LEC 2

ON
FOURIER SERIES

Dr. Arsla Khan

Transformation Methods for CT signals
■ A real time naturally available signal is in the form of time domain
■ However, analysis of a signal is far more convenient in frequency domain.
■ A signal in its original form can not be defined in terms of frequency. Hence, by
transformation methods, a time domain signal can be represented with respect to
frequency components.

■ The three important transformation methods available in practice for a continuous

time domain signals are as follows
■ Fourier Series
■ Fourier Transform
■ Laplace Transform

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Fourier Series
■ The representation of signals over a certain interval of time in terms of the linear
combination of the orthogonal functions is called Fourier Series.

■ Fourier Series expansion is used for periodic signals to expand them in terms of
their harmonics which are sinusoidal and orthogonal to each other.

■ Two important classes of Fourier series methods are primarily available. They are as
follows;
■ Exponential Fourier Series
■ If orthogonal functions are exponential functions (written in form of 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 )
■ Trigonometric Fourier Series
■ If orthogonal functions are trigonometric functions (written in the form of sin 𝑛𝑥,
cos 𝑚𝑥)

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■ Orthogonal Functions: Two functions (signals) 𝑓 and 𝑔 are said to be orthogonal
when their dot product is zero.
■ 𝑧 𝑡 =𝑓 𝑡 𝑔 𝑡 =0

■ Periodic Signal: Signal which repeats itself after a fixed interval of time is called
periodic signal.
■ 𝑥 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡+𝑇

■ Harmonics: A harmonic is a signal or wave whose frequency is an integer multiple of

the fundamental frequency.
■ Suppose 𝑓𝑜 is fundamental frequency of any signal. Thus, 2𝑓𝑜 , 4𝑓𝑜 , 6𝑓𝑜 etc. are even
harmonics of the signal while 3𝑓𝑜 , 5𝑓𝑜 , 7𝑓𝑜 etc. are odd harmonics of the signal

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Derivative of Complex Exponential Fourier Series
■ A complex exponential signal can be written as,
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜𝑡 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑜𝑡

■ If we take the signal at various intervals of the fundamental period or at various

harmonics, then:

■ the constant signal or dc signal is given by :𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑜 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋(0)𝑡 = 𝑎𝑜

■ The first harmonic of the signal is given by :𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋(1𝑓𝑜)𝑡 = 𝑎1 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑜𝑡 =𝑎1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜𝑡
■ The second harmonic of the signal is given by :𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋(2𝑓𝑜)𝑡 = 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑗(2𝜔𝑜)𝑡
■ The third harmonic of the signal is given by :𝑥3 𝑡 = 𝑎3 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋(3𝑓𝑜)𝑡 = 𝑎3 𝑒 𝑗(3𝜔𝑜)𝑡
■ Similarly for kth harmonic, 𝑥𝑘 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑘 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋(𝑘𝑓𝑜)𝑡 = 𝑎𝑘 𝑒 𝑗(𝑘𝜔𝑜)𝑡

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■ Thus, the linear combination of these complex exponential can be written as;
■ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 , … 𝑥𝑘 𝑡
■ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑎1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑗(2𝜔𝑜)𝑡 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑘 𝑒 𝑗 𝑘𝜔𝑜 𝑡

■ 𝑥 𝑡 = σ∞ 𝑎
𝑘=−∞ 𝑘 𝑒 𝑗 𝑘𝜔𝑜 𝑡
(𝑖)

■ Eq. (𝑖) is also known as synthesis equations. Here 𝑘 is an integer value whereas 𝑎𝑘
is the weight of each harmonic and is known as Fourier series coefficients or
spectral coefficients.

■ Determination of Fourier series is nothing but determination of Fourier series

coefficients.

