weak and retransmits it, allowing signal to travel longer distances.
A WiFi repeater or extender is used to extend the coverage area of your WiFi network. It works by receiving
your existing WiFi signal, amplifying it and then transmitting the boosted signal.

Repeater regenerates the signal so that the noise can be reduced or eliminated. Where as Amplifier increases the
amplitude of the signal with the noise.

Repeater should have same type of Network , same protocol , same cable type on both sides.

It operates at the physical layer of OSI Model.

REASONING : An electrical signal in a cable gets weaker with the distance it travels, due to energy dissipated in
conductor resistance and dielectric losses. Similarly a light signal travelling through an optical fibre suffers
attenuation due to scattering and absorption. With physical media like Ethernet or WiFi, data transmissions can
only span a limited distance before the quality of the signal degrades. Repeaters attempt to preserve signal
integrity by periodically regenerating the signal and extend the distance over which data can safely travel.

Bridge
A bridge is a type of computer network device that provides interconnection with other networks that use the
standard LAN and same protocol. It has two ports.

For example A computer lab contains 40 systems in which divided into 20:20 in LAN.
These can be connected using Bridge.
• Bridge stores MAC address.
Bridge operates at the data link layer of OSI Model.
Extends distance capabilities of network and minimizes overall traffic, it knows which node is on which side so
regulates traffic accordingly.

Difference between Bridge and Repeater

BRIDGE REPEATER
Bridge operates at the data link layer Repeater operates at the physical layer of OSI
of OSI Model. Model.

In the network, if collision occurs in Repeater forward the collision from one segment
the one segment is not forwarded to to another, which causes the same issue to be
another segment by bridge. occurred on all other segment in the network.

Bridge connects two network in a Repeater expands the limit of the signals in the
well organized manner. network.
Difference between Switch and Bridge
Extends distance capabilities of network and minimizes overall traffic, it knows which node is on which side so
regulates traffic accordingly.
Switch is used to interconnect devices in a network.
No of ports

Router
It is a routing network device which maintains routing table and forwards data packets from sender to receiver
using the shortest path/ best possible paths. It works on network layer. Router uses IP addresses or logical
addresses.
 Routing table maintains all the available paths from source to destination

A Router can establish connection between networks with different protocols. For example a router can link an
Ethernet network to internet. If the destination is unknown to the router, it sends the traffic to another router
which knows the destination.
Routers are smarter than switches. Using a routing table that stores calculated paths, routers make sure that the
data packets are travelling through the best possible paths to reach their destinations. If a link between two routers
fails, the sending router can determine an alternate route to keep traffic moving.

Gateway:
• A gateway is a device to connect two dissimilar networks.
• It operates on highest level in the hierarchy of network.
• It establishes intelligent connection between LAN’s and other networks with completely different structure.
• In homes the gateway is ISP that connects the user to the Internet.
In simple terms, it is a node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network. The computers that
control traffic within your company's network or at your local Internet Service Provider (ISP) are gateway nodes.
A network gateway can be implemented completely in software, completely in hardware, or as a combination of
both.
Backbone – central interconnecting structure that connects 1 or more networks like the spine of a human being.
Backbone network-is a network used as a backbone to connect several LAN’s together to form a WAN.

OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer systems use to
communicate over a network. It was the first standard model for network communications, adopted by all major
computer and telecommunication companies in the early 1980s.
LAYOUT 1 – star topology
Layout 2 – Bus topology
Length of cable= AB+ AC+ CD= 50+90+25= 165 m
Suppose we make following layout in Bus topology, then cable length = AB+BD+CD= 50+125+25=200 m so
this LAYOUT Should NOT BE DRAWN

BLOCK A BLOCK C

BLOCK B BLOCK D
CABLE LENGTH IN BUS LAYOUT- 50+60+25=135 M
iv) Optical fiber, Satellite link

Q Great Studies University is setting up its Academic school at Sunder Nagar and planning to set up a
network. The university has 3 academic schools and one administration center as shown in the diagram
bellow: 4

Law school to Business school 60m

Law school to Technology School 90m
Law school to Admin Center 115m
Business school to Technology School 40m
Business school to Admin Center 45m
Technology school to Admin Center 25m

Law school 25
Technology school 50
Admin center 125
Business school 35

(i)Suggest the most suitable place( i.e school/center) to install the server of this university Sugewith a suitable
reason.
(ii)Suggest an ideal layout for connecting these school/center for a wired connectivity.
(iii)Which device will you suggest to be placed/installed in each of these school/center to efficiently connect all
the computers within these school/center.
(iv)The university is planning to connect its admission office in the closest big city,which is more than 350 km
from the university. Which type of network out of LAN,MAN or WAN will be formed?Justify your answer.

Ans.
(i)Admin Center because it contains maximum number of computers (using 80-20 rule).
(ii) BUS topology is the best suitable cable layout.

