CHAPTER 5: INTRODUCTION TO ACTIVE N-type semiconductors is a material with
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS millions of free electrons floating, brought
Semiconductor is a material that is neither a
good conductor nor a good insulator. In their
purest form, semiconductors have few
applications in electronics.
Doping is when characteristics of a pure
semiconductor are altered through a process.
Diode is most basic semiconductor device. It is a
device that allows current to pass through it in
only one direction.
One of the most useful applications is
converting an ac voltage into a dc voltage.
When used for this purpose, diodes are typically
referred to as rectifier diodes.
DIODES AND RECTIFIERS
Semiconductors conduct less than metal
conductors but more than insulators.
Common Semiconductor Materials:
• Silicon (Si)
• Germanium (Ge)
• Carbon (C)
Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor
material in the electronics industry. Almost all
diodes, transistors, and ICs manufactured today
are made from silicon.
Intrinsic semiconductors - semiconductors in
their purest form, example would be a
semiconductor crystal with only silicon atoms.
Extrinsic semiconductors - semiconductors with
other atoms mixed in, other atoms are called
impurity atoms.
Doping is a process of adding impurity atoms to
an intrinsic semiconductor which alters the
characteristics of the semiconductor, mainly its
conductivity.
about by the excess free electrons from doping
an intrinsic semiconductor.
Electron is the basic particle of negative charge.
It is called an n- type semiconductor material. It
is also called the majority current carriers.
Holes are called the minority current carriers.
Since it exhibits a positive charge, we call this a
p-type semiconductor material.
P-type semiconductors is a material with
millions of holes created, brought about by the
vacancies from doping an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Electrons are the minority carriers in p - type
semiconductor material, whereas holes are the
majority current carriers.
Diode is a popular semiconductor device made
by joining p - and n - type semiconductor
materials; unidirectional devices that allow
current to flow through them in only one
direction.
Depletion zone is the area where the positive
and negative ions are located. Other names
commonly used are depletion region and
depletion layer.
Barrier potential - potential difference created
by ions in the depletion region of p-n junction of
a diode, usually designated by VB.
For silicon, the barrier potential at the p - n
junction is approximately 0.7 V while 0.3 V For
germanium.
The barrier potential cannot be measured
externally with a voltmeter, but it does exist at
the p - n junction.
The barrier potential stops the diffusion of
current carriers
Forward –biased p-n junction
• The term bias is defined as a control
voltage or current. Forward biasing a
diode allows current to flow easily
through the diode.
Reverse –biased p-n junction
• Denotes a voltage across the diode in
the opposite direction; conducts a small
amount of current, called leakage
Current mainly due to the minority
current carriers in both sections of the
diode.
Leakage current
• current that flows prior to breakdown is
mainly the result of thermally produced
minority current carriers
• Increases mainly with temperature and
is relatively independent of changes in
reverse-bias voltage.
• The slight increase in reverse current, IR
, with increases in the reverse voltage,
VR , is a result of surface leakage
current. Surface leakage current exists
because there are many holes on the
edges of a silicon crystal due to unfilled
covalent bonds.
Avalanche occurs when the reverse-bias
voltage, VR , becomes excessive.
USING OHMMETER TO CHECK YOUR DIODE
When using an analog meter, check the
resistance of the diode in one direction; then
reverse the meter leads and measure the
resistance of the diode in the other direction.
GOOD: it should measure a very high resistance
in one direction and a low resistance in the
other direction
SHORTED: it will measure a low resistance in
both directions.
OPEN: it will measure a high resistance in both
directions.
When using analog ohmmeters to check a
diode, do not use the R x 1 range because the
current forced through the diode by the meter
may exceed the current rating of the diode. The
R x 100 range is usually the best range on which
to check a diode.
USING DMMs TO CHECK YOUR DIODE
• Most digital multimeters (DMMs)
cannot be used to measure the forward
or reverse resistance of a diode
junction.
• Therefore, the resistance ranges on a
DMM are often referred to as low
