2.

1 Given a scenario, deploy the

appropriate cabling solution.
Media types
Copper
Coaxial cable is considered a legacy network cable, but you will still find it in cable TV installations.
For networks, it has been replaced by twisted pair and fiberoptic cables. Knowledge of the Coaxial
cable and connectors is still required by the CompTIA Network+ objectives. So know the copper
cables and their connectors.

Coaxial Cable

UTP/ STP
Compare the Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable to the Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable. The
difference between the two cable types is in the internal construction of the cable, specifically the
amount of insulation or shielding surrounding each internal cable pair. Each internal pair is twisted
using a specified number of twists per inch. This reduces the possibility of the pairs being parallel to
each other and prevents crosstalk.
Plenum vs. PVC
Safety is your number one concern when running network cabling. This concerns not only the usual
such as dangling cables or running too close to power lines, but also the materials you are using.
The construction of the network cable you are running is something you may not consider, but when
examining cables you will find that the outer sheath generally consists of one or two types of
material, PVC (PolyVinylChloride) or Plenum grade. Incorrect usage of these two types could result
in you having to rewire your entire installation. PVC is cheaper and is perfectly suitable for patch
cables and exposed wiring, but once you run inside a dropped ceiling or any location that moves air,
plenum grade cabling is required by most states. PVC releases toxic fumes when ignited and it is
easily combustible. Plenum cable is less flammable than PVC and mandatory wherever ventilation is
present. Plenum cable will be clearly marked.

Fiber
Fiber optic transmissions use pulses of lights for signaling which are then sent over plastic or glass
strands. The glass medium (fiber) is susceptible to breakage and signal loss if it is bent over a
certain radius which is dependent on the thickness of the fiber. Fiber optic cable should never be
coiled tightly.
Fiber detail

The fiber core is protected using a plastic sheath wrapped in synthetic strength fibers, which give the
cable resistance to breakage. A plastic outer sheath completes the wire. If there is any concern
about moisture seeping into the cable, a synthetic gel is used to fill any gaps and protect the fiber
core

Single-mode/Multimode

Single-Mode Fiber (SMF) cable provides the highest bandwidth and longest distances compared to
multimode fiber (MMF). SMF uses a very small core and a laser as the light source making it best
suited for longer distance backbone connections because of its low signal loss. SMF is less tolerant
to bending. It is also more expensive than MMF. A LED can be used as the light source with MMF.
MMF has a considerably larger core supporting multiple signal paths. MMF is generally used for
shorter distances (>2km) since the larger core supports multiple signal paths and attenuation. MMF
is less expensive than SMF.

Connector types
We will define the copper connector type used with each cable standard for familiarity. Here are the
fiber connectors. In these cases the goal is to obtain maximum performance with minimal loss let’s
look at the evolution.All fiber connections have a small air gap between the fiber termination. Initially,
the fiber ends were more squared off and prone to some signal loss. They have evolved into the
Physical Contact Connector (PCC) which polishes the cable ends and reduces optical loss.

Ultra Physical Contact Connectors (UPC) represents a finer polish on the fiber PCC connection
allowing for more reliable signaling with less loss.

The APC (Angled Physical Contact Connector) is used in installations where very little (ORL) Optical
Return Loss is tolerated. By very little, we mean no more than 0.0001% of the signal is lost. This is
achieved using an 8-degree angled design on the cable ends making the air gap more diagonal and
allowing for tighter connections.

Here are the connector types you’ll need to know.

ST- The ST (Straight Tip) connector is one of the longstanding connector types. You will see this in
the field and should be able to recognize it on sight.

ST Fiber Connector

Helpful identification points are the BNC type connector and the straight tip on the fiber

SC- The SC (Subscriber Connector) has also been in use for some time and is a very reliable stable
snap-in connector that offers low signal loss along with ease of use. You may sometimes see this
connector called a standard connector or a square connector because of its shape. The ST and SC
connectors have a larger form factor than the Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack (MT-RJ) and LC.
SC Fiber Connector

LC- The LC connector is a newer design relative to the others. You may see it called a Local
Connector, Lucent connector or even Little Connector. Its main advantage is its size. The connector
is about half the size of the SC connector but otherwise completely comparable.

