Syllabus: Basic Definitions, Frequency Modulation: Narrow Band FM, Wide Band

18EC53-Principles of Communication Systems | Module-2
Module 2
Syllabus: Basic definitions, Frequency Modulation: Narrow Band FM, Wide Band
FM, Transmission bandwidth of FM Signals, Generation of FM Signals,
Demodulation of FM Signals, FM Stereo Multiplexing, Phase-Locked Loop:
Nonlinear model of PLL, Linear model of PLL, Nonlinear Effects in FM Systems.
The Superheterodyne Receiver (4.1 – 4.6 of Text 1) RBT Levels: L1, L2, L3
Introduction
We have seen that in amplitude modulation the amplitude of the carrier is varied
according to the amplitude of the modulating signal. In angle modulation the
frequency or phase of the carrier is varied according to the amplitude of the
modulating signal. Angle modulation is a class of continuous wave modulation.
As both angle modulations are related to time they have very similar properties
however there are some important differences also.in this chapter we are going
to study these two modulation techniques with their similarities and differences.
Basic concepts all definitions

There are two types of angle modulation
1. Frequency modulation
2. Phase modulation.
The frequency or phase of the sinusoidal carrier can be varied according to the
modulating signal keeping the amplitude constant termed as angle modulation.
Let the time to mine expression for an angle modulated wave be represented by
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝜽𝒊 (𝒕)]………………………………………1
in frequency modulation the career frequency is varied in proportional to the
modulating signal if m(t) is constant carrier frequency is constant.
If modulating signal takes discrete values carrier frequency also takes discrete
values.
Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Available At VTU HUB (Android App)
The frequency at any instant of time is known as the instantaneous frequency

and is defined as is very linearly with the message signal does the instantaneous
frequency of an FM signal can be represented as.
𝟏 𝒅𝜽𝒊 (𝒕)
𝒇𝒊 (𝒕) = …..…………………………………….2
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒙
Representation the angle of the unmodulated career has been assumed to be
zero at t=0. the instantaneous phase of the modulated carrier is directly
proportional to the integral of the modulating signal.
Frequency Modulation: FM is a form of angle modulation in which the

instantaneous frequency 𝒇𝒊 (𝒕) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t) as
shown by
𝒇𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝒎(𝒕)……………………………….3
Substitute this equation 3 in the equation number 2 and solving for 𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) with
frequency sensitivity 𝒌𝒇 and integrating with respect to time will gives
𝒕
𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫𝟎 𝒎(𝒕)𝒅𝒕………………………………4
The frequency modulated signal is therefore described in the time domain is
given by
𝒕
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫𝟎 𝒎(𝒕)𝒅𝒕]…………………………5
Phase Modulation: PM is a form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous

frequency 𝜽𝒊 (𝒕)is varied linearly with the message signal m(t) as shown by
𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑 𝒎(𝒕)……………………………….6
The first term represents the angle of the unmodulated carrier, 𝒌𝒑 represents the
phase sensitivity of the modulator, then the Phase modulated wave is described
in time domain by
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝒌𝒑 𝒎(𝒕)]…………………………….7

The following figure 2.1 represents the illustration of AM, PM and FM signals
Figure 2.1: Illustration of AM, PM and FM modulated waves.
Properties of Angle Modulated Waves

Angle modulated waves are characterized by some important properties as listed
below.
1. Constancy of Transmitted power
2. Nonlinearity of the Modulation process
3. Irregularities of Zero-crossings
4. Visualization difficulty of message waveform
5. Trade-off of increased transmission bandwidth for improved noise
performance.