power ohm (LP) ranges.
• Most digital multimeters provide a
special range for testing diodes. This
range is called the diode range. This is
the only range setting on the DMM that
can provide the proper amount of
forward bias for the diode being tested.
• A good silicon diode tested with a
DMM should show a voltage between
0.6 and 0.7 V for one connection of the
meter leads and an overrange condition
for the opposite connection of the
leads.
• An open diode will show an overrange
condition for both connections of the
meter leads, whereas a shorted diode
will show a very low or zero reading for
both connections of the meter leads.
CHECKING DIODES
Breakdown voltage rating, VBR
• the voltage at which avalanche occurs
• extremely important since the diode is
usually destroyed if this rating
(maximum) is exceeded
• can be designated by any of the
following:
 • peak inverse voltage (PIV)
• peak reverse voltage (PRV)
• breakdown voltage rating (VBR)
• peak reverse voltage maximum (VRRM)
Average forward current rating, Io
• indicates the maximum allowable
average current that the diode can
handle safely
• usually designated as IO
• Exceeding the diode’s IO rating will
destroy the diode
DIODE RATINGS
Maximum forwards surge current rating, IFSM
• the maximum instantaneous
• current the diode can handle safely
from a single pulse
• when power is first applied, the initial
charge current for the capacitor can be
very high and exceeding the IFSM rating
will destroy the diode.
Maximum Reverse Current, IR
• almost all data sheets list at least one
value of reverse current, IR , for a
specified amount of reverse bias
voltage.
• reverse resistance, RR , of the diode can
be calculated using IR and VR
DIODES APPROXIMATION
First approximation
• treats a forward-biased diode like a
closed switch with a voltage drop of
zero volts
• treats a reverse-biased diode like an
open switch with zero current
• often used if only a rough idea is
needed of what the circuit voltages and
currents should be
• The first approximation is sometimes
called the ideal diode approximation
Second approximation
• treats a forward-biased diode like
an ideal diode in series with a
battery
• The second approximation of a
reverse-biased diode is an open
switch
• For silicon diodes, the battery
voltage is assumed to be 0.7 V, the
same as the barrier potential, VB, at
a silicon p-n junction.
• used if more accurate answers are
needed for circuit calculations
Third approximation
• includes the bulk resistance, designated
rB (resistance of the p and n material
and is dependent on the doping level
and the size of the p and n materials.)
• total diode voltage drop in the 3rd
approximation is calculated using
• Third approximation for a reversed-
biased diode exhibits high leakage
resistance
Diode as a rectifier
• The main application of p-n junction
diode is in rectification circuits. These
circuits are used to describe the
conversion of ac signals to dc in power
supplies.
• Diode rectifier gives an alternating
voltage which pulsates in accordance
with time. The filter smooths the
pulsation in the voltage and to produce
d.c voltage, a regulator is used which
removes the ripples.
• There are two primary methods of
diode rectification:
o Half Wave Rectifiers
o Full Wave Rectifiers
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS • Easy to use as the connections are
simple
Half-wave rectifiers
• Number of components used are less
• Half-wave rectifiers transform AC
Disadvantages
voltage to DC voltage.
• A halfwave rectifier circuit uses only • Ripple production is more
one diode for the transformation. • Harmonics are generated
• A halfwave rectifier is defined as a type • Utilization of the transformer is very low
of rectifier that allows only one-half • The efficiency of rectification is low
cycle of an AC voltage waveform to
pass while blocking the other half cycle.
• A half-wave rectifier is the simplest
form of the rectifier and requires only
one diode for the construction of a
halfwave rectifier circuit.
• A halfwave rectifier circuit consists of
three main components as follows:
diode, transformer and a resistive load
Ripple Factor of Half-Wave Rectifier
Half-wave rectifiers work how?
• Ripple factor determines how well a
• A high AC voltage is applied to the halfwave rectifier can convert AC
primary side of the step-down voltage to DC voltage.
transformer. The obtained secondary
• The ripple factor of a halfwave rectifier
low voltage is applied to the diode.
is 1.21.
• The diode is forward biased during the
• Ripple factor can be quantified using
positive half cycle of the AC voltage and
the following formula:
reverse biased during the negative half
cycle.