LC Fiber Connector

Transceivers
A good example of the need for a transceiver is when you have a fiber to premise installation. Here
the fiber MMF or SMF needs to be converted for use on an Ethernet network. On a large scale, your
company will obtain a switch to convert the fiber signals to supply Gigabit Ethernet RJ-45 ports. If
the fiber will be run to the desktop the fiber to Ethernet conversion is done with a transceiver. The
first transceiver developed for this purpose was the Gigabit interface converter (GBIC) capable of
supporting RJ-45 or SC connections. This device is past its prime and newer devices have become
more popular.

The small form-factor pluggable (SFP) transceiver aka mini GBIC has the same capabilities as the
GBIC while taking up less space. Generally used in 1 Gbps connections it is rated up to 5 Gbps.
SFP+ evolved and is now capable of 16 Gbps.

Quad small form-factor pluggable (QSFP) supports data rates of up to 40 Gbps by using four
channels on a single transceiver. This is codified in the IEEE 802.3ba standard.

Termination points
66 block / 110 block
Where copper cabling needs to be interconnected you will find at least one Intermediate distribution
frame (IDF) or punchdown block in the network or telco closet the IDF comes in two types the 66
block or the 110 block. They are called punchdown blocks because of the way you connect the
wires. Your wire is placed in each pin on the block. When seated properly a punchdown tool is used
to drive the wire int the pin and cut off the excess.

Punchdown Block

Patch panel
Each Ethernet deployment needs a method to distribute the signal. Usually you will have a switch
that will connect to a port on a patch panel. The patch panel is designed to enable you to distribute
the traffic to workstations or other switches. In our example you will see a 24 port patch panel at the
top. The 24 port network switch is in the middle and the server is on the bottom.
Copper cable standards
CAT3 – Used in the early days, twisted pair implementations of this type use up to six wires or
conductors. The most common use of CAT3 is the telephone which uses two pairs for each phone
connection. This means the cable itself can support two phone lines. Cat3 uses RJ-11 connectors.
Here we show the comparison of the two pair RJ-11 connector alongside the eight-pin RJ-45.

CAT5 – Getting harder to find and no longer installed, this cable rating uses four pairs and can
support up to 100Mbps transmission speeds with a maximum cable length of 100 meters (328 feet).
You can get higher speeds in real-world applications but for the purpose of A+, remember the
specification described here. Cat5 uses RJ-45 connectors.

CAT5e – This cable is known as CAT5 Enhanced where the enhancement refers to reduced
crosstalk. This doesn’t sound like a big deal until you look at the speed improvement. How does 10
times faster sound? CAT5e supports gigabit ethernet (1000Mbps)! This can be attributed to a stricter
attention to the number of twists per inch in the pairs. Remember, your hardware has to support the
speed. It’s not a magic cable. CAT5e supports 1Gbps with a maximum cable length of 90 meters
(295 feet). Cat5e uses RJ-45 connectors.
CAT6 – OK now we’re cooking! CAT6 supports 10Gbps at a frequency of 250 Mhz. These speeds
can be attributed to a further reduction in crosstalk. While maintaining the same external RJ-45 form,
the connector and cable are engineered to further isolate the cables from each other, resulting in the
higher throughput.

CAT6 RJ-45

The wires are arranged in the connector to allow a slight, yet significant separation compared with
CAT5 wires, which run straight, horizontal, and adjacent to each other. As you know, parallel cables
will practically guarantee crosstalk. The maximum length for a CAT6 is 90 meters with an additional
10 meters for a patch cable. Cat6 uses RJ-45 connectors.

CAT6e – This enhancement doubles the transmission frequency to 500 MHz and restores the
traditional segment length to 100 meters (328 feet). This is technically not a standard but CAT6e is
widely recognized and observed. Cat6e uses RJ-45 connectors.

CAT7 – This performance standard increases the transmission frequency to 600 MHz and provides
a more reliable and durable cable than its predecessors. CAT7 wraps the entire insulated pair with
an additional layer, wrapping the whole cable bundle to provide an additional layer of shielding. Cat7
uses RJ-45 connectors.

Serial connections between devices is made possible by using the legacy DB-9 and DB-25
connectors conforming to the RS-232 standard. It was common to connect directly to a switch or
router using this connection type. The connectors are named after their “D” shape and the number of
pins 9 or 25. Good luck finding this connection on today’s PCs
Copper termination standards

The TIA and EIA standards are the same for the configuration with the TIA being more widely used.
A cable that is terminated identically at both ends as T-568b or T-568a is called a straight-through
cable and is used to connect computers to devices like hubs, switches and routers. The transmitting
pair of wires on the PC will be received on the device. This is the most common RJ-45 Ethernet
termination. When PC to PC connections are directly connected to each other a crossover cable is
used. The crossover cable uses T-568a termination on one end and T-568b on the other this
switches the send/receive pairs and enables the connection.

