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Scanning acoustic microscope for visualization of microflaws in solids

Article  in  Russian Journal of Nondestructive Testing · October 2010

DOI: 10.1134/S1061830909100027

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ISSN 1061-8309, Russian Journal of Nondestructive Testing, 2009, Vol. 45, No. 10, pp. 677–684. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2009.
Original Russian Text © Yu.V. Korkh, A.M. Burkhanov, A.B. Rinkevich, 2009, published in Defektoskopiya, 2009, Vol. 45, No. 10, pp. 16–26.

ACOUSTIC
METHODS

Scanning Acoustic Microscope for Visualization

of Microflaws in Solids
Yu. V. Korkh, A. M. Burkhanov, and A. B. Rinkevich
Institute of Metal Physics, Ural Division, Russian Academy of Sciences,
ul. Sof’i Kovalevskoi 18, Yekaterinburg, 620041 Russia
Received July 3, 2009

Abstract—A laboratory scanning acoustic microscope working in a pulsed regime at a frequency of

400 MHz with a resolution of approximately 3 μm for investigation and visualization of flaws and
microflaws in surface and subsurface layers in solids is described. Acoustic images of various types of
microflaws (micropores and microcracks) are obtained and analyzed; the images contain new informa-
tion on the degree of microdamage to a material compared to that presented by the light microscopy
method.

Key words: acoustic lens, focusing of ultrasound, microflaws.

DOI: 10.1134/S1061830909100027

INTRODUCTION
The acoustic microscopy technique based on frequencies of ultrasonic vibrations one order to three
orders of magnitude higher than those in traditional ultrasonic nondestructive testing (from several tens of
megahertz to 1–2 GHz) and on focused elastic waves and high precision of the scanning system has been
developed successfully as an independent branch of science and technology for several decades [1–5]. The
idea of an acoustic microscope was for the first time proposed by S.Ya. Sokolov in 1941 [6, 7], and in the
late 1950s, K.N. Baranskii in the Soviet Union and K. Dransfeld and H.E. Bömmel in the Federal Republic
of Germany developed methods of generation of ultrasonic waves in a range from hundreds of megahertz
to several gigahertz, which opened a real way to the development of acoustic microscopes [8]. Line-by-line
sounding of a specimen by a focused ultrasonic beam proposed by american scientists C. Quate and
R. Lemons [9] in 1974 made it possible to obtain the spatial distributions of local acoustic characteristics of
a specimen and to reconstruct ultrasonic images with high resolution.
Acoustic microscopy is an analogue to optical microscopy; the difference between them is that, in light
microscopy, optical contrasts of the studied structures are formed by reflection, scattering, and absorption
of light, while in acoustic microscopes, the contrast is formed by changes in the elasticity, density, and
acoustic damping of the tested matter. Acoustic waves, actually being mechanical elastic strain waves in a
medium, are more sensitive to a change (break) in the acoustical impedance of the medium, which makes it
possible to use them for detection and visualization in objects of surface and subsurface discontinuities and
inclusions, and for measuring local physicomechanical properties of different kinds of materials, including
nontransparent ones. By now, in many scientific centers of the world, different original methods of scanning
acoustic microscopy have been implemented [10, 11].
However, international commercial acoustic microscopes are expensive instruments, which are mostly
used in biomedical studies [12] or testing flaws in adhesive bonds in integral microcircuits. Acoustic micro-
scopes developed for studies of metals described in our literature [4] were applied mostly to studying phase
compositions of various alloys and were limited to the operating frequency of 50–100 MHz, which made it
possible to obtain acoustic images of only rather large structures and developed flaws of about 0.5–1 mm,
which could be detected by other less complicated techniques. The acoustic microscope used in [13] oper-
ated in a pulsed regime at frequencies of 400 and 750 MHz with a resolution of 1–3 μm for studies of micro-
structures of various metals and alloys. The performed studies [13] proved the possibility of obtaining infor-
mation on elastic properties of some structural elements of alloys with an acoustic microscope without etch-
ing, which only worsened the quality of acoustic images and gave no additional information. However, the
described acoustic microscope made it possible to obtain information only on the display of the oscillo-
scope, which does not meet contemporary demands of precision, quality of images, and the possibility of
processing information.