Half-wave rectifiers applications

• They are used for signal demodulation

purpose ( AM signals)
Efficiency of Half Wave Rectifier
• They are used for applications (used
along with a transformer for power • The efficiency of a halfwave
rectification as powering equipment) rectifier is the ratio of output DC
• They are used for signal peak power to the input AC power.
applications (used for detecting the • The efficiency formula for halfwave
peak of the incoming waveform) rectifier is given as follows
Advantages

• Affordable
• Simple connections
RMS Value of Half Wave Rectifier
• The RMS value of the load current for a
half-wave rectifier is given by the
formula
Form Factor of Half-Wave Rectifier
• The form factor is the ratio between
RMS value and average value and is
given by the formula:
Full-wave rectifiers
Significant power is lost while using a
half-wave rectifier and is not feasible for
applications that need a smooth and steady
supply.
• A full wave rectifier is defined as a
rectifier that converts the complete
cycle of alternating current into
pulsating DC.
• Unlike halfwave rectifiers that utilize
only the halfwave of the input AC cycle,
full wave rectifiers utilize the full cycle.
The lower efficiency of the half wave
rectifier can be overcome by the full
wave rectifier.
• The circuit of the full wave rectifier can
be constructed in two ways. The first
method uses a centre tapped
transformer and two diodes. This
arrangement is known as a centre-
tapped full wave rectifier.
• The second method uses a standard
transformer with four diodes arranged
as a bridge. This is known as a bridge
rectifier.
• The circuit of the full wave rectifier
consists of a step-down transformer and
two diodes that are connected and
centre-tapped. The output voltage is
obtained across the connected load
resistor.
Full-wave rectifiers works how?
• The input AC supplied to the full wave
rectifier is very high. The step-down
transformer in the rectifier circuit
converts the high voltage AC into low
voltage AC. The anode of the centre
tapped diodes is connected to the
transformer’s secondary winding and
connected to the load resistor. During
the positive half cycle of the alternating
current, the top half of the secondary
winding becomes positive while the
second half of the secondary winding
becomes negative.
• During the positive half cycle, diode D1
is forward biased as it is connected to
the top of the secondary winding while
diode D2 is reverse biased as it is
connected to the bottom of the
secondary winding. Due to this, diode
D1 will conduct acting as a short circuit
and D2 will not conduct acting as an
open circuit
• During the negative half cycle, the diode
D1 is reverse biased and the diode D2 is
forward biased because the top half of
the secondary circuit becomes negative
and the bottom half of the circuit
becomes positive. Thus in a full wave
rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained for
both positive and negative half cycle.
Full-wave rectifiers applications
• used for supplying polarized voltage in
welding and for this bridge rectifiers are
used
 • used for detecting the amplitude of • The efficiency of a halfwave rectifier is
modulated radio signals. the ratio of output DC power to the
input AC power.
Advantages
• The efficiency formula for halfwave
• The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is given as follows
rectifier is high
• The power loss is very low
• Number of ripples generated are less
hence a simple filter is required
• The output voltage and the output
power obtained in full wave rectifiers
are higher RMS Value of Half Wave Rectifier
Disadvantages • The RMS value of the load current for a
half-wave rectifier is given by the
• need more circuit elements than the
formula
half wave rectifier which makes, making
it more expensive.

Form Factor of Half-Wave Rectifier

• The form factor is the ratio between

RMS value and average value and is
given by the formula:

Peak Inverse Voltage

• Peak inverse voltage is the maximum Full-wave (bridge-type) rectifiers

voltage a diode can withstand in the
• a type of full-wave rectifier that uses
reverse biased direction before
four or more diodes in a bridge circuit
breakdown
configuration to efficiently convert
alternating (AC) current to a direct (DC)
current.
• the bridge rectifier circuit is made of
four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load
Peak Factor resistor RL. The four diodes are
connected in a closed-loop
configuration to efficiently convert the
alternating current (AC) into Direct
DC Output Voltage Current (DC). The main advantage of
this configuration is the absence of the
expensive center tapped transformer.
 Therefore, the size and cost are
reduced.
Full-wave (bridge-type) rectifiers works how?
• When an AC signal is applied across the
bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes
positive during the positive half cycle
while terminal B becomes negative. This
results in diodes D1 and D3 becoming
forward biased while D2 and D4
becoming reverse biased.
• During the negative half-cycle, terminal
B becomes positive while terminal A
becomes negative. This causes diodes
D2 and D4 to become forward biased
and diode D1 and D3 to be reverse
biased.
• From the figures given, we notice that
the current flow across load resistor RL
is the same during the positive and
negative half cycles. The output DC
signal polarity may be either completely
positive or negative. In our case, it is
completely positive. If the diodes’
direction is reversed, we get a complete
negative DC voltage. Thus, a bridge
rectifier allows electric current during
both positive and negative half cycles of
the input AC signal.
Full-wave bridge type rectifiers
Advantages
• The efficiency of the bridge rectifier is
higher than the efficiency of a half-
wave rectifier.
• The DC output signal of the bridge
rectifier is smoother than the output
DC signal of a half-wave rectifier.
• In a bridge rectifier, the electric current
is allowed during both positive and
negative half cycles of the input AC
signal. Hence, the output DC signal is
almost equal to the input AC signal.
Disadvantages
• The circuit of a bridge rectifier is
complex when compared to a half-
wave rectifier and centre-tapped
full-wave rectifier.
• More power loss occurs and
voltage drop is higher in a bridge
rectifier.
Light-emitting diodes (LED)
• When elements such as gallium, arsenic,
and phosphorus are used in doping, a
manufacturer can make diodes that
emit different colors of light called light-
emitting diodes (LEDs). Some common
LED colors are red, green, yellow,
orange, and even infrared (invisible)
light and are widely used as decorative
lamps, used in television remote, optical
communication, automotive, and
display devices.
• Light-Emitting Diodes require less power
to operate. They adapt to instant on-off
 switching capability. They are
economical and offer long-life durability.
• The internal barrier potential, VB, for an
LED is considerably higher than that of
an ordinary silicon diode. Typical values
of VB for an LED range from
approximately 1.5 to 2.5 V.
• LEDs have a very low breakdown
voltage rating. Typical values of VBR
range from 3 to 15 V. Because of the
low value of breakdown voltage,
accidentally applying even a small value
of reverse voltage can destroy the LED
or severely degrade its performance.
• The exact amount of forward voltage
drop varies with the color of the LED
and also with the forward current
through the LED. In most cases, the LED
voltage drop can be assumed to be 2.0
V for all LED colors and all values of
forward current. This is a convenient
value to use in troubleshooting and
design.
Zener diodes
• Zener diode is a special type of
semiconductor diode that allows
current to flow in the reverse direction.
It is a unique diode that is designed to
conduct in the reverse direction when a
certain specified voltage is reached.
Transistors Types and Family
• The first person to describe the
electrical properties of Zener Diode is
Clarence Melvin Zener.
• The Zener diode features a heavily
doped p-n junction that allows the
current to flow in either forward or
reverse direction.
• Zener voltage is also known as knee
voltage or the voltage that is sufficient
for the reverse breakdown condition
which allows the diode to conduct in
the reverse direction.
• Zener Effect is a type of electrical
breakdown that occurs in a reverse-
biased condition of the Zener diode.
• The power dissipation in a zener diode
must always be less than its power
dissipation rating. The power rating of a
zener is designated PZM
• Zener diodes can be used as loaded and
unloaded voltage regulator applications
TRANSISTORS
• W. Shockley, J. Barden, and W. Brattain
invented the transistor in 1947. The
term transistor' is derived from the
words 'transfer' and resistor.' These
words describe the operation of a BJ
which is the transfer of an input signal
from a low resistance circuit to a high
resistance circuit.
• Transistors are used when it is
necessary to amplify voltage, current,
and power. With a small signal applied
to the transistor amplifier, the transistor
and its associated circuitry can produce
an amplified version of the input signal.
• The output signal can be hundreds or
even thousands of times larger than the
input signal. In computer circuits, the
transistor can be used as an electronic
switch.
• As mentioned earlier, on a broader
scale, the major families of transistors
are BJTs and FETs. Irrespective of the
family they belong to, all transistors
have proper / specific arrangement of
different semiconductor materials.
• Commonly used semiconductor
materials for manufacturing transistor
are Silicon, Germanium and Gallium-
Arsenide.
• Basically, the transistors are classified
depending on their structure. Each type
 of transistors has their own
characteristics, advantages and
disadvantages.
• Physically and structurally speaking, the
difference between BJT and FET is that
in BJT both majority and minority
charge carriers are required to operate,
whereas in case FETs, only majority
charge carriers are required.
• Based on their properties and
characteristics, some transistors are
primarily used for switching purpose
(MOSFETs) and on the other hand, some
are transistors are used for amplification
purpose (BJTs). Some transistors are
designed for both amplification and
switching purposes
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (bjts)
• Junction Transistors are generally called
as Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). The