You will encounter two types of coaxial cables in the environment as follows:

RG-6- F-type
Your objectives call for knowledge of the F-Type connector. This is not as much a network connector
as it is video. Your Home Media Center PC will require this connector to connect your cable or
antenna system to the PC.
F Type

Using RG-6 cable the connection for this is an F-type connector. It is similar to BNC with the
difference being that the F connector screws on to the component using multiple rotations of the
connector to the unit creating a connection that is more likely fail in the cable than it is at the
connection point. The connection is strong and extremely unlikely to pull out.

RG-59- BNC
Thinnet or RG-59 cabling is largely obsolete, but you never know…

RG 59 Coaxial

This 10BASE2 connector and cable were harder to manage than its 10BASET cousin. It used BNC
connectors and a somewhat less manageable shielded copper core cable. It matched the 10Mbps
speed and had a longer range but it was difficult to implement the required bus topology and needed
a T connection at each host along with termination at the cable ends to prevent signal reflection.

Ethernet deployment standards

100BaseT is deployed over CAT5 (or better) cabling using RJ-45 connectors terminated to the
TIA-568A or TIA-568B standard. This is called Fast Ethernet and supports speeds up to 100Mbps.

1000BaseT is deployed over CAT5 (or better) cabling using RJ-45 connectors terminated to the
TIA-568A or TIA-568B standard. This is called Gigabit Ethernet and supports speeds up to 1Gbps.

1000BaseLX uses SMF or MMF fiber connections and is comparable to Gigabit Ethernet.
Termination will be based on fiber type and wavelength.

1000BaseSX uses different modulation techniques over MMF and has a shorter range. Termination
will be based on fiber type and wavelength.

10GBaseT is deployed over CAT6a (or better) cabling using RJ-45 connectors terminated to the
TIA-568A or TIA-568B standard. This is called 10-GigabitEthernet and supports speeds up to
10Gbps.

2.2 Given a scenario, determine the

appropriate placement of
networking devices on a network
and install/configure them.
Hub
A hub is a multiport repeater that sends the data received on one port and sends it to all other ports
on the device. This is acceptable on small networks but as networks grew the increased traffic was
sent to all ports and prone to collisions A hub operates in half-duplex mode meaning it can not send
and receive data simultaneously. Hubs are virtually obsolete largely due to the low cost and
improved performance of switches.
Hub

Bridge
A bridge is a Layer 2 device that can be used to connect dissimilar network topologies like wireless
to Ethernet. or to segment a large network into smaller ones to reduce traffic and collisions. The
bridge uses MAC addresses and software to direct network traffic. A bridge is a Layer 2 device.

Switch
A switch is a Layer 2 device that can eliminate collisions and speed up traffic. Switches operate in
full duplex mode allowing simultaneous send and receive capabilities between each port. In contrast
to a hub that transmits data to all ports. The switch uses the Layer 2 MAC address to send the data
to only the intended recipients. You may see a switch referred to as a MAC Bridge. There are more
switch features that we will look at in the next edition.

Switch

Router
A router uses IP addresses to direct traffic. When configured properly it can manage traffic between
subnets and VLANs. Routers are the backbone of the internet. They can quickly determine the best
path between two points and reroute traffic around device failures or congestion. Routers can be
configured to permit or deny communication based on the protocol used, IP addressing and port
number. Routers use Access Control Lists (ACL)to define traffic behavior.

Modems
Modems perform the function of translating a signal from different formats. We call this process
modulation when we are transmitting and demodulation when receiving the signals MODEM for
short The most recognizable example is the Phone modem that takes the audio analog signal sent
across a connection using the Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) connection and converts
(demodulates) it to a digital signal for the PC. The PCs digital response is then modulated to analog
for transmission. It is quite common to see cable modems in many networks. The cable modem
converts the digital signal from the provider and converts it to Ethernet or wireless signals making it
more of a bridge than a modem.

Firewall
A firewall can be a hardware device or software. The hardware device is called a network-based
firewall. Firewall software installed on individual devices is called a host-based firewall In a network
diagram, the firewall is shown as a device and looks like a brick wall. A standard firewall filters traffic
based on the Layer 4 Port and protocol (packet filter). There should always be a firewall between
your private network and the internet.