Property 1: Constancy of Transmitted power

we readily see that by the definition of angle modulation itself the amplitude is
maintained a constant value equal to the carrier amplitude 𝑨𝒄 for all time t
irrespective of sensitivity factors 𝒌𝒇 and 𝒌𝒑 . Consequently, the average
transmitted power of angle modulated waves is a constant and given by
1 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝐴
2 𝑐
Assumed that the load resistance is 1 ohm.
Property 2: Nonlinearity of the Modulation process

Another distinctive property of angle modulation is its nonlinear character. Both
FM and PM waves violate the principle of superposition.
For example, if message have two different components
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝑚1 (𝑡) + 𝑚2 (𝑡)
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑 (𝒎𝟏 (𝒕) + 𝒎𝟐 (𝒕)]
Which has two components
𝒔𝟏 (𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑 (𝒎𝟏 (𝒕)]
𝒔𝟐 (𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑 (𝒎𝟐 (𝒕)]
𝒔(𝒕) ≠ 𝒔𝟏 (𝒕) + 𝒔𝟐 (𝒕)
Property 3: Irregularities of Zero-crossings

zero crossing are defined as the instants of time at which a waveform changes
its from positive to negative value or the other way around.
The irregularity of zero crossing in angle modulated waves is also attributed to
the nonlinear character of the modulation process. To illustrate this may
contrast the PM ad FM waves presented in figure 2.1 for the corresponding AM
wave.

Property 4: Visualization difficulty of message waveform

we see that the message waveform as the envelop of the modulated wave,
provided ofcourse the percentage of modulation is less than 100% for sinusoidal
modulation shown in figure 2.1.
this is not so in angle modulation, as shown in the same figure for PM and FM
waves. In general difficulty in visualizing the message waveform in angle
modulated waves is also attributed in the nonlinear character of the angle
modulated waves.
Property 5: Trade-off of increased transmission bandwidth for improved

noise performance.
Important advantage of angle modulation over amplitude modulation is the
realization of improved noise performance. This is attributed because modulating
the angle of the carrier wave is less sensitive to the presence of additive noise
than modulating the amplitude of the carrier during the transmission. However,
attained the expense of corresponding increase in the transmission bandwidth
requirement of angle modulation.
Such trade-off is not possible in AM since BW of an amplitude modulated wave
is fixed somewhere between the message bandwidth W and 2W, depending on
the type of modulation employed.
FM wave using PM and PM using FM:

FM signal can be generated by first integrating m(t) and then the signal. Model
eating the phase of a sinusoidal carrier. Likewise, a PM signal can be generated
by first differentiating m(t) with respect to time and then. Modulating the
frequency of a sinusoidal carrier.
Hence the following figure 2.2 depicts generation of FM and PM waves.

Figure 2.2: Illustrating the relationship between phase modulator and frequency
modulator.
Frequency modulation
It is the process of changing the frequency of carrier signal in accordance
with the modulating signal keeping phase and amplitude constant.
Standard frequency modulated wave in time domain is expressed as

𝒕
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎(𝒕)𝒅𝒕]
𝟎

Single tone frequency modulation

Let consider the modulating signal m(t) as follows
𝒎(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕)
We know that, the instantaneous frequency at any time is given by
𝒇𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝒎(𝒕)
Substitute m(t) in the above equation will get
𝒇𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝑨𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕)……a
Where frequency deviation
∆𝒇 = 𝒌𝒇 𝑨𝒎
Instantaneous frequency for FM signal is given by
𝟏 𝒅𝜽𝒊 (𝒕)
𝒇𝒊 (𝒕) =
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝒙
Solving for 𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) will obtain
𝒕
𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅 ∫ 𝒇𝒊 (𝒕) 𝒅𝒕
𝟎
Substitute equation (a) for 𝒇𝒊 (𝒕) will results in

𝒕
𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅 ∫ [𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝑨𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕)] 𝒅𝒕
𝟎
Now solving again for 𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) after the integration will get,
𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝜷 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕
∆𝒇
Where modulation index in FM 𝜷 = 𝒇
𝒎
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝜷 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕)…………………………..8
Frequency deviation and modulation index

Frequency deviation Delta f is defined as the maximum departure of the
instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM signal from the carrier frequency.
∆𝒇 = 𝒌𝒇 𝑨𝒎 ……………………………………9
The ratio of frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is called the
modulation index of the FM wave and it is denoted by beta
∆𝒇
𝜷= ………………………………………………..10
𝒇𝒎