term ‘Bipolar’ means both electrons
and holes are required for conducting
current and the term ‘Junction’ means it
contain PN Junction (two junctions, in
fact).
• The BJTs have three terminals named
Emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C).
The BJT transistors are classified in to
NPN and PNP transistors depending on
the construction.
• BJTs are essentially current-controlled
devices. If small amount of current
flows through the base of a BJT
transistor, then it causes a flow of large
METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT
current from emitter to collector. The
TRANSISTOR (MOSFETs)
Bipolar Junction Transistors have low
input impedance and it causes to flow
large current through the transistor.
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FETs)
• The Field-Effect-Transistor (FET) is
another major type of transistor.
Basically, the FET also have three
terminals (like BJTs). The three terminals
are: Gate (G), Drain (D) and Source (S).
Field Effect Transistor are classified into
Junction Field Effect transistors (JFET)
and Insulated Gate Field Effect
Transistors (IG-FET) or Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors
(MOSFET).
• For the connections in the circuit, we
also consider a fourth terminal called
Base or Substrate. The FETs have control
on the size and shape of a channel
between Source and Drain, which is
created by voltage applied at Gate.
• The Field Effect Transistors are uni-polar
devices, as they require only the
majority charge carriers to operate
(unlike BJT, which are bipolar
transistors).
JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FETs)
• The Junction-Field-Effect transistor
(JFET) is an earliest and simple type
of Field Effect Transistor. The JFETs
are used as switches, amplifiers and
resistors. This transistor is a voltage-
controlled device. It doesn’t need
any biasing current.
• The voltage applied between gate
and source controls the flow of
electric current between source and
drain of the transistor. The JFET
transistors are available in both N–
Channel and P–Channel types.
• Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor (MOSFET) is most commonly
used and most popular type of among
all transistors. The name ‘Metal Oxide’
indicates that the Gate region and the
channel are separated by a thin layer of
metal oxide (usually, SiO2).
 • Hence, MOSFET is also known as
Insulated Gate FET as the Gate region is
completely insulated from the Source –
Drain region. There is an extra terminal
known as Substrate or Body, which is
the main Semiconductor (Silicon) in
which the FET is fabricated. So, the
MOSFET has four terminals drain,
source, gate and body or substrate.
• MOSFET has many advantages over BJT
and JFET, mainly it offers high input
impedance and low output impedance.
It is used in switching and power circuits
and it is a main component on
Integrated Circuit designing
technologies.
• The MOSFET transistors are available in
depletion and enhancement types.
Further, the depletion and
enhancement types are classified into
N–Channel and P–Channel types.
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJTs)
• A bipolar junction transistor is a three
terminal semiconductor device that
consists of two p-n junctions which are
able to amplify or magnify a signal.
• It is a current controlled device.
• The three terminals of the BJT are the
base, the collector, and the emitter.
• A signal of a small amplitude applied to
the base is available in the amplified
form at the collector of the transistor.
This is the amplification provided by the
BJT.
• Note that it does require an external
source of DC power supply to carry out
the amplification process.
PNP BJTs
• In PNP BJT, the n-type semiconductor is
sandwiched between the two p-type
semiconductors. The two p-type
semiconductors act as emitter and
collector respectively while the n-type
semiconductor acts as a base.
• The current enters the transistor
through the emitter such that the
emitter-base junction is forward biased
and the collector-base junction is
reverse biased.
NPN BJTs
• In NPN BJT, p-type semiconductor is
sandwiched between the two n-type
semiconductors. The two n-type
semiconductors act as emitter and
collector respectively while the p-type
semiconductor acts as a base.
• Current entering the emitter, base, and
collector has the sign convention of
positive while the current that leaves
the transistor has the sign convention of
negative.
A transistor has three doped regions. For both
types, the base is a narrow region sandwiched
between the larger collector and emitter
regions.
• The npn and pnp transistors are not different
in terms of their ability to amplify voltage,
current, or power.
• Each type, however, does require different
polarities of operating voltages.
• For example, the collectoremitter voltage,
VCE, of an npn transistor must be positive, and
the collector-emitter voltage, VCE, must be
negative for the pnp type.
• In npn transistors, the majority current
carriers are free electrons in the emitter
and collector, whereas the majority
current carriers are holes in the base.
• The opposite is true in a pnp transistor
where the majority current carriers are
holes in the emitter and collector, and
 the majority current carriers are free
electrons in the base.
• Transistor models such as the Glenn
In summary, it is important to note the
following points about the construction of a
transistor:
1. The emitter region is heavily doped. Its
APPLICATIONS OF BJT
job is to emit or inject current carriers into
the base region. For npn transistors, the n -
type emitter injects free electrons into the
base. For pnp transistors, the p –type
emitter injects holes into the base.
2. The base is very thin and lightly doped.
Most of the current carriers injected into
the base region cross over into the collector
side and do not flow out the base lead.
3. The collector region is moderately
doped. It is also the largest region within
the transistor. Its function is to collect or
attract current carriers injected into the
base region.
region where minority carriers are
concentrated.
poon model are responsible for the
distribution of the charge which
explains the behaviour of a transistor.
• We know that a bipolar junction
transistor is used as a switch, as an
amplifier, as a filter, and even as an
oscillator. Below is the list of other
applications of bipolar junction
transistor:
• BJT is used as a detector or also
known as a demodulator.
• BJT finds application in clipping
circuits so that the waves can be
shaped.
• Logic circuits and switching circuits
use BJT.