(iii)Switch
(iv)WAN because LAN and MAN cant not span more than 100 km

TIPS FOR NETWORK DESIGN QUESTION (4 marks case study based Q )

Network component checklist

For Building a small LAN

Client computers with NIC, Cabling, Server, Hub/ Switch, Network O.S. software

For Internet Access

Router

Placement of SERVER : In the block or building where Maximum no of computers are installed .
REASON-
Maximum no of computers
=>Length of cable will be least.
=>Also , Maximum network efficiency
80-20 Thumb Rule states that 80 % traffic in a network should be local

Placement of HUB/SWITCH: In Each Block or Building to interconnect computers

Placement of Internet connecting device / MODEM / Router : where Server is placed

Placement of REPEATER: Between those blocks where distance is more than 70 meters
TO INCREASE DISTANCE

Placement of Bridge: to connect two networks

Placement of Gateway: to connect dissimilar networks

CABLE TYPE • Twisted Pair/Coaxial when distance is in meters

Optical fiber for long distance / high speed communication
•Radio waves for Hilly Regions / overseas
 State to State or Inter City : Satellite Links
 COST- economical solution
NOTE : DRAW REPEATER IN THE DIAGRAM (BETWEEN BLOCKS) IF DISTANCE > 70 M AND IF PLACEMENT
OF REPEATER ASKED IN THE Q
DRAW SWITCH IN THE DIAGRAM IN EACH BLOCK IF PLACEMENT OF SWITCH IS ASKED IN q

DNS – Domain Naming System

Domain Names: A domain name is a unique identifier string that identifies a particular website and represents the
name of the server where the web pages resides.
Domain names are easier to remember than IP addresses of web servers. Domain name Resolution : mapping of
domain names onto corresponding IP addresses.
Primary domain name
Sub-domain name

e.g. cbse.nic.in
in – primary domain
nic- sub domain of .in
cbse- sub domain of .nic

Categories of top level domains (TLD) / primary domain

.com- commercial business
.edu-educational institutions
.mil- Military
.gov- government agencies
.net- network org
.org- organizations(non-profit)

Country specific Domain names

Inverted tree structure- hierarchical name space

URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
URL is the unique address of any web resource (plain Web pages, text documents, graphics, downloadable files,
services or programs), used to identify it on the Internet. It is a formatted text string.
Every network resource on the web has a unique URL.

Parts of URL
network protocol
port
host name / server name
file or resource location

The textstring of a URL has the following format:

protocol://server/path/resource name
e.g. http://www.cbse.academic.in/cs/2017/sp.pdf
 NETWORK PROTOCOLS
HOW INTERNET FUNCTIONS
1. At the source computer, message is broken down into very small parts called packets.  A network 
packet can hold about 1500 bytes, but this can be changed.
2. Each packet is given a sequence number.
3 All the packets are then sent to destination computer
4 The destination computer receives packets in a random manner (not necessarily in order of packet nos).
If a Packet is lost or garbled it is demanded again. The packets are reassembled in order of their number and the original
message is obtained.

Since Internet connects many different networks , so for effective exchange of information
there should be some standards/ rules.

A protocol refers to a set of rules for systems in a network to communicate and

share resources.
Usually multiple Protocols will be used simultaneously ,at different levels - at data level,
hardware level and Application level.
Protocols define standardized formats for data packets, techniques for detecting and
correcting errors etc.

Rules includes
o end to end process timely
o secure network connection
o rules for initiating process
o Controlling communication between all the hardware in the network.

Internet works on Client Server (Request Response) model

1. HTTP: (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
It is an application level protocol (works on APPLICATION LAYER) used for transferring hyper text
(text, audio, video, sound...etc) on www.
HTTP REQUEST RESPONSE MODEL
 TCP/IP: (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

A set of two communication protocols which are used together and form the backbone of the Internet.
It is built on connection less technology(Packet switching)

The Internet Protocol(IP)

IP handles the address part of each packet so that it reaches to the right destination. IP address of a
computer on Internet is a logical address.
Each gateway computer on the network checks this address to see where to forward the message. Even though
some packets from the same message are routed differently than others, they'll be reassembled at the destination.

Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)

TCP is the protocol responsible for reliable delivery of the messages between networked computers.
It is responsible for breaking the message into packets at the source computer so that they can be
handled efficiently by the network.
It verifies all the packets when they arrive at the destination computer and reassembles the received
packets in proper order at the destination .
TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the data is correctly
and completely received.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard Internet protocol for transmitting files between computers on the
Internet over TCP/IP connections. FTP is a client-server protocol which works on APPLICATION LAYER
where a client will ask for a file, and a local or remote server will provide it.
The end-users machine is typically called the local host machine or FTP client , which is connected via the
Internet to the remote host—running the FTP software (FTP SERVER).
Files transferred can be of ASCII or binary types.(file type needs to be specified during transfer)

FEATURES
FTP is an efficient and reliable means to send and receive files from a remote host.
It is a popular way to transfer files over Internet.
In any FTP interface, clients identify the FTP server either by its IP address (such as 192.168.0.1) or by its host
name (such as ftp.about.com).
FTP establishes two connections between the hosts. One connection is used for data transfer and the other for
control information.