Narrow band frequency modulation

In terms of bandwidth there are two different possibilities of FM wave can be
existing
1. Narrow band FM
2. Wideband FM
We know that standard equation for FM wave is given by
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝜷 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕)
The equations derived above indicate a possible way of generating narrow band
FM and PM signals by using DSB_SC modulators for balanced modulators. Black
schematic of such a system is shown in the below figures 2.3 and 2.4.
Figure 2.3: Generation of NBFM using DSB-SC modulation
Figure 2.4: Generation of NBPM using DSB-SC modulation

Wideband frequency modulation: transmission bandwidth of FM

Consider the modulating signal m(t) which is band limited to B Hz, that is the
highest modulating frequency is B Hz, then as per Carson's rule,
𝑩𝑾𝑭𝑴 = 𝟐(𝜷 + 𝟏)𝑩………………………………………………..9
Where
● B is modulating signal bandwidth of m(t)
● 𝜷 is modulation index in FM
Deviation ratio:
Deviation ratio is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency deviation to the
maximum modulating frequency. For example, in commercial broadcasting the
maximum deviation of 75 kilo Hertz and maximum modulating frequency of 15
kilo hertz results in a corresponding deviation of 5.
maximum frequency deviation
𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
maximum modulating frequency
75KHz
𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =5
15Khz
Generation of FM waves
There basically two techniques of generating frequency modulated waves.
● Indirect method
● Direct method
Indirect method of generating FM waves
The following figure 2.5 shows the black schematic generating a narrow band
FM wave.
In fact, a narrow band FM signal is generated by integrating the message signal
and then using integration of message signal with respect to dt two phase model
at the carrier generated by the crystal oscillator.

NBFM signal is applied to frequency multipliers to increase the frequency

deviation to the desired level. Frequency multiplier should ensure that it provides
the desired frequency deviation and carrier frequency simultaneously.
Figure 2.5: Block diagram of indirect method of generating FM

Let 𝑺𝟏 (𝒕) be the NBFM wave, then we have
𝒕
𝑺𝟏 (𝒕) = 𝑨𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 [𝟐𝝅𝒇𝟏 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝟏 ∫𝟎 𝒎(𝒕)𝒅𝒕]…………..i
For single tone, m(t) can be defined as the

𝒎(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕)………………………….ii
Substitute (ii) in (i) we get
𝒕
𝑺𝟏 (𝒕) = 𝑨𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 [𝟐𝝅𝒇𝟏 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝟏 𝑨𝒎 ∫𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕) 𝒅𝒕]….iii
Now the WBFM output is given by

𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝟏 𝒕 + 𝜷 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕)…………………….iv
The wide band frequency modulator has a frequency sensitivity which is n times
that of narrow band frequency modulator where n is the frequency multiplication
factor
Frequency multiplier can be realized using a nonlinear device such as diode or

a transistor followed by a bandpass filter. Nonlinear device is assumed to be

memoryless which means that there is no energy storage the block diagram of
frequency multiplier is shown below.
Direct method of generating FM waves:

In direct method of FM generation, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier
wave is varied according to the modulating signal by means of a device called
voltage control oscillator (VCO).
To produce FM, reuse a circuit that converts a modulating voltage into a
corresponding change in capacitance or inductance to the oscillator tank circuit
as shown in the figure 2.6below.
Figure 2.6: Hartley oscillator

The frequency of oscillations in Hartley oscillator shown above is given by
1
𝑓𝑖 (𝑡) =
2𝜋√𝐿1 + 𝐿2 𝑐(𝑡)
𝑐(𝑡) is the total capacitance of the fixed capacitor and the variable voltage
capacitor.
𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿2 are the two inductance in the circuit.
Assume that for a sinusoidal modulating wave of frequency 𝑓𝑚 , the capacitance
𝑐(𝑡) is expressed as
𝐶(𝑡) = 𝐶0 + ∆𝐶 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)