Firewall

Wireless access point

A wireless access point (WAP) is capable of receiving wireless signals from multiple nodes and then
retransmitting them within its coverage area. It is important that the WAPs are placed effectively and
have enough power to perform their function.
Media converter
Operating at OSI Layer 1 a media converter enables you to take advantage of the optimal network
media to meet your needs. For example, if you need a connection that exceeds the 100m Ethernet
limitation you can switch from copper to fiberoptic media on one end and then back to copper using
another media converter if necessary.

Wireless range extender

A wireless range extender works by repeating all wireless signals, thereby extending the effective
range of wireless transmissions. These are common in home deployments where the signal does
not cover the entire living area. The wireless range extender can be placed strategically to provide
the necessary coverage.

VoIP endpoint
The VoIP endpoint is the device that receives VoIP traffic intended for it. The devices here cover a
wide range and include IoT devices. Here we will define PCs with VoIP capabilities and mobile
devices like cell phones and enabled tablets. The most common implementation is VoIP telephones.

Multilayer switch
We can take what we know about hubs, bridges, and switches from objective 2.2 and apply that
information to a multilayer switch. A multilayer switch performs the Layer 2 MAC address direction
and additionally performs the Layer 3 IP based routing functions. Switching is still performed at
Layer 2. Routing takes place at Layer 3.

Wireless controller
In large organizations, your wireless network will have multiple APs and some may even be in
different buildings. The nature of wireless networking is that it is constantly changing APs are added
and policies are modified. In order to be compliant with these changes, A Wireless controller is used.
The wireless controller is capable of centralized management of all WAPs through a single interface.
The wireless controller allows you to add access points, manage and configure all access points and
monitor activity on each AP.

Load balancer
If you are providing large scale services like Web servers or Databases the availability of your
service is a primary concern. You will have multiple servers and use a Load balancer to provide
fault tolerance should a server fail, the other servers connected to the load balancer will continue
service.

The load balancer can also be configured as an SSL endpoint taking the encryption overhead away
from the servers and increasing their efficiency. Load balancers can also cache information requests
and provide the cached information to any client making the same request.

IDS/IPS
An Intrusion Detection System (IDS) is a device that monitors network traffic for exploits and other
malicious traffic. When suspicious activity is detected the IDS will issue an alarm. It does not have
the capability to block the suspected traffic. This is where an Intrusion Prevention System (IPS) will
become more useful. An IPS can block suspicious traffic before it reaches the network.

Proxy server
A proxy server is a device placed between your private network/LAN and the internet. It is designed
to handle all internet requests by caching them then sending the request, receiving the response and
analyzing it for potential problems. If the response is clean it will be allowed on to the local network
host.

VPN concentrator
For large organizations that maintain multiple simultaneous VPN connections, a device called a VPN
concentrator is used as the VPN server. The VPN concentrator can assume the tasks of VPN client
authentication, establishing VPN tunnels and managing the encryption used for VPN transmissions.
VPN encryption will be IPsec and SSL

AAA/RADIUS server
Authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) is the method of controlling user access to
resources and tracking their activity on an IP network. Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service
(RADIUS) uses a centralized server to enforce the AAA controls. RADIUS is often deployed on a
dedicated server, but it can also run as software on a remote access server.

UTM appliance
A Unified Threat Management (UTM) appliance represents the culmination of network security
devices It could be but is not necessarily a single device. A UTM appliance can be a router, switch,
firewall, an IDS/IPS or gateway. The NFGW (below) has been added to this configuration. The
concept is to provide the overall protection of these methods in a layered implementation.
Importantly here, this implementation is only as strong as the weakest link

NGFW/Layer 7 firewall
In earlier editions, we discussed Standard packet filtering firewalls. While these are effective at the
Network Layer they cannot examine the contents of a packet and discriminate between authorized
authentic traffic and potentially malicious traffic. The Next Generation Firewall (NGFW) can examine
packets up to OSI Layer 7 making it capable of providing protection up to the Application Layer.
NGFW is considered a component of a sound UTM environment. Since the Layer 7 firewall can
examine application data it is sometimes referred to as a content filter.

VoIP gateway
In companies the use VoIP telephone systems aka telephony, a VoIP gateway is installed to convert
the analog VoIP signal to digital IP packets for delivery to the recipient.