FTP requires – valid user id and password on the server (Authorized User)
UPLOADING- Transferring files from Client computer to server
DOWNLOADING- Transferring files from server to Client computer

Anonymous FTP is a type of FTP that allows general public to access files and other data without needing an ID
or password. User name – anonymous can be used or some websites allow to use a guest ID or password.
In Anonymous FTP – only downloading or viewing is allowed not uploading
FTP can be used through Browser or through soft wares like FileZilla. It is a free software, cross-platform
FTP application, consisting of FileZilla Client and FileZilla Server.

SOME FTP COMMANDS

put- upload ,get- download , mget- download multiple files, ls- see listing, cd- change directory

E-mail Protocols
Simple Mail transfer protocol (SMTP)

Is the most popular protocol for transferring electronic mail on the Internet.

Most email software is designed to use SMTP for communication purposes when sending email. It only works for
outgoing messages. So when an email has to be sent, the address of their Internet Service Provider's SMTP server
has to be given. The actual mail transfer is done through Message Transfer Agents(MTA). So the client computer
must have a client MTA and the server must have a server MTA.

SMTP is quite robust, but provides no facilities for Authentication of the sender or recipient; for
encryption; or for attaching non-ASCII data. Extensions to SMTP allow for each of the above features,
however:
• MIME supports the attachment of non-text files, including multimedia content.
• Pretty Good Privacy and Privacy Enhanced Mail support Authentication and Encryption.

Multi-Purpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an extension of the original Internet e-mail protocol SMTP
, that extends the format of email messages to support text in character sets other than ASCII, as well as
attachments of audio, video, images, and application programs.

POP3: (Post Office Protocol)

is a standard client/server protocol for receiving e-mail from remote Mail server .E-mail is received and
held for you by your Mail server.
You can also download received mails on to local computer. POP3 is suitable if you are
accessing your mails using single application or a single location.

IMAP: (Internet Message Access Protocol)

IMAP is a standard client/server protocol for accessing e-mail from your local server. IMAP
(the latest version is IMAP Version 4) is a protocol in which email is received and held for you by your
Internet server.
 You (or your e-mail client) can view just the heading and the sender of the letter and then decide whether
to download the mail.
It allows multiple applications and multiple locations.

VOIP: (Voice Over Internet Protocol) or IP Telephony

Voice over Internet Protocol (also voice over IP, VoIP ) is for the delivery of voice communications and
multimedia sessions over Internet Protocol (IP) networks, such as the Internet.
There is compression of voice into data packets and transmitted over network and
converted to voice at the other end.

It uses Packet switched network rather than public switched telephone network ( PSTN ). Phone calls are cheaper
as it uses internet rather than telecommunication company service.

Telnet (REMOTE LOGIN) Telnet is a network application that is used to remote login to one computer
on the Internet from another.
Telnet It is an older internet utility that lets us log on to remote computer system. It also facilitates for terminal emulation purpose.
Terminal emulation means using a pc like a mainframe computer through networking.

NFC: (Near Field Communication)

It is used to provide short range wireless connectivity between two electronic devices within
the distance of 4-5 centimeters.

HTML(Hypertext Markup Language)

HTML is a markup language that is used to create web pages. It has a variety of tags and attributes for defining
the layout and structure of the web document. It is designed to display the data in formatted manner. A HTML
document has the extension .htm or .html.

Hypertext is a text which is linked to another document.

HyperMedia is a term used for hypertext which is not constrained to be text: it can include graphics, video and
sound 

XML (eXtensible Markup Language)

XML is a markup language like HTML. It is designed to carry or store data. In contrast to HTML, it is not
designed to display data. Unlike HTML, it does not have predefined tags. It is possible to define new tags in
XML. It allows the programmer to use customized tags. XML is case sensitive. XML is deigned to be self-
descriptive.

XML documents form a tree structure.

For Example
<root>
<child>
<subchild>.....</subchild>
</child>
</root>
Differentiate between XML and HTML.

Ans. In HTML(HyperText Markup Language), both tag semantics and the tag set are fixed whereas, XML
(eXtensible Markup Language) is a meta-language for describing markup languages, XML provides facility to
define tags and the structural relationships between them. All the semantics of an XML document will be defined
by the applications that process them .
SMS(Short Message Service): SMS is the transmission of short text messages to and from a mobile phone,
fax machine or IP address.
Messages have a size limit, no images or graphics.
Message is first sent to SMSC (SMS center)
MMS- Multimedia Message Service

Email(Electronic Mail): Email is sending and receiving messages by computer.

ADVANTAGES:
FASTER
Cheaper
Attachments can be sent
Features of CC,BCC
Env friendly

Chat: Online textual talk in real time , is called Chatting.