The desired relation for the instantaneous frequency of an FM wave, assuming

sinusoidal modulation is given by
𝒇𝒊 (𝒕) = 𝒇𝟎 + ∆𝒇 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕)……………………………….10
In order to generate a wide band FM with the required frequency deviation, we
can use the configuration shown in fig consisting VCO, followed by a series of
frequency multipliers and mixers as shown in the below figure 2.7.
Voltage Band
Frequency Frequency
Controlled Mixer pass
Multiplier Multiplier
Oscillator Filter
m(t) WBFM
Fixed
Oscillator
Figure 2.7: Block diagram of WBFM using a Voltage Controlled Oscillator

This configuration permits the attainment of good stability and necessary
frequency deviation to achieve the wideband FM.
Stable carrier frequency generation is quite difficult. In practical circuits this
problem is solved by providing some auxiliary means by which a very stable
frequency generated by a crystal will be able to control the carrier frequency.
The following figure 2.8 shows one method for frequency stabilization of
frequency modulator.
m(t) Frequency Stabilized FM wave

Voltage
Controlled
Oscillator
Low Pass
Frequency Crystal
Filter & Mixer
Discriminator Oscillator
Amplifier
Figure 2.8: Feedback scheme for generation of frequency established FM wave.

Here is the output of FM generator is applied to mixer together with output of

Crystal oscillator the difference frequency term from the output of the mixer is
applied to the frequency discriminator.
Frequency discriminator is a device whose output is an instantaneous voltage
amplitude that is proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the FM wave
applied to its input. the output of the frequency discriminator is applied to the
low pass filter for correct carrier frequency the output of a low pass filter is a
zero.
However, it gives a DC voltage proportional to the carrier frequency deviation
from the assigned value of the carrier frequency.
Just DC voltage after suitable amplification is applied to the voltage controlled
oscillator to modify the frequency of the oscillator in direction that tends to
restore the carrier frequency to its assigned value.
This is an example of a frequency locked loop, which is closely related to phase
locked loop.
Demodulation of FM waves
frequency demodulation is the process of recovering the original modulating
wave from the frequency modulated wave. The FM the moderators are classified
into two types
1. Direct method: there are two types under this method such as frequency
discriminator and zero crossing detector.
2. Indirect method for FM demodulation using PLL (Phase Locked Loop)
Balanced frequency discriminator or balanced slope detector or

Round Travis detector or Ratio detector
Ideal frequency discriminator as a pair of slope circuits with their complex
transfer functions followed by envelop detectors and finally a summer as shown
in the following figure 2.9. This scheme is called a balanced frequency
discriminator.

The balanced slope detector consists of two slope detector circuits the input
transformer has a centre tapped secondary the input voltage to the two slope
detector are 180 degrees out of phase.
The idealized scheme as shown in the below figure can be closely realized using
the circuit show next to it. The upper and lower resonant filter sections of this
circuit are tune to frequency above and below a modulated carrier frequency
respectively.
In the frequency response diagram plotted the amplitude response of these two
tuned filters together II with their total response assuming that both are filters
having a high Q factor.
The quality factor for Q factor of a resonant circuit is measure of goodness of the
whole circuit.
The linearity of the useful portion of the total response centered at fc is
determined by the separation of the two resonant frequencies. However, there
will be distortion in the output of this frequency discriminator due to the
following factors
1. s(t) is not exactly zero for frequencies outside the range
2. tuned filter outputs are not strictly band limited, so some distortion is
introduced.
3. Tuned filter characteristics are not linear over the whole frequency band
of the input FM signal s(t).
Nevertheless, by proper design, it is possible to maintain the FM distortion
produced by these factors within tolerable limits.

Figure 2.9: Balanced frequency discriminator with its block diagram, circuit diagram
and frequency response.
FM stereo multiplexing
● Stereo multiplexing as a form of frequency division multiplexing FDM
design to transmit to separate signals via the same carrier.
● it is widely used in FM radio broadcasting to send two different elements
of a program so as to give a special dimension to its perception by listener
at the receiving end.