VoIP PBX
You will often see a dedicated telephony switch called a VOIP PBX that handles all internal VoIP
communications while handling the external VoIP traffic through the VoIP gateway.

2.4 Explain the purposes of

virtualization and network storage
technologies.
Virtual networking components
Virtual switch
In virtual networking, a virtual switch (vSwitch) is created to allow your virtual devices to
communicate with each other as well as the physical LAN. It operates at Layer 2 (Data Link) Layer
and you may see it called a bridge.
Virtual NIC
The Virtual NIC (vNIC) is the network connection for each host. vNICs connect to the vSwitch which
connects them to the vLAN, vRouter or physical LAN.

Virtual router
A virtual router (vRouter) is a fully functional software version of a router. As the highest level virtual
device you will probably connect to the physical LAN through it.

Virtual firewall
A virtual firewall can be placed at strategic locations within your virtual environment enabling a
greater level of control.

Hypervisor
The Hypervisor or Virtual Machine Manager (VMM) is the software component that contains and
controls all the virtual machines and devices on a host. When installing a hypervisor be sure that
your processor supports hardware virtualization. Intel-based processors use VTT and AMD uses
AMD-V. Be sure these are available and running in UEFI/BIOS. Remember that all storage and
memory allocated to your devices will impact the host machine performance.
VMM – Showing resource usage.

Network storage types

NAS
Network Attached Storage (NAS) is storage that is attached directly to the network. This allows for
easily accessible file storage. NAS uses file-level storage meaning that any changes to a file result in
a new file being created. NAS devices appear to the network as a single device but can contain
multiple drives.
SAN
A Storage Area Network Offers accessibility like a NAS with the exceptions that a SAN uses multiple
identical storage devices and it is fast as you. The storage can be anywhere on the network. SAN
devices use block-level file access meaning that when you need to change a value in a file, only that
block of data is changed. This is faster and more efficient than file-level access where the entire file
is rewritten. SAN is an extremely fault-tolerant solution and it is fast as you will see in the text that
follows.

Connection types
Fibre Channel
Fibre Channel (FC) runs separately from Ethernet networks using a different architecture that
maximizes data access and storage speed. This is accomplished by using fiber-optic connections
and specialized Fiber Channel hardware including the Host-Bus Adapter (HBA) that connects to the
Fibre Channel SAN. A conventional NIC is still used to connect to the LAN.

FCoE
FC can still be used on Ethernet networks by encapsulating the FC data in an Ethernet frame. This
process is called FCoE (Fibre Channel over Ethernet) and allows companies to reap much of the
speed benefits of FC without the expenses involved in a pure FC deployment. Converged Network
Adapters (CNAs) are used to support these connections.

iSCSI
Internet SCSI (iSCSI) operates on traditional twisted-pair Ethernet connections. ISCSI is a protocol
that runs on the Transport layer and provides fast transmissions on LANs WANs, and the Internet.
iSCSI runs on software installed on the clients and servers called an iSCSI initiator and provide a
cost benefit by using the existing infrastructure. In some cases, a network administrator may choose
to use Jumbo frames for iSCSI traffic.

InfiniBand
InfiniBand (IB) is another network architecture that enables high-speed transmissions. While being
fast it does require it’s own specialized network hardware.

Jumbo frame
By default, The MTU of an ethernet frame is 1500 bytes. Some Layer 2 protocols can use larger
MTUs of up to 9198 bytes called Jumbo frames. iSCSI uses Jumbo frames.

2.5 Compare and contrast WAN

technologies.
Service type
The type of service you use to connect to the internet is classified next. The connection type
determines your bandwidth and connection requirements.

Dial-up
A legacy network type is Dial-up networking it is the original copper-based analog method of
connecting PCs using the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). You may also see this called
the Plain Old Telephone System (POTS), the terms are interchangeable and describe
circuit-switched point to point connections between devices. Since the system was designed to
handle voice (analog) communications, the PC to PC connection required modulation to convert the
digital PC signal to analog for transmission. On the receiving end, the signal was demodulated back
to digital. The device used for this modulation/demodulation is called a Modem. You can expect
connection speeds up to 56kbps. You may still see modems on devices that send and receive
Faxes. A standard Fax machine requires an analog connection and can not be used with a VoIP line.
Here is a look at the dial-up internal PCI modem:
PCI Modem

ISDN
Another legacy copper-based technology, ISDN uses the PSTN for its connections breaking the
transmission into two channel types, the circuit-switched B channel which carried voice data and
video, and the packet-switched D channel which carried connection information like initiation and
termination, conference calling and caller ID. In its basic configuration, an ISDN connection
supported two B channels and one D channel. This is known as the BRI (Basic Rate Interface).
Multiple B channels are supported but only a single D channel. Of the two B channels provided in
BRI, they can be combined to provide 128 kbps for data, when the telephone is used one of the B
channels is allocated to carry the voice signal. In the configuration known as PRI (Primary Rate
Interface) Up to 23 B channels of 64kbps each are supported with one 64kbp D channel. ISDN
signals have a limited range before a repeater is needed.