Protocol used for chatting - Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

Video Conferencing: a two way videophone conversation among multiple participants is called video conferencing.
Protocol used for video conferencing -

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

H.323,International Telecommunication Union's (ITU) 
H.264 ,as well as VP8 for video,
ITU G.711/G.722/G.729 for voice, and ITU H.239/T.120 for data, such as screen sharing or web conferencing.

Difference between Chat/ video conferencing and email

Email- sending and receiving messages electronically
Can be retrieved at a later time by recipients
Sender and receiver need not be online at the same time.

Cellular/Wireless connectivity protocols:

Generations of wireless telephone technology, mobile telecommunications

1G 2G 3G 4G
Transmitted voice as Digital Network is Wide band wireless network. True Packet switched
analog signals , no data used. Adds multimedia facilities to
was transmitted. 2G phones by allowing Wireless broadband
Narrow band analog uses packet switching video, audio,graphics
telecommunication. applications support faster
Technology GSM , Data sent thru packet transmission
Uses circuit switched SIM and TDMA switching, voice thru circuit speed 100 Mbps- 1
technology switching Gbps
Voice during a call and 100 Mbps while
800 Mhz band split via data is encoded to moving
FDMA digital signals 1 Gbps while stationary
It brings more clarity to Reduced network
 the conversation .
And enables encryption
and hence security
Only Voice calls, no The speed is 250kbps
Text(sms), no roaming
Far greater mobile
penetration levels
Features- Paging, SMS,
voicemail, fax services
roaming
Drawbacks Drawbacks
Large phones with Low network range,
limited battery life , poor slow data rates
voice quality, no data
security
congestion
Speed around 2Mbps Better than TV quality
images, video links
Features such as Fast
Communication,
International
roaming ,Internet, Mobile
T.V, Video Conferencing,
Video Calls, Multi Media
Messaging Service (MMS),
3D gaming, Multi-Gaming
etc are also available with
3G phones
Drawbacks
Coverage was limited
to large metro cities.
Outside of coverage
areas 4G phones
regressed to 3G stds.

5 G – yet to be implemented ,wireless technology which promises superfast data rates upto 20 Gbps along with
energy saving.

Wireless/Mobile Computing Wireless communication is simply data communication without the use of landlines.
Mobile computing means that the computing device is not continuously connected to the base or central network.

ITU International Telecommunications Union

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)

It is a popular digital cellular system ,standard for mobile telephony systems in the world.
It uses narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio frequency.
It is estimated that 80% of the global mobile market uses the standard, subscribers can use their phones
throughout the world, enabled by international roaming arrangements between mobile network operators.
In covered areas, cell phone users can buy one phone that will work any where the standard is
supported.

Key feature : All subscriber and wireless provider information is stored on interchangeable modules known as
SIM (Subscriber Identification Module) cards. By swapping out the SIM card, users can painlessly switch
phones or providers.
A subscriber identity module or subscriber identification module, widely known as a SIM card, is a small
removable disk , an Integrated Circuit that securely stores the International Mobile Subscriber identity number
and its related key, which are used to identify and authenticate subscribers on mobile telephony.
 SIM cards contain wireless provider information . They contain connection data and id numbers needed to access
the service provider.

FDMA
It stands for Frequency Division Multiple Access. In this, each user utilizes a portion of the frequency
bandwidth available. Each user has its own frequency domain.
CDMA
It stands for Code Division Multiple Access. In this, each user is allocated a unique code sequence. On the
sender's end, the data signal is encoded using the given unique code. The receiver decodes the signal according to
the unique code and recovers the original data.

It is a digital cellular technology that uses spread- spectrum techniques. CDMA does not assign a specific
frequency to each user. Instead ,every channel uses the full available spectrum.

TDMA
It stands for Time Division Multiple Access(time division multiplexing ). Each channel is divided into time slots.
Different users transmit in different time slots. When users transmit, they occupy the whole frequency bandwidth.

WLL(Wireless in Local Loop) : WLL is a system that connects subscribers to the public switched telephone network usin
radio signals as a substitute for other connecting media.
ADV- better bandwidth and better customer service features and quality

Enhanced Data rates for GSM / Global Evolution (EDGE) is a digital mobile phone technology , radio
based , that allows improved data transmission rates.
EDGE is considered a 3G radio technology . EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in 2003.
Through the introduction of sophisticated methods of coding and transmitting data, EDGE delivers higher bit-
rates per radio channel, resulting in a threefold increase in capacity and performance compared with an ordinary
GSM/GPRS connection.

WiFi is technology for wireless LAN with devices based on IEEE 802.11 standards. Devices can connect to
internet via WLAN and WAP.

WiMAX (  WorldWide Interoperability for Microwave Access) technically referred to by the IEEE as
802.16. WiMAX is also commonly termed 4G network. It is a wireless wide area network (WAN) that can cover
what DSL lines can cover, but without wires.
 