● Specification of standards for FM stereo transmission is influenced by two

factors
○ The transmission has to operate within the allocated FM broadcast
channels
○ It has to be compatible with the monophonic radio receivers
● the first requirement sets the permissible frequency parameters including
frequency deviation and the second requirement constraints the way in
which transporter signal is configured.
The following figure 2.10 shows the block diagram of the multiplexing system
used in FM stereo transmitter.
Figure 2.10: multiplexer and transmitter of FM stereo
Figure 2.11: Demultiplexer in receiver of FM stereo

Two message signals picked up by the left hand and right hand microphones at
the transmitting end of the system they are applied to a simple multiplexer that
generates the sum of signals and the difference of signals. The sum signal is left
understood in its baseband form it is available for monophonic reception
whereas the difference signal and 38KHz subcarrier are applied to a product
modulator thereby producing DSB-SC modulation wave.
In addition to the sum signal and this DSB-SC modulated wave the multiplexed
signal also includes a 19KHz pilot to provide reference for the coherent detection
of the difference signal at the stereo receiver.
Thus multiplexed signal is described by
𝒎(𝒕) = [𝒎𝒍 (𝒕) + 𝒎𝒓 (𝒕)] + [𝒎𝒍 (𝒕) − 𝒎𝒓 (𝒕)] 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟒𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕) + 𝑲 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕)…..11
The multiplex signal then frequency modulates the main career to produce the
plastic The pilot was allotted between 8 and 10% of the peak frequency deviation
the amplitude K in in the above equation is chosen to satisfy this requirement.
At a Stereo receiver, multiplexed signal is recovered by frequency the modulating

the incoming FM wave. Then m(t) is applied to the demultiplexing system shown
in the above figure 2.11. The individual components of a multiplexed signal are
separated by the use of 3 appropriate filters. The recovered pilot is a frequency
doubled to produce the desired 38 KHz subcarrier. The availability of this
subcarrier enables the crow and detection of the DSB SC modulation wave
thereby recovering the difference signal. the baseband low pass filter in the top
part of the figure is designed to pass the sum signal. Finally, the simple matrix
reconstructs the left-hand signal and right-hand signal and applies them to their
respective speakers.
Phase Locked Loop(PLL)

The phase locked loop (PLL) selective feedback system the operation of which is
closely linked to the frequency modulation. It can be used for synchronization,
Frequency division/multiplication, frequency modulation and indirect frequency
modulation. Letter application is the subject of interest here.

Basically the phase locked loop consists of three major components a multiplier,
a loop filter and voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) connected together in the form
of a feedback loop as shown in the below figure 2.13.
FM wave s(t) e(t)

Loop filter
v(t)
r(t)
Voltage
Controlled
Oscillator
Figure 2.13: Phase-Locked Loop

The VCO is sinusoidal generator frequency is determined by a voltage applied to
it from an external source. Any frequency modulator and serve as a VCO.
assume that initially we have adjusted the VCO so that when the control voltage
is zero two conditions are satisfied
1. Frequency of the VCO in precisely set at the unmodulated carrier
frequency
2. The VCO output has a 90-degree phase shift with respect to the modulated
carrier wave
Suppose then the input signal applied to the phase locked loop is in FM signal
defined by
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 sin[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + Φ1 (𝑡)]
Angle Φ1 (𝑡) is related to message signal by the integral

𝑡
Φ1 (𝑡) = 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0
Let the VCO output in the phase locked loop be defined by

𝑟(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑣 cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + Φ2 (𝑡)]
A control voltage applied to the VCO input the angle is related to v(t) by the
integral
𝑡
Φ2 (𝑡) = 2𝜋𝑘𝑣 ∫ 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0