677
678 KORKH et al.

Microwave Switch Amplifier

generator Pulse modulator

Clock
pulse Circulator Detector
generator

Gate driver
Acoustic lens
Oscilloscope 1
Broadband
RF amplifier
Piezoelectric Stroboscopic
actuator Tested object
oscilloscope 2

Power unit Registering setup

Fig. 1. Functional block diagram of the laboratory acoustic microscope.

Presently, there is an increasing interest in searching for and studying flaws of small dimensions,
micropores and microcracks, and their effect on exploitation of the inspected objects. More and more sci-
entific papers are concerned with the methods of visual control of flaws of small dimensions and with an
increase in the resolution of instruments for imaging microflaws [14–16]. This study investigates the possi-
bility of using focused elastic waves at a frequency of ~400 MHz for taking images of microflaws using a
scanning acoustic microscope. It is interesting to compare the sensitivity of high-frequency acoustic emis-
sion to microflaws in a medium with the data of optical microscopy and to compare information on nucle-
ation and propagation of microflaws.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

The laboratory scanning acoustic microscope was developed on the basis of the instrument described in
[17] for studying microflaws. The setup allows detection of changes in the amplitude of the reflected focused
ultrasonic wave depending on the elastic properties of the medium under study. Figure 1 shows the operating
scheme of the laboratory acoustic microscope.
The working principle is as follows. Radio pulses with a carrier frequency of 400–410 MHz and a dura-
tion of 0.14 μs from a microwave generator pass through a circulator on a piezoelectric element of the acous-
tic lens and are transformed into elastic vibrations. An excited longitudinal elastic wave propagates though
the acoustic pipe and is focused to the surface of an object after passing through a semispherical boundary
at the other end of the acoustic pipe. The immersion liquid that fills the space between the lens and the object
should have a high refractive index of the lens, a stable acoustic contact, and also good wetting ability. Usu-
ally, distilled water is used as the immersion liquid.
When an object is sounded with a bundle of rays of elastic waves, some rays are reflected, while some
are scattered at heterogeneities of acoustic impedance.
By changing the distance between the probe and the tested object, a focal spot can be moved along the
depth of an article and, consequently, it is possible to study different layers of the material. The reflected
acoustic signal is received and transformed by the same emitting lens into electric oscillations, which pass
through the circulator to a microwave switch designed for selecting a useful signal from stronger spurious
signals caused by multiple repeated reflections of elastic waves in the lens acoustic element.
Radio pulses enhanced by a microwave amplifier and by a broadband radio-frequency (RF) amplifier are
received at the inputs of the oscilloscopes. Oscilloscope 1 is designed for observing the position of a strobe
pulse against the background of a useful signal. In stroboscopic oscilloscope 2, the instantaneous amplitude
value of the useful signal is memorized at the point determined by the strobe (Fig. 2), which then passes to
the input of the recording device.
Figure 2 shows a time scan of RF signals arriving at the piezoelectric probe. This diagram shows RF
pulse 0 fed to the probe, pulse 1 determined by the reflection of the acoustic wave from the lens surface,
pulse E controlling the switch at the input of the RF amplifier, pulse 2 which is a useful signal passed
through the immersion liquid and determined by the reflection from the object at the lens focus, and pulse 3

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Vol. 45 No. 10 2009

 SCANNING ACOUSTIC MICROSCOPE FOR VISUALIZATION 679

Amplitude, arb. units

0 C
1 E 2
3

t0 t1 t2 t3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Time, μs

Fig. 2. Time scan of signals arriving at the piezoelectric probe during operation of the acoustic microscope.