WiMax is for the WAN but is much faster and can get up to gigabit speeds and licensed spectrums.

WAP/ wireless application protocol

In computer networking, a wireless access point (WAP), or more generally just access point (AP), is

a networking hardware device that allows other Wi-Fi devices to connect to a wired network. The AP connects to
a router (via a wired network) as a standalone device.

Mobile Processors
Today’s smartphone and mobile processors are very powerful, almost as powerful as a desktop computer.
Difference between Mobile processors and desktop processors
When processors run they generate heat. Because mobile devices are considerably smaller than computers, the
heat generated by a running mobile processor is often amplified and can seriously harm components, or even
melt them. Therefore, the developers and designers of the devices limit the speed at which a mobile processor can
run. This means that if a processor is getting hot, it will limit its speed, which equates to slower performance.
Because of this , the processor on many phones will actually run slower than the advertised speed. In fact, the
advertised speed of mobile processors is normally the maximum. Compare this to most computer processors,
where the advertised speed is usually the average running speed, and so computers are more powerful.

Mobile Processors are now coming up with more cores.

Initially it was Single core

then came Dual core
we now have Quad core
Hexa core and even Octa core.

Most processors are 64 bit now ( they were initially 32 bit )

Processing speed - up to 3.0 -3.5 GHz.

GPU (Graphic Processing Unit)

is a co-processor that take on graphical calculations and transformations. They have enabled devices to churn out
the best graphics picture, 3D gaming capability, Virtual Reality capability . The improved processor technology
also made today’s modern mobile devices more power efficient.

1. Qualcomm Snapdragon
US company
Qualcomm Snapdragon processors are popular with all mobile and tablet manufacturers except Apple.

Starting from 2005, Snapdragon went through a lot of series – S1, S2, S3, S4, S200, S400, S600, S800.
Snapdragon 600 series

Snapdragon 690 5G (2020)- June 2020

Snapdragon 700 series
Snapdragon 710 and 712 (2018/19)

2. Apple Mobile processors

Apple do not manufacture any microprocessors. Instead, they make contracts with processor
manufacturing companies mainly Samsung and TSMC for making custom built processors that suits their
design and performance expectations. For e.g., A9 14nm processor was built by Samsung, while the A9
16nm version was built by TSMC.

Apple A10 Fusion is the latest processor which is used in iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus. A10 is a Quad Core built
on 16 nm FinFET process capable of running at 2.4GHz speeds and a Hexa Core PowerVR GPU. Compared to its
predecessor A9, A10 is twice faster and improve graphics processing by 50%. The processor is manufactured by
TSMC.
APPLE A9 was used in iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus.
 Nvidia Tegra 4 And Tegra 4i
is defined as the world’s fastest mobile phone processor

Samsung Exynos 5 Octa (Eight Core)

The Samsung’s Exynos[5] 4 Quad is a processor driving many of the Samsung’s high-end phones , including the
Galaxy S3 and the Galaxy Note 8.0.

Intel Atom
Mediatek Mt6592 MediaTek[7] isn’t a very well known processor in the U.S. or Europe

Network Security Concepts

Network security is the process of taking preventative measures to protect the underlying networking
infrastructure from unauthorized access, misuse, malfunction, modification, destruction or improper disclosure.
Main security threats / issues: Personal Privacy compromised, Access Rights violation and Harmful Actions

Some risks that Internet users face

 Inappropriate Contact- Cyber Bullying and spamming
 Inappropriate content- Hate sites
 Fraudulent Commerce - counterfeit and Malicious sites

Viruses, Worms, Trojan horse, Spams Use of Cookies, Protection using Firewall, https, hacking - covered
in grade XI notes.

Cyber Crimes (refer to XI notes also)

Categories of cyber crime

 The Computer as a Target :-using a computer to attack other computers.

e.g. Hacking,Virus/Worm attacks,DOS attack etc.
 Computer as a weapon :-using a computer to commit real world crimes.
e.g. Cyber Terrorism, IPR violations,Credit card frauds,EFT frauds, cyber bullying , cyber stalking etc.

IDENTITY THEFT
In recent years, both pharming and phishing have been used to gain information for online identity theft.

Pharming
is a cyber attack intended to redirect a website's traffic to another, fake site.
It works by exploitation of a vulnerability in DNS server software. DNS servers are computers responsible for
resolving Internet names into their real IP addresses. Compromised DNS servers are sometimes referred to
as "poisoned".

Phishing
using fake email messages to get personal information from internet users.

the fraudulent practice of sending fake emails appearing to be from reputable companies in order to induce
individuals to reveal personal information, such as passwords and credit card numbers.Phishing emails may
 contain links to other websites that are affected by malware. Or they may contain links to fake online banking or
other websites used to steal private account information.
These fake websites are often designed to look identical to their legitimate counterparts to avoid suspicion .