The object of the phase locked loop is to generate a VCO output that has the
same phase angle as the input FM signal.
In other words, the time varying phase of the incoming signal may be unwanted
facial caused by the fluctuations in the communication channel. In order to track
phase angle Φ1 (𝑡) so as to produce a signal with the same phase angle for the
purpose of coherent detection or synchronous demodulation.
To develop an understanding of the phase locked loop it is desirable to have a
model of the loop let first develop a nonlinear model which is subsequently
linearized to simplify the analysis.
Nonlinear Model of the PLL

According to the PLL diagram, incoming FM signal and VCO output are applied
to the multiplier producing two components namely double frequency term and
difference frequency term.
The phase error is defined by
𝚽𝒆 (𝒕) = 𝚽𝟏 (𝒕) − 𝚽𝟐 (𝒕)
𝑡
Φ𝑒 (𝑡) = Φ1 (𝑡) − 2𝜋𝑘𝑣 ∫ 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0
The loop filter operates on the error signal to produce an output v(t) define by
the convolution integral
∞
𝑣(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑒(𝜏)ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏
−∞
h(t) is the impulse response of the loop filter.

We obtain the following nonlinear integro-differential equation as the descriptor
of the dynamic behavior of the phase locked loop:
∞
𝑑 𝑑
Φ𝑒 (𝑡) = Φ1 (𝑡) − 2𝜋𝑘0 ∫ sin Φ𝑒 (𝜏) ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 −∞
𝑘0 is loop gain parameter.

This equation suggests the model as shown in figure 2.14. In this model we have
also included the relationship between v(t) and e(t). ISI that model resembles the
block diagram of PLL the multiplier at the input of PLL is replaced by subtractor
and sinusoidal non-linearity and the VCO by an integrator.

Figure 2.14: nonlinear model of PLL

This sinusoidal nonlinearity in the model greatly increases the difficulty of
analyzing the behaviour of the phase locked loop.
it would be helpful to linearized this model simplified analysis to give a good
approximate description of the loop's behaviour in certain modes of operation.
Linear Model of the PLL

When the phase error Φ𝑒 (𝑡) is zero, the phase locked loop is said to be in phase
lock. When the Φ𝑒 (𝑡) is small at all times compared to one radian we can use the
approximation
𝐬𝐢𝐧[𝚽𝒆 (𝒕)] ≅ 𝚽𝒆 (𝒕)
In this case, the loop is said to be near to phase lock, and the sinusoidal
nonlinearity of the previous case may be disregarded. Thus we may present the
PLL by the linearized model as shown in figure 2.15.
Figure 2.15: linear model of PLL

1
2𝜋𝑘𝑣
v(t)
𝑑
Φ1 (𝑡) ()
𝑑𝑡
The corresponding time domain relation is
𝟏 𝒅𝝓𝟏 (𝒕)
𝒗(𝒕) ≅
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒗 𝒅𝒕
The above simplified model provides an indirect method of using the phase
locked loop as a frequency modulator.
Resulting output signal of the phase locked loop is approximately,
𝒌𝒇
𝒗(𝒕) ≅ 𝒎(𝒕)
𝒌𝒗
This states that when the loop operates in its phase locked mode, the output v(t)
𝒌𝒇
of the PLL is approximately the same except the scale factor , as the original
𝒌𝒗
message signal 𝒎(𝒕); frequency demodulation of the incoming FM signal s(t) is

thereby accomplished.
A significant feature of the PLL acting as a demodulator is that the bandwidth of

the incoming signal can be much wider than that of the loop filter characterized
by H(f).
Major limitation of is loop gain parameter since it controls both the bandwidth
as well as the hold in frequency range of the loop.