DSL
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is another copper-based connection method capable of using the
PSTN to support multiple voice and data channels. DSL can support multiple channels of voice and
data at very high speeds. In a best-case scenario, it can be comparable to T1 or cable broadband
connections. Your DSL throughput is dependent on your proximity to your telephone company’s
Central Office (CO). The DSL signal suffers range limitations like ISDN. As a rule, the closer you are
to the CO the greater your throughput. There are several varieties of DSL they are referred to
collectively as xDSL with x being the variable. Here are the most common implementations:
ADSL (Asymmetric DSL)
This is the most common DSL implementation. It offers greater download speeds than the upload
speed.

SDSL (Symmetric DSL)

Here the upload and download speeds are the same. Maxing out at roughly 2 Mbps in each
direction.

VDSL (Variable DSL)

This will be your fastest DSL implementation. You may see it called “very high bit rate” DSL. This is
an asymmetric method with upload speeds approaching 50-60 Mbps. This again is relative to the
distance to your CO.

Cable broadband
Cable companies have been promoting internet services since the late 1990s. Cable broadband
uses the coaxial copper wiring used to carry TV signals inserts a cable modem to use the available
bandwidth for internet access. This is an asymmetrical connection that can support downloads of up
to 10 Gbps with the latest modems. This is a viable competitor to fiber-optic internet service
providers with even the cable companies using fiber-optic backbones to provide more throughput.
This implementation is called HFC (hybrid fiber-coaxial). -An enviable cable broadband speed result
is shown below.
Cable Broadband Speed Test

T1/T3 – E1/E3
In contrast to the technologies listed so far only the T-carrier, E-carrier in Europe, technology
provides a high speed dedicated logical circuit that is used exclusively by the customer. Developed
in the 1970s the T-carrier system offered businesses dedicated always available connectivity. To use
the service the customer leases the lines according to their bandwidth needs. The cost of the service
varies and is dependent on the distance between the provider and the subscriber and the
subscriber’s line rate requirements. The T carrier system uses TDM (time-division multiplexing) to
allow a single T1 circuit to carry 24 channels with a throughput of 64 Kbps each. A T3 circuit carries
28 channels at 64Kbps each.

In some cases, multiple T1 lines may be more cost efficient than a single T3. The chart below
compares the primary U.S. And European service levels.

Network Channels Line Rate

T1 24 channels at 64 kbps 1.544 Mbps

each

E1 32 channels at 64 kbps 2.048 Mbps

 each

T3 28 T1 circuits 672 channels 44.736 Mbps

E3 16 E1 circuits 512 channels 34.368 Mbps

T and E Carrier Comparison

OC-3 – OC-192
The SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) signaling technique uses fiber-optic cabling to provide
fault tolerant high-bandwidth WAN connections. SONET uses multiplexing to combine multiple T1
lines. SONET became internationally deployable when the SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)
was implemented. The synchronous data transmission depends on all devices conforming to the
timing scheme maintained by a clock that can be checked by individual nodes. When measuring the
data rates the OC (Optical Carrier) method is used.

SONET Line Rate

OC-3 155.52 Mbps

OC-12 622.08 Mbps

OC-48 2.49 Gbps

OC-192 9.95 Gbps

Optical Carrier Data Rates

Metropolitan Ethernet
You may also see Metropolitan Ethernet labeled Metro Ethernet. Both terms can be used to describe
the technology used to ensure that cities and municipalities were able to communicate during
emergencies that interrupted traditional Ethernet services. The Metro Ethernet has since evolved,
through the use of the T-carrier system, into what we now call Carrier-Ethernet Transport (CET).
CET establishes a virtual tunnel that uses a predetermined path. The Metro Ethernet has the
advantages of familiarity for LAN technicians, cost savings using existing Ethernet hardware and
scalability by nature of easily expandable Ethernet configurations.