*** Difference between Pharming and Phishing

Cyber Frauds
 Cybersquatting
is registering, selling or using a domain name that use the names of existing businesses with the intent of
profiting from the goodwill of someone else's trademark.
 Work from home scams
 Charities fraud

Some other Cyber crimes

 Cyberstalking is the use of the online channels such as social media, forums or email etc to stalk or harass an
individual, group, or organization. It is typically planned and sustained over a period of time.
 Software piracy
 Cyber terrorism
 Illegal downloads

IMP SOLUTION FOR NETWORK SECURITY

A Firewall is a network security system (implemented as either a hardware or software or combination of both )
designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network.
Network firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks
connected to the Internet, especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the
firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria or rules.

Cyber ethics 
is the study of ethics pertaining to computers, encompassing user behaviour and what computers are programmed
to do, and how this affects individuals and society.

India IT Act
The Information Technology Act, 2000 (also known as ITA-2000, or the IT Act) is an Act of the Indian
Parliament (No 21 of 2000) notified on 17 October 2000. It is the primary law in India dealing
with cybercrime and electronic commerce.
It protects the field of e-commerce, e-governance, e-banking as well as penalties and punishments in the field of Cyber
Crimes. The above Act was further amended in the form of IT Amendment Act, 2008 [ITAA-2008].

Cyber Law
Cyber law was made to take up the challenges posed by human activity on the internet with legal system of laws applicable
to the physical world.

Cyber law, also known as cyber crime law, is the law regarding Information-technology including computers
and internet.Cyber law helps protect users from harm by enabling the investigation and prosecution of online
criminal activity.It is related to legal informatics and supervises the digital circulation of information, software,
information security and e-commerce.
IPR issues (Intellectual Property Rights)

Property- means a possession or something on which one has legal rights.

Intellectual property is the property that includes intangible (difficult to describe , measure ) creations of the
human intellect.
E.g. inventions, literary and artistic works etc.

Intellectual property rights are the rights of the owner of information over their own invention , they can decide
how much information is to be exchanged, shared or distributed; and to decide the price for doing (exchanging/
sharing /distributing) so.

There are many types of intellectual property rights. The most well-known types are copyrights, patents,
trademarks and trade secret etc.

Categories
 Industrial Property-
Industrial property is one of two subsets of intellectual property, it takes a range of forms, including patents
for inventions, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, layout-designs of IC s, geographical indications,
commercial names etc

 Copyright – relates to literary and artistic works such as novels, books, plays, films, musical work, paintings,
sculptures, architectural designs and technology based works (such as computer programs and electronic
databases) etc. Owner has exclusive rights to it.

Copyright protects the expression of idea, not the idea itself unlike protection of inventions.
If same idea expressed in different form in some other creation then its not considered violation of
copyright.
Trademark 
is a type of IPR consisting of a recognizable sign, design, or expression which distinguishes products or
services of a particular source from those of others. Trademarks used to identify services are usually called
service marks.

Patent
Is a type of IPR , which protects scientific inventions, showing technical advancement over already known
products.
For an invention to be patentable it should be
 New
 Non-obvious
 Capable of Industrial Application
 Should be a scientific or mathematical discovery
Patent is an exclusive right granted by law to an inventor for a limited period of time ,to prevent others from
commercially benefiting from his/her patented invention without permission .
With help of the patent right, the owner can stop others from making, using or selling the product design. The
owner can take a legal action if someone uses the patent without his/ her permission.

Geographical Indications

Trade Name
A trade name is generally considered the name a business uses for advertising and sales purposes. A trade
name is sometimes referred to as a “fictitious” or “doing business as (DBA)” title. For example, “McDonald's”
may be the trade name, but the legal name is “McDonald's Corporation.”
Legal name - This is used in communicating with the government.

Trade Secret
A trade secret is any information of commercial value concerning production or sales operations which is not
generally known. The owner of a trade secret must take reasonable measures to maintain its confidentiality.

Digital property (or digital assets) refers to any information about you or created by you that exists in digital
form, either online or on an electronic storage device.

Plagiarism is stealing someone else's intellectual work and representing it as your own work without giving
credit.
Types of Plagiarism
  Direct Plagiarism
Direct plagiarism is the word-for-word transcription of a section of someone else's work, without attribution
and without quotation marks. The deliberate plagiarism of someone else's work is unethical, academically
dishonest, and grounds for disciplinary actions, including expulsion(academic institutions).
 Mosaic Plagiarism
Mosaic plagiarism occurs when a writer reuses a mix of word, phrases, and ideas from a source without
indicating which words and ideas have been borrowed and/or without properly citing the source.
Mosaic Plagiarism occurs when a student borrows phrases from a source without using quotation marks, or
finds synonyms for the author’s language while keeping to the same general structure and meaning of the
original. Sometimes called “patch writing” also.
 Self Plagiarism
Self-plagiarism occurs when a student submits his or her own previous work, or mixes parts of previous
works, without permission from all professors involved. For example, it would be unacceptable to incorporate
part of a term paper you wrote in high school into a paper assigned in a college course. Self-plagiarism also
applies to submitting the same piece of work for assignments in different classes without previous permission
from both professors.