Nonlinear Effects in FM Systems

In the preceding sections, undergone frequency modulation theory and methods
for its generation and demodulation. Let us complete the discussion of FM by
considering nonlinear effects in FM systems.
Nonlinearities in one form or another, are present in all electrical networks.
There are two basic forms to consider:
1. The nonlinear is said to be strong when it is introduced intentionally and
in a controlled manner for some specific applications. Example of strong
nonlinearity include square law modulators, limiters and frequency
multipliers.
2. The nonlinearity is said to be weak when a linear performance is desired,
but nonlinearities of a parasitic nature arise due to imperfections. The
effect of such weak nonlinearities is to limit the useful signal levels in a
system and thereby become an important design consideration.
In this section we can examine the effects of nonlinearities on FM.
𝒗𝟎 (𝒕) = 𝒂𝟏 𝒗𝒊 (𝒕) + 𝒂𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝒊 (𝒕) + 𝒂𝟑 𝒗𝟑𝒊 (𝒕)

By carson’s rule and noting that frequency deviation about the second harmonic
of the carrier frequency is doubled, we find that necessary condition for
separating desired FM signals is
𝑓𝑐 > 3∆𝑓 + 2𝑊
Thus by using bandpass filter of mid-band frequency 𝑓𝑐 and bandwidth 2∆𝑓 +
2𝑊,Then the channel output is reduced to
𝟑
𝒗′𝟎 (𝒕) = (𝒂𝟏 𝑨𝒄 + 𝒂𝟑 𝑨𝟑𝒄 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬[𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝝓(𝒕)]
𝟒
FM signals, not affected by the distortion produced by the transmission through

channel with amplitude nonlinearities.FM systems are extremely sensitive to the
phase nonlinearities. Common type of phase nonlinearity encountered in
microwave radio systems is known as AM to PM conversion. Therefore, it is
important to keep the AM-PM conversions at a low level.

SuperHeterodyne Receiver
In communication system, irrespective of AM, FM or PM, the receiver not only do
demodulation task but also required to perform some other system functions:
Carrier frequency tuning: the purpose of which is to select the desired signal
Filtering: which is required to separate the desired signal from other modulated
signals that may be picked up along the way.
Amplification: which is intended to compensate for the loss of signal power
incurred in the course of transmision.
The Superheterodyne receiver or superhet is often referred as special type of
receiver that fulfills all three said functions. Practically all analog radio and TV
receivers are of the superheterodyne type.
Basically, the receive consists of a RF(88-108MHz) section, a mixer and a local
oscillator, an intermediate frequency(10.7MHz) section, demodulator and power
amplifiers. The following figure 2.16 shows the block diagram of a
superheterodyne receiver for amplitude modulation using an envelope detector
for demodulation.
Figure 2.16 : Basic elements of an AM receiver of the superheterodyne type.

The incoming amplitude modulated wave is picked up by the receiving antenna
and amplified in the RF section that is tuned to carrier frequency of the incoming
wave. The combination of mixer and local oscillator provides a heterodyning
function whereby the incoming signal is converted to a predetermined fixed
intermediate frequency, usually lower than the incoming carrier frequency.
𝒇𝑰𝑭 = 𝒇𝑹𝑭 − 𝒇𝑳𝑶

Where 𝒇𝑳𝑶 is the frequency of local oscillator

𝒇𝑹𝑭 is the carrier frequency of the incoming RF signal
𝒇𝑰𝑭 is intermediate frequency (neither original input frequency nor final
baseband frequency)
The IF section consists of one or more stages of tuned amplification with a
bandwidth required for the type of signal that the receiver is intended to handle.
This section provides the most of the amplification and selectivity in the receiver.
The output of the IF section is applied to a demodulator, the purpose of which is
to recover the baseband signal. If coherent detection is used, then a coherent
signal source must be provided in the receiver. The final operation in the receiver
is the power amplification of the recovered message signal.