determined by the second reflection of the probing pulse from the lens surface; strobe pulse C is on the top
of the useful signal 2 triggering the circuit of the stroboscopic oscilloscope.
The level of the useful signal (pulse 2) is about –60 dB of the probing pulse. If the boundary of an object
is at the focus of the lens, the output signal 2 is maximized; if the lens is removed from the surface, the num-
ber of acoustic rays received by the probe decreases; therefore, the level of the output signal decreases.
When the lens approaches the object, a Rayleigh wave propagates over its surface. If the velocity of the Ray-
leigh wave is higher than the sound velocity in the immersion liquid, the wave is reemitted into the liquid
(the so-called outgoing Rayleigh wave). Thus, the output signal is the result of interference of the reflected
beam of the incident rays and the outgoing Rayleigh wave [1].
All components of the microscope are assembled from commercial RF measuring devices. A Γ4-76A
microwave generator with the operating frequency range 400–1200 MHz was used. To detect a useful sig-
nal, a Ñ602A high-frequency diode was used. The unit for modulating and amplifying the useful signal is
assembled using a Γ4-144 generator, ìá-29 amplifier, and Γ5-56 clock pulse generator. The time scan of
the observed signals was performed with an C1-70 oscilloscope. An C7-12 oscilloscope served as the gating
oscilloscope. A èèì-1 piezoelectric-driven instrument designed for linear movement of the lens in the ver-
tical direction with respect to the surface of the tested object was used to scan the object at different depths
at a step of 2 μm.
The acoustic lens (Fig. 3) is a cylinder made of a Ge single crystal with an axis oriented along the 〈111〉
direction. The cylinder length is 4 mm and its diameter is 6 mm. A layer of a conductor with high adhesion
(niobium) was evaporated on one end of the acoustic line to which a piezoelectric element (a plate of lithium
niobate LiNbO3) 8 μm in thickness was connected. Thin silver layers were evaporated as a material of elec-
trodes. On the opposite end of the cylinder, a spherical recess of radius Rsph = 230 μm was made for the
acoustic lens using a suspension of an abrasive material and a steel rod with spherical end. The focal dis-
tance of the lens is F = 260 μm. The diameter of the piezoelectric element is 2a = 220 μm.

Piezoelectric element
Silver electrodes
Niobium
Acoustic line

2a

F Rsph

Fig. 3. Structure of the acoustic lens.

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Vol. 45 No. 10 2009

680 KORKH et al.

PC AM
SA
PCI-1710HGL
ADC
Power supply SS

RS-232 port SM1

Controller SM2

Fig. 4. Structure and connection of units of the scanning acoustic microscope: (PC) computer; (SA) stroboscopic amplifier;
(SS) scanning system; (SM) stepper motor; and (AM) acoustic microscope.

Fig. 5. View of the device of two-coordinate scanning.

In general, the resolution of the acoustic microscope, i.e., the minimum distance between two close but
different objects, is limited by the wavelength of the ultrasonic wave used to form the image and is deter-
mined by the relation [2, 18]
λ c
δ = --------- = -------------, (1)
2N a 2N a f
where Na = n sin θ is the digital aperture of the objective, n is the refractive index of the immersion liquid,
and θ is half of the aperture angle of the objective. For a frequency f = 400 MHz, the sound velocity in water
c = 1500 m/s, θ = 30°, and n = 1.33, we find that the diameter of the focal spot is ~2.8 μm. Thus, the expected
surface resolution of the microscope is ~3 μm, which is sufficient for visualization of microflaws. The depth
resolution is determined by the diameter of the focal spot and minimum step of the piezoelectric-driven
device. In our case, the in-depth resolution was 2 μm. It should be noted that the choice of the operating
frequency of emission is always a compromise between the size of the inhomogeneity to be visualized and
the penetration depth reached in this case. Increasing the frequency of emission, though improving the res-
olution and making it possible to visualize microobjects, makes the field of view narrower and, conse-
quently, decreases the probability of finding a flaw and increases the requirements for the quality of surface
treatment.
In order to broaden the operational possibilities of the laboratory setup and to get 2D images of
microflaws in a metal, the acoustic microscope setup was automated. This included two-coordinate scan-
ning of the surface of a specimen, automated control of collection of experimental data, a user interface of
the acoustic microscope for choosing regimes and parameters of scanning, a pictorial representation of the

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 SCANNING ACOUSTIC MICROSCOPE FOR VISUALIZATION 681

(a) scanning results, and the use of the methods for process-
0 ing and storing the experimental data. The block diagram
of automation of the laboratory acoustic microscope is
20
shown in Fig. 4.
Y, μm