PRI – See ISDN

Transmission mediums
Satellite
There are close to 5,000 satellites currently orbiting the Earth! They serve various purposes from
observation to GPS. Of particular interest to us are the nearly 800 communication satellites. The
communication satellites make it possible for us to communicate with nearly every part of the globe
delivering data, voice or video. This is made possible by placing the satellites in a geosynchronous
orbit, meaning that when viewed from Earth the satellites appear to be stationary. Some
communication satellites maintain a geosynchronous orbit above the equator and are called
geostationary. This stationary technique allows accurate transmissions between the Earth and the
other geosynchronous satellites. Satellite communication relies on line of sight transmission and is
subject to physical obstructions like thick storm clouds, a condition known as rain fade. It also has
higher latency than other WAN technologies since the signal is transmitted thousands of miles to the
satellite then thousands of miles back down.

Copper
From the first telegraph line to today’s high-speed networks, copper cabling has been fundamental.
While it is being displaced in WANs you will still find copper in last mile implementations like coaxial
Broadband, DSL and the T1-T3 local loop. Ethernet and wired phone systems will also be copper.
Copper is a low cost, low maintenance installation

Fiber
Since fiber-optic cabling transmits light it offers very high-speed connections that can travel long
distances. Fiber offers very high data rates and is the backbone of SONET.

Fiber-optic cabling is quickly challenging some of the traditional copper connections. You will see
fiber to copper deployments. Some service providers are even offering fiber to premise installations
that will bring the full features right to your home or office.

Wireless
The best example of a wireless WAN is the cellular network. Today’s smart devices can access the
internet, make calls and send data almost seamlessly. This is important to business travelers and
field technicians who may not have alternative options. We say almost seamlessly because your
connection quality is relative to your distance from the cell tower. Most cell tower coverage areas
overlap and hand the signal off from one tower to another when you are in motion.

Characteristics of service
MPLS
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a connection-oriented method that is used to route data
between nodes on a network over the most efficient route. It allows Layer 3 protocols to operate at
Layer 2 It allows packet-switched data to travel over circuit-switched connections. SONET and Metro
Ethernet networks use MPLS. The first router to encounter MPLS traffic adds labels called a shim
which is placed between Layer 2 and Layer 3 information. Next, a Layer 2 Protocol header is added.

Frame relay
A group of Layer 2 protocols were defined in the 1980s as frame relay, a fast packet-switched
network for ISDN connections. Frame relay is connection-oriented. It can be used for virtual circuits.
Frame relay data is separated into frames of variable length and are relayed from node to node
without any processing. A PVC is established by routers and the frames are tagged with a DLCI
(data-link connection identifier) to allow routers to quickly forward the packet without inspection.

ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is considered Layer 2 WAN technology. Its protocols can
extend to Layers 1 and Layer 3. It can employ multiplexing techniques and network access. Since it
is asynchronous it is not bound to the timing restrictions of SONET and can transmit data randomly
as needed. ATM uses a fixed size 53-byte cell to transmit data. This cell consists of 48-bytes of data
plus a 5-byte header and provides predictable efficient network communication. ATM uses virtual
circuits using the optimal path determined before the transmission.

PPP
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) directly connects two endpoints on a WAN. PPP uses headers
and trailers to encapsulate packets into frames using 8 to 10 bytes of additional data. Along with
establishing the connection, PPP supports authentication using protocols like EAP or MS-CHAPv2.

PPPoE
PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE) denotes the use of PPP on an Ethernet network.

DMVPN
To support both client-to-site and site-to-site on an enterprise-wide WAN the Dynamic Multipoint
VPN (DMVPN) was developed. This technique allows VPN tunnels to be created dynamically on
demand. This reduces the need for static site- to site tunnels.
SIP trunk
Where there is an existing broadband connection SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) trunking can use
VoIP to create virtual circuits supporting multiple VoIP calls using all available bandwidth. SIP
trunking is an economical alternative to the T1 PRI.

Termination
Demarcation point
It is important to know where the provider’s responsibilities end and the customer’s begins. This
point is called the demarc (demarcation point). Today’s demarks will be a NID (Network Interface
Device) or NIU (Network Interface Unit) placed on the outside of your building or directly inside the
premise. The provider is responsible for the delivery of the signal to the demarc and its operation
while the customer is responsible for the signal distribution from that point. This is a good place to
start troubleshooting network issues.