 Accidental Plagiarism
Accidental plagiarism occurs when a person neglects to cite their sources, or misquotes their sources, or
unintentionally paraphrases a source by using similar words, groups of words, and/or sentence structure
without attribution. Students must learn how to cite their sources and to take careful and accurate notes when
doing research. Lack of intent does not absolve the student of responsibility for plagiarism. Cases of
accidental plagiarism are taken as seriously as any other plagiarism and are subject to the same range of
consequences as other types of plagiarism.

Websites to check Plagiarism

 Copyscape.com (Free/Paid) ...
 Grammarly.com (Free Trial/Paid)
 Writecheck.com (Paid only) ...
 Plagscan.com (Paid only) ...
 Turnitin.com (Paid only) ...
 Plagium.com
 Scanmyessay(Paid, Currently offline) ...
 Plagiarism-detect.com (Free)
 Duplichecker

In Decreasing level of seriousness

 Submitting someone else’s original work

 Unacknowledged copying of material
 Using Ideas without referencing original source
 Paraphrasing not done correctly

How to avoid Plagiarism

 Use your own ideas and words
 Always give credit to source from where you have received information
 If necessary to use someone’s exact words, use quotes and give credit through in text citation
 Give credits with page numbers
 Cite website , URL OR NAME OF AUTHORS
 Present information in bulleted points in your words rather than entire content
 Use online tools to check for Plagiarism
Computer forensics/ cyber forensics  is the application of investigation and analysis techniques to gather and
preserve evidence from a particular computing device in a way that is suitable for presentation in a court of law.

Digital Rights Management

Digital rights management (DRM) is a systematic approach to copyright protection for digital media. The purpose
of DRM is to prevent unauthorized redistribution of digital media and restrict the ways consumers can copy
content they've purchased.
It aims to prevent access , copying or conversion to other formats by the end users.
It is wider than system based restrictions hence more effective in data privacy and security.

Software licensing
Legal right or privilege given to user by company to use their application .
Licence agreement governs the use of licensed software .

Proprietary software ( Closed-source software)

Proprietary Software is the software that is neither open nor freely available, source code is not available, further
distribution and modification is either forbidden or requires special permission by the owner.
The software's publisher retains intellectual property rights—usually copyright of the source code, users have to
pay license fee to use the software.

EXAMPLES: MS Windows, Adobe Photoshop, Internet Explorer etc.

Freeware 
is software that is distributed free of cost to the end user. Freeware is distributed in Binary Form (ready to run)
without any licensing fees.
Freeware is in contrast to commercial software, which is typically sold for profit, but might be distributed for a
business or commercial purpose in the aim to expand the marketshare of a "premium" product.

PROMOTIONAL
It permits redistribution but not modification ( their source code is not available).

There is no agreed-upon set of rights, license, that defines freeware clearly ; every publisher defines its own rules
for the freeware it offers.
e.g. Adobe Reader

FLOSS (Free Libre and Open Source Software) : S/w which is free as well as open source S/W. ( Free S/W
+ Open Source S/W).
GNU (GNU’s Not Unix) : GNU project emphasize on the freedom and its objective is to create a system
compatible to UNIX but not identical with it.
FSF (Free Software Foundation) : FSF is a non –profit organization created for the purpose of the free s/w
movement. Organization funded many s/w developers to write free software.
OSI (Open Source Initiative) : Open source software organization dedicated to cause of promoting open source
software it specified the criteria of OSS and its source code is not freely available.
W3C(World Wide Web Consortium) : W3C is responsible for producing the software standards for World Wide
Web.  Proprietary Software: Proprietary Software is the s/w that is neither open nor freely available, normally
the source code of the Proprietary Software is not available but further distribution and modification is possible
by special permission by the supplier.
Freeware: Freeware are the software freely available  Shareware: Software for which license fee is payable after
some time limit, its source code is not available and modification to the software are not allowed.
 Shareware
Shareware is a type of proprietary software which is initially provided free of charge to users, who are allowed
and encouraged to make and share copies of the program. For availing full features , users have to purchase
licensed copy of the software . 

An example of shareware is a budgeting software program that only allows you to use three categories instead of
having the ability to create a full budget. An example of shareware a demo program for which you can pay for a
registration key that will unlock the sofware that you are already using.