RECOMMENDED QUESTION BANK
Q. No Question Marks
1 Explain the important properties of angle modulated waves 5
2 A FM wave is represented by the following equation: 4
S(t)=10 sin [5×108t + 4 sin 12x105t]. Find i) Carrier frequency
ii) Modulation index and frequency deviation
iii) Power dissipated by this FM wave across a 5Ω resistor
3 With the help of block diagram. Explain the working of FM stereo 6
multiplexing
4 Explain the working of super heterodyne receiver 6
5 Derive the expression for narrow band FM and compare it with AM 8
signal using phasor diagrams
6 Describe the frequency response of an ideal slope circuit used for the 8
demodulation of FM signal and explain the balanced frequency
discriminator
7 A FM signal has a sinusoidal modulation with w = 15KHz and 2
modulation index β=2.using Carson’s rule, Find the deviation ratio
and transmission bandwidth. Assume ∆f= 75KHz
8 With a neat block diagram, explain the generation of wideband FM 6
signal. How the frequency stability is achieved
9 An FM signal with a frequency deviation of 10KHz at a modulation 4
frequency of 5KHz is applied to two frequency multipliers connected
in cascade. The first multiplier doubles the frequency and the second
multiplier triples it. Determine the frequency deviation and
modulation index at the output what is the frequency separation of
adjacent side frequencies of this FM signal.
10 Derive an equation for frequency modulated wave. Define modulation 6
index, maximum deviation of modulated signal
11 Explain generation of frequency modulated signal using direct 6
method
Equation for a FM wave is: s(t)=10 sin [5.7×108t + 5 sin 12×103t]. 5
12 Calculate i) Carrier frequency ii) Modulation index iii) Modulating
frequency iv)Frequency deviation v) Power dissipated in 100Ω
13 With a neat circuit diagram. explain FM demodulation using 6
balanced slope detector
14 Explain the relevant block diagram and mathematical expression. 10

The demodulation of FM signal using linear and nonlinear model of
the PLL


Syllabus: Basic Definitions, Frequency Modulation: Narrow Band FM, Wide Band

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18EC53-Principles of Communication Systems | Module-2

Basic concepts all definitions

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

The frequency at any instant of time is known as the instantaneous frequency

Frequency Modulation: FM is a form of angle modulation in which the

Phase Modulation: PM is a form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Figure 2.1: Illustration of AM, PM and FM modulated waves.

Properties of Angle Modulated Waves

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Property 1: Constancy of Transmitted power

Property 2: Nonlinearity of the Modulation process

Property 3: Irregularities of Zero-crossings

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Property 4: Visualization difficulty of message waveform

Property 5: Trade-off of increased transmission bandwidth for improved

FM wave using PM and PM using FM:

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Standard frequency modulated wave in time domain is expressed as

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Single tone frequency modulation

Substitute equation (a) for 𝒇𝒊 (𝒕) will results in

𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝜷 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕)…………………………..8

Frequency deviation and modulation index

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Narrow band frequency modulation

Figure 2.3: Generation of NBFM using DSB-SC modulation

Figure 2.4: Generation of NBPM using DSB-SC modulation

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Wideband frequency modulation: transmission bandwidth of FM

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

NBFM signal is applied to frequency multipliers to increase the frequency

Figure 2.5: Block diagram of indirect method of generating FM

For single tone, m(t) can be defined as the

Now the WBFM output is given by

Frequency multiplier can be realized using a nonlinear device such as diode or

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Direct method of generating FM waves:

Figure 2.6: Hartley oscillator

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

The desired relation for the instantaneous frequency of an FM wave, assuming

Figure 2.7: Block diagram of WBFM using a Voltage Controlled Oscillator

m(t) Frequency Stabilized FM wave

Figure 2.8: Feedback scheme for generation of frequency established FM wave.

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Here is the output of FM generator is applied to mixer together with output of

Balanced frequency discriminator or balanced slope detector or

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

● Specification of standards for FM stereo transmission is influenced by two

Figure 2.10: multiplexer and transmitter of FM stereo

Figure 2.11: Demultiplexer in receiver of FM stereo

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

At a Stereo receiver, multiplexed signal is recovered by frequency the modulating

Phase Locked Loop(PLL)

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU

FM wave s(t) e(t)

Figure 2.13: Phase-Locked Loop

Angle Φ1 (𝑡) is related to message signal by the integral

Let the VCO output in the phase locked loop be defined by

Girish M, Asst. Professor | DEPT. OF ECE, ATMECE, MYSURU