40
60
Figure 5 shows the device for mechanical two-coordi-
nate scanning along the X and Y axes made on the basis of
80 two Edmund Optics high-precision platforms and two
(b) FL42STH47-1684A bipolar hybrid stepper motors with a
0 minimum rotation angle of 1.8°. The scanner along each
20 axis is a rectangular platform with a micrometer handle
rigidly joined through a bellows element to the rotor of the
Y, μm

40 stepper motor. The maximum displacement length of each

60 platform is 10 mm. The minimum scanning step along the
X and Y axes is determined taking into account the resolu-
80 tion of the focusing system (the focal spot is ~2.8 μm) and
(c)
0 is s = 2.5 μm. The stepper motors are controlled by an
ELRUS Technologies SMCD 1502 three-channel control-
20 ler connected to a computer through an RS-232 port. The
Y, μm

40 error of the scanned image is determined by the minimum

step of the scanning device, which is Δs = s/2 ≈ 1.2 μm.
60
80 A PCI-1710HGL board used for data collection is an
0 50 100 150 200 instrument for collection and processing of signals having
X, μm the following characteristics: an analog-to-digital con-
verter (ADC) with a 12-bit resolution; 16 input channels
Fig. 6. Acoustic images of a metal surface with a with a common wire or 8 differential channels (in any
number of scratches: (a) 200 measurements at a
point of the scanning field; (b) 50 measurements;
combination); the output voltage of ±10 V; the operating
and (c) one measurement at each point of scanning. speed of up to 100000 counts/s. The resolution of the
ADC is 2.5 mV. The software for automated control of the
scanning of the specimen surface and for data collection
using the ADC is developed on the basis of the Borland Delphi visual simulation environment.
During scanning, n = 1–200 amplitude values of a signal are read with the ADC of the data collection
board at each point of the scanning field, and the average value is found, which is recorded in the cell (xi, yi)
of the matrix of the scanning field. If the rate of data transformation by the ADC is 10 kHz and 100 ampli-
tudes of a signal are measured at a point, measuring at one point will take 0.01 s. If there are 200 × 200
points in a scan, the scanning may take 20–25 min including the data collection and displacement of the
stepper motor. The information stored during scanning as a data array is displayed as a 2D image on the
computer monitor in gray scale or in different color combinations of up to 256 gradations.

(a) (b) (c)

0 1.0
0.9
0.8
50
0.7
0.6
Y, μm

100 0.5
0.4
150 0.3
0.2
0.1
200 0
100μm 0 50 100 150 200
X, μm

Fig. 7. (a) Outlined area in an integrated circuit; (b) its optical image; (c) its acoustic micrograph (scanning area 200 × 200 μm,
scanning step along the X and Y axes of 2.5 μm, focusing at the level z = 10 μm below the surface of the specimen).

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682 KORKH et al.

Micropores
(a) (b)
0
100
200
300

Y, μm
400
500
600
700
140μm 0 50 150 200
X, μm

Fig. 8. (a) Optical image of an area of a crack, magnification 58×; (b) acoustic image (focusing at the level z = 10 μm below
the specimen surface), scanning field 700 × 700 μm, step along the X axis of 10 μm and along the Y axis of 5 μm.

(a) (b)
0

200
Y, μm

400

600

100μm 800

0 200 400 600

X, μm

Fig. 9. (a) Optical image of the central part of the crack, magnification 100×; (b) acoustic image (focus at the depth z = 10 μm
under the surface of the specimen), step along the X and Y axes of 5 μm.

(a) (b)
0
50
microcrack
100
150
Y, μm

200
250
300
100μm
350
0 200 400 600
X, μm

Fig. 10. (a) Optical image of the microcrack above the crack, magnification 100×; (b) acoustic image (focus at the depth
z = 2 μm under the surface of the specimen), step along the X and Y axes of 2.5 μm.