ACTIVE REGION

The region in which the transistors operate

as an amplifier.

SATURATION REGION

The region in which the transistor is fully on

and operates as a switch such that collector
current is equal to the saturation current.

CUT-OFF REGION

The region in which the transistor is fully off

and collector current is equal to zero.

VOLTAGE, CHARGE CONTROL AND CONFIGURATION OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION

CURRENT TRANSISTORS

• The base-emitter current is controlled • Since a Bipolar Junction Transistor is a

by the collector emitter current. This
conclusion is drawn by the current-
voltage relation of the base-emitter
junction. Collector current has a base
three-terminal device, there are three
ways to connect it within an electric
circuit while one terminal is the same
for both output and input. Every
method of connection responds
 differently to the input signals within a
circuit.
• COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION –
has both voltage and current gain
• THE COMMON COLLECTOR
CONFIGURATION – has no voltage gain
but has a current gain
• THE COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION –
has no current gain but has a voltage
gain
USING OHMMETER TO CHECK YOUR
TRANSISTOR
• An analog ohmmeter can be used to
check a transistor because the emitter-
base and collector-base junctions are p-
n junctions
• To check the base-emitter junction of an
npn transistor, first connect the
ohmmeter as shown in Fig. 28–9 a , and
then reverse the ohmmeter leads as
shown in Fig. 28–9 b.
• To check the collector-base
junction, repeat the process
described for the base-emitter
junction. For clarity, the ohmmeter
connections are shown in Fig. 28–
10.
• Although not shown, the resistance
measured between the collector
and emitter should read high or
infinite for both connections of the
meter leads.
SHORTED AND OPEN JUNCTIONS
Low resistance across the junction in
both directions implies that the emitter-base or
collector-base junctions are shorted. If the
ohmmeter indicates high resistance in both
directions, then the junctions are open. In both
cases, the transistor is defective and must be
replaced.
USING DMMs TO CHECK YOUR TRANSISTOR
• The LP ranges of a DMM are useful
when it is necessary to measure
resistances in a transistor circuit
where the forward-biasing of a p-n
junction could cause an undesired
parallel path across the resistance
being measured.
• When using a DMM to check the
diode junctions in a transistor, the
diode range must be used.
However, the meter will show the
forward voltage dropped across the
p-n junction being tested rather
than the actual value of forward or
reverse resistance.
• For a forward-biased, emitter-base,
or collector-base, silicon p-n
junction, the DMM usually indicates
a voltage between 0.6 and 0.7 V. For
the reverse bias condition, the
meter indicates an overrange
condition.