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How to find Fourier Series (FS) Coefficients
1 𝑇𝑜
■ 𝑎𝑜 = ‫𝑥 ׬‬ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (𝑖𝑖)
𝑇𝑜 0

1 𝑇𝑜
■ 𝑎𝑘 = ‫𝑥 ׬‬ 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗 𝑘𝜔𝑜 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑇𝑜 0

■ Eq. (𝑖𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖𝑖) are known as Analysis Equation

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 Exp 1: (Exp 3.3): Write FS expansion of the signal
𝑥 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑜 𝑡

■ Solution: To find the FS expansion, we need to determine the FS coefficients i.e. 𝑎𝑜 and 𝑎𝑘

■ Method 1: Use analysis equation to find the coefficients

1 𝑇𝑜 1 𝑇𝑜
■ 𝑎𝑜 = ‫𝑥 ׬‬ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 and 𝑎𝑘 = ‫𝑥 ׬‬ 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗 𝑘𝜔𝑜 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑜 0 𝑇𝑜 0

■ Method 2: It is a simple case. We can expand the sinusoidal signal into exponentials.
𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑡 −𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑡
■ 𝑥 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 =
2𝑗
𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝑡
■ 𝑥 𝑡 = +
2𝑗 −2𝑗

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 1 𝑗𝜔 𝑡 1
■ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑜 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑜𝑡
2𝑗 −2𝑗

■ By inspection, we can find that when

■ 𝑘 = 1, 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔𝑜𝑡 → 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑜𝑡
■ 𝑘 = −1, 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔𝑜𝑡 → 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑜𝑡

■ Therefore,
𝟏 𝟏
■ 𝒂𝟏 = and 𝒂−𝟏 = −
𝟐𝒋 𝟐𝒋

■ 𝒂𝒌 = 𝟎 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒌 ≠ +𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 − 𝟏

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Exp 2: Write FS expansion of the signal
𝜋
𝑥 𝑡 = sin 2𝑡 +
3

■ Solution: It is a simple case. We can expand the sinusoidal signal into exponentials.
𝜋 𝜋
𝑗 2𝑡+ −𝑗 2𝑡+
𝜋 𝑒 3 −𝑒 3
■ 𝑥 𝑡 = sin 2𝑡 + =
3 2𝑗

𝜋 𝜋
1 𝑗 2𝑡+ 1 −𝑗 2𝑡+
■ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 3 + − 𝑒 3
2𝑗 2𝑗
1 𝑗𝜋 1 −𝑗 𝜋
■ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 3 𝑒𝑗 2𝑡 + − 𝑒 3 𝑒 −𝑗 2𝑡
2𝑗 2𝑗
■ By inspection, we can find that when
■ 𝑘 = 2, , 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔𝑜𝑡 → 𝑒 𝑗 2𝑡 𝑘 1 𝑡 = 2𝑡
■ 𝑘 = −2,

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■ Therefore,
𝟏 𝒋𝝅 𝟏 𝒋𝝅
■ 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒆𝟑 and 𝒂−𝟐 = − 𝒆𝟑
𝟐𝒋 𝟐𝒋

■ 𝒂𝒌 = 𝟎 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒌 ≠ +𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 − 𝟐

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Exp 3: Write FS expansion of the signal
𝑥 𝑡 = cos 3𝑡 + sin 6𝑡
𝑒 𝑗 3𝑡 +𝑒 −𝑗 3𝑡 𝑒 𝑗 6𝑡 −𝑒 −𝑗 6𝑡
■ 𝑥 𝑡 = cos 3𝑡 + sin 6𝑡 = +
2 2𝑗
1 1 1 1
■ 𝑥 𝑡 = 2 𝑒𝑗 3𝑡
+ 2 𝑒 −𝑗 3𝑡
+ 2𝑗 𝑒 𝑗 6𝑡
+ −2𝑗 𝑒 −𝑗 6𝑡

■ By inspection, we can find that when 𝑘 1 𝑡 = 6𝑡

■ 𝑘 = 3, 𝑘 = −3, 𝑘 = 6, 𝑘 = −6,

■ Therefore,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
■ 𝒂𝟑 = , 𝒂−𝟑 = , 𝒂𝟔 = , 𝒂−𝟔 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝒋 −𝟐𝒋
■ 𝒂𝒌 = 𝟎 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒌 ≠ 𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟔

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 Exp 4: (Exp 3.4): Write FS expansion of the given signal and also draw their
magnitude and phase spectrum
𝜋
𝑥 𝑡 = 1 + sin 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + cos 2𝜔𝑜 𝑡 +
4

𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒋 𝟐𝝎𝒐 𝒕+ 𝟒 −𝒋 𝟐𝝎𝒐 𝒕+ 𝟒
■ 𝒙 𝒕 =𝟏+ [𝒆𝒋 𝝎𝒐𝒕 − 𝒆−𝒋 𝝎𝒐𝒕 ]+𝟐 [𝒆𝒋 𝝎𝒐 𝒕 +𝒆−𝒋 𝝎𝒐𝒕 ]+ [𝒆 +𝒆 ]
𝟐𝒋 𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝒋 𝝅 𝟏 −𝒋 𝝅
■ 𝒙 𝒕 =𝟏+ [𝒆𝒋 𝝎𝒐 𝒕 − 𝒆−𝒋 𝝎𝒐𝒕 ] + (𝟏) [𝒆𝒋 𝝎𝒐 𝒕 +𝒆−𝒋 𝝎𝒐𝒕 ]+ 𝒆 𝟒 𝒆𝒋 𝟐𝝎𝒐 𝒕 + 𝒆 𝟒 𝒆−𝒋 𝟐𝝎𝒐 𝒕
𝟐𝒋 𝟐 𝟐

■ Collect terms with similar exponential powers

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒋 𝝅 𝟏 −𝒋 𝝅
■ 𝒙 𝒕 =𝟏+ 𝟏+ 𝒆𝒋 𝝎𝒐 𝒕 + 𝟏− 𝒆−𝒋 𝝎𝒐𝒕 + 𝒆 𝟒 𝒆𝒋 𝟐𝝎𝒐𝒕 + 𝒆 𝟒 𝒆−𝒋 𝟐𝝎𝒐 𝒕
𝟐𝒋 𝟐𝒋 𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒋 𝝅 𝟏 −𝒋 𝝅
■ 𝒂𝒐 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟏 + , 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝟏 − , 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒆 𝟒 , 𝒂−𝟐 = 𝒆 𝟒
𝟐𝒋 𝟐𝒋 𝟐 𝟐

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■ 𝑎𝑜 = 1
1 1
■ 𝑎+1 = 1 + =1− 𝑗
2𝑗 2
1 1
■ 𝑎−1 = 1 − =1+ 𝑗
2𝑗 2

1 𝑗 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋 1 1 2 2 2
■ 𝑎2 = 𝑒 4 = (cos + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) = (cos 45𝑜 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜 ) = + 𝑗 = (1 + j)
2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 4

2
■ 𝑎2 = (1 + j)
4
1 −𝑗 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋 1 1 2 2 2
■ 𝑎−2 = 𝑒 4 = (cos − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) = (cos 45𝑜 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜 ) = − 𝑗 = (1 − j)
2 2 4 4 2 2 2 2 4

2
■ 𝑎−2 = (1 − j)
4

■ 𝑎𝑘 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 > 2

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Magnitude and Phase Spectrum

■ Magnitude Spectrum 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑅𝑒 2 + 𝐼𝑚𝑔2

𝐼𝑚𝑔
■ Phase Spectrum < 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅𝑒

■ Magnitude Spectrum Now for different values of 𝑘

■ 𝑎𝑜 = 12 + 02 = 1
1 2 1
■ 𝑎1 = 12 + − = 1+ = 5/4 = 1.11
2 4

1 2 1
■ 𝑎−1 = 12 + = 1+ = 5/4 = 1.11
2 4

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 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
■ 𝑎2 = + = + = 4/16 = = 0.5
4 4 16 16 4
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
■ 𝑎−2 = + − = + = 4/16 = = 0.5
4 4 16 16 4

1.11
1

0.5

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 k
-4 -3

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■ Phase Spectrum
𝐼𝑚𝑔 0
■ 𝑎𝑜 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0 = 0
𝑅𝑒 1
𝐼𝑚𝑔 −1/2
■ 𝑎1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −0.5 = −0.46
𝑅𝑒 1
𝐼𝑚𝑔 1/2
■ 𝑎−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.5 = 0.46
𝑅𝑒 1
2
𝐼𝑚𝑔 𝜋
■ 𝑎2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 4
2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 1 = = 0.785
𝑅𝑒 4
4
2
𝐼𝑚𝑔 − 𝜋
■ 𝑎−2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 4
2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −1 = − = −0.785
𝑅𝑒 4
4

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 1.11
1

0.46 0.785
0.5
-2 1

-4 -3 -1 0 2 3 4 k
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 k
-4 -3
-0.46
- 0.785

Magnitude Spectrum follows even symmetry Phase Spectrum follows odd symmetry

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 Thank You !!!

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