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Vol. 45 No. 10 2009

 SCANNING ACOUSTIC MICROSCOPE FOR VISUALIZATION 683

Figure 6 shows the necessity of scanning the specimens with a large number of measurements of the sig-
nal amplitudes at each point of the scanning field (averaging). It is seen that increasing the number of mea-
surements at each point of the scanning field really improves the image sharpness and quality and increases
the signal-to-noise ratio. The relative error of measuring the amplitude of the output signal at an individual
point of the scanning field does not exceed 0.3%.
To illustrate the possibilities of the developed scanning acoustic microscope, an optical micrograph and
an acoustic micrograph of part of an integrated circuit are shown in Fig. 7. It is seen that the acoustic image
bears additional information on interior layers of the microchip, which are not seen in the optical micro-
graph. A change in the contrast observed in the image of grooves of the microchip may be related to exfo-
liations or disturbed adhesion.

STUDIES OF CRACKLIKE FLAWS WITH THE ACOUSTIC MICROSCOPE

Let us consider some results illustrating the efficiency of the developed laboratory scanning acoustic
microscope for obtaining information on microflaws in various materials. It is of interest to take acoustic
micrographs of different parts of a crack in a steel specimen and to compare them to optical images.
Figures 8a and 8b show optical and acoustic micrographs of the area of a crack on which its width is ~40 μm.
Good agreement in the images is seen, but the acoustic image bears additional information on the surface
layer of the specimen, so that an ensemble of small pores near the crack is seen in the acoustic micrograph,
which is not seen in the optical micrograph.
The optical and acoustic images of the central part of the crack are shown in Figs. 9a and 9b. Dark spots
in Fig. 9a are from rust on the surface of the specimen, which impedes analysis of the optical micrograph.
It follows from Fig. 9b that the acoustic image does not contain information on the rust but shows a change
in the elastic properties of the object and the presence of microflaws (micropores, chains of micropores)
under the rust. The width of opening of the central part of the crack is 25–30 μm, which agrees with the data
of metallographic studies of the specimen.
Figure 10 shows an image of the crack with a microcrack propagating above it in the same direction,
whose width does not exceed 1–2 μm according to optical measurements. It is difficult to detect this micro-
crack because it is under rust, but, although the minimum scanning step is 2.5 μm, the acoustic image
(Fig. 10b) reveals the microcrack quite clearly.
It is necessary to note the requirements for the quality of the surfaces of the specimens prepared for scan-
ning electron microscopy. According to [19], the difference in heights of the surface within the acoustic beam
should be no more than ~λ/8. This means that, at a frequency of 400 MHz, the roughness of the surface of a
steel specimen should not exceed ~1.5 μm. For the small size of the spot of the focused acoustic beam, these
conditions are met for an unpolished surface at a high frequency of ultrasound (400 MHz). Owing to this cir-
cumstance, it turns out to be possible to study polished specimens having surface roughnesses Rz ~ 10–15 μm
with spots of rust and scratches; this testing is absolutely impossible if unfocused radiation is used.
Thus, acoustic images can bear additional information on changes in the elastic properties of a material
and on the presence of microflaws in subsurface metal layers independently of the presence of coatings and
rust on the surface of specimens. The geometrical sizes of the observed structures in the acoustic images
agree well with the measurements made by optical micrographs. The calculated amplification reached with
the help of the developed acoustic microscope is 250–300.

CONCLUSIONS
The studies performed confirm the possibility of efficient use of the developed scanning acoustic micro-
scope with the focusing acoustic lens at a frequency of ~400 MHz for detailed study and visualization of
microflaws of various types and geometries (microcracks, microscratches on the surface, micropores of dif-
ferent sizes, etc.) in surface and subsurface layers in various materials, including optically nontransparent
ones. It is shown that the acoustic microscope makes it possible to acquire new or additional information as
compared to the optical microscope.
The probing depth of metals and alloys for the given frequency used in the optical microscope is 10–30 μm,
and the resolution of the acoustic microscope is about 3 μm.

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 684 KORKH et al.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The study was performed within the framework of the program of the Russian Academy of Sciences
(theme no. 01.2.006 13393) and partly supported by the Program of the Presidium of the Russian Academy
of Sciences (no. 2, 2009).

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