Free Software
“Free software” means software that respects users' freedom . The users have the freedom to run, copy,
distribute, study, change and improve the software. Thus, “free software” is a matter of liberty, not
price. To understand the concept, you should think of “free” as in “free speech,” not as in “free food ”. We
sometimes call it “libre software,” borrowing the French or Spanish word for “free” as in freedom, to show
we do not mean the software is free of charge.

e.g.Linux

“Open source” is something different: it has a very different philosophy based on

different values. 
Its practical definition is different too, but nearly all open source programs are in fact free. 
A program is free software if the program's users have the four essential freedoms: 
 The freedom to run the program as you wish, for any purpose (freedom 0).
 The freedom to study how the program works, and change it so it does your computing as you wish
(freedom 1). Access to the source code is a precondition for this.
 The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help others (freedom 2).
 The freedom to distribute copies of your modified versions to others (freedom 3). By doing this you can
give the whole community a chance to benefit from your changes. Access to the source code is a
precondition for this.
FSF
What is open source software?
Examples-
 Firefox—a Web browser that competes with Internet Explorer.
 OpenOffice—a competitor to Microsoft Office.
 Gimp—a graphic tool with features found in Photoshop.

Open source software is the software that can be freely used (source code is available to the customer) ,it can be
inspected, modified , enhanced and shared/ redistributed.
Open Source Software does not have to be free of charge.

By design, open source software licenses promotes

collaboration ( Collaborate to innovate) and sharing

because they permit other people to make modifications to source code and incorporate those changes into their
own projects.

Doesn't "open source" just mean something is free of charge?

No. This is a common misconception 
Open source software programmers may charge money or it maybe be free . Sometimes they make money
helping others install, use, and troubleshoot it.

Skill in programming and troubleshooting open source software can be quite valuable.
Benefits
Bugs are fixed quickly

Since so many people are working on it , we get a better quality .

As they do with proprietary software, users must accept the terms of a license when they use open source
software—but the legal terms of open source licenses differ dramatically from those of proprietary licenses.
Why do people prefer using open source software?
Reasons

Control. Many people prefer open source software because they have more control over that kind of software.
They can examine the code to make sure it's not doing anything they don't want it to do, and they can change
parts of it they don't like.

Training.  because it helps them become better programmers. Because open source code is publicly accessible,
students can easily study it as they learn to make better software. Students can also share their work with others,
inviting comment and critique, as they develop their skills.
Security. It is considered more secure and stable than proprietary software. Because anyone can view and
modify open source software, someone might spot and correct errors or omissions that a program's original
authors might have missed. And because so many programmers can work on a piece of open source software
without asking for permission from original authors, they can fix, update, and upgrade open source software
more quickly than they can proprietary software.

Stability. Open source is preferred for important, long-term projects. Because programmers publicly

distribute the source code for open source software, users relying on that software for critical tasks can be sure
their tools won't disappear or fall into disrepair if their original creators stop working on them. Additionally, open
source software tends to both incorporate and operate according to open standards.

V IMP-
Open source software is different from Free software (in philosophy )
Freeware is different from Free software (in terms of licensing fee and source code availability )
FSF - “The Free Software Foundation (FSF) is a nonprofit with a worldwide mission to promote computer user
freedom. We defend the rights of all software users.”

OPEN SOURCE / FREE SOFTWARE

Linux : Linux is a famous computer operating system . popular Linux server set of program – LAMP(Linux,
Apache, MySQL, PHP)
Python: Python is an interactive programming language originally as scripting language for Amoeba OS capable
of making system calls.

Mozilla : Mozilla is a free internet software that includes  a web browser  an email client  an HTML editor 
IRC client
OpenOffice : OpenOffice is an office applications suite. It is intended to be compatible and competes with
Microsoft office. Includes:  Writer (word processor)  Calc(spreadsheet)  Draw(graphics program)etc

Apache server: Apache web server is an open source web server available for many platforms such as BSD,
Linux, and Microsoft Windows etc. 120  Apache Web server is maintained by open community of developers of
Apache software foundation.
MYSQL : MYSQL is one of the most popular open source database system.
Features of MYSQl :  Multithreading  Multi –User  SQl Relational Database Server  Works on many
different platforms
PostgreSQL : Postgres SQL is a free software object relational database server . PostgresSQL can be downloaded
from www.postgressql.org.
Pango : Pango project is to provide an open source framework for the layout and rendering of internationalized
text into GTK + GNOME environment. Pango using Unicode for all of its encoding ,and will eventually support
output in all the worlds major languages.
Tomcat : Tomcat functions as a servlet container. Tomcat implements the servlet and the JavaServer
Pages .Tomcat comes with the jasper compiler that complies JSPs into servlets.
PHP(Hypertext Preprocessor) : PHP is a widely used open source programming language for server side
application and developing web content.

. ________________________________________________________________________________

Interspace is a vision of what the Internet will become, where users cross-correlate information in multiple
sources. It is an applications environment for interconnecting spaces to manipulate information, much as
the Internet is a protocol environment for interconnecting networks to transmit data.

Interspace is a software that allows multiple users in a client-server environment to communicate with each
other to send and receive data of various types such as data files, real time video, audio and text
chat. Interspace gives the most exceptional form of communication available on the Internet today.

REF
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/communication_technologies/
communication_technologies_transmission_media.htm