Smart jack
Often you will find that the demarc device is a smart jack capable of monitoring the connection for
data errors and reporting them to the carrier. The smart jack can also be checked by the technician
by monitoring the status and activity LEDs.

CSU/DSU
The CSU (channel service unit) is usually a stand-alone device that is placed between the NID and
the first internal router. It serves as a digital signal termination point and uses error correction and
line monitoring to ensure data integrity. The DSU (data service unit), built-in with the CSU, converts
the incoming frames from the T-carrier into Ethernet frames for the network. The process is reversed
for transmissions. The evolution of these devices has made the CSU/DSU available as an add-on
card in a router lowering cost and maintenance concerns.

Dial-up
A legacy network type is Dial-up networking it is the original copper-based analog method of
connecting PCs using the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). You may also see this called
the Plain Old Telephone System (POTS), the terms are interchangeable and describe
circuit-switched point to point connections between devices. Since the system was designed to
handle voice (analog) communications, the PC to PC connection required modulation to convert the
digital PC signal to analog for transmission. On the receiving end, the signal was demodulated back
to digital. The device used for this modulation/demodulation is called a Modem. You can expect
connection speeds up to 56kbps. You may still see modems on devices that send and receive
Faxes. A standard Fax machine requires an analog connection and can not be used with a VoIP line.
Here is a look at the dial-up internal PCI modem:

PCI Modem

ISDN
Another legacy copper-based technology, ISDN uses the PSTN for its connections breaking the
transmission into two channel types, the circuit-switched B channel which carried voice data and
video, and the packet-switched D channel which carried connection information like initiation and
termination, conference calling and caller ID. In its basic configuration, an ISDN connection
supported two B channels and one D channel. This is known as the BRI (Basic Rate Interface).
Multiple B channels are supported but only a single D channel. Of the two B channels provided in
BRI, they can be combined to provide 128 kbps for data, when the telephone is used one of the B
channels is allocated to carry the voice signal. In the configuration known as PRI (Primary Rate
Interface) Up to 23 B channels of 64kbps each are supported with one 64kbp D channel. ISDN
signals have a limited range before a repeater is needed.

DSL
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is another copper-based connection method capable of using the
PSTN to support multiple voice and data channels. DSL can support multiple channels of voice and
data at very high speeds. In a best-case scenario, it can be comparable to T1 or cable broadband
connections. Your DSL throughput is dependent on your proximity to your telephone company’s
Central Office (CO). The DSL signal suffers range limitations like ISDN. As a rule, the closer you are
to the CO the greater your throughput. There are several varieties of DSL they are referred to
collectively as xDSL with x being the variable. Here are the most common implementations:

ADSL (Asymmetric DSL)

This is the most common DSL implementation. It offers greater download speeds than the upload
speed.

SDSL (Symmetric DSL)

Here the upload and download speeds are the same. Maxing out at roughly 2 Mbps in each
direction.

VDSL (Variable DSL)

This will be your fastest DSL implementation. You may see it called “very high bit rate” DSL. This is
an asymmetric method with upload speeds approaching 50-60 Mbps. This again is relative to the
distance to your CO.

Cable broadband
Cable companies have been promoting internet services since the late 1990s. Cable broadband
uses the coaxial copper wiring used to carry TV signals inserts a cable modem to use the available
bandwidth for internet access. This is an asymmetrical connection that can support downloads of up
to 10 Gbps with the latest modems. This is a viable competitor to fiber-optic internet service
providers with even the cable companies using fiber-optic backbones to provide more throughput.
This implementation is called HFC (hybrid fiber-coaxial). -An enviable cable broadband speed result
is shown below.
Cable Broadband Speed Test

T1/T3 – E1/E3
In contrast to the technologies listed so far only the T-carrier, E-carrier in Europe, technology
provides a high speed dedicated logical circuit that is used exclusively by the customer. Developed
in the 1970s the T-carrier system offered businesses dedicated always available connectivity. To use
the service the customer leases the lines according to their bandwidth needs. The cost of the service
varies and is dependent on the distance between the provider and the subscriber and the
subscriber’s line rate requirements. The T carrier system uses TDM (time-division multiplexing) to
allow a single T1 circuit to carry 24 channels with a throughput of 64 Kbps each. A T3 circuit carries
28 channels at 64Kbps each.

In some cases, multiple T1 lines may be more cost efficient than a single T3. The chart below
compares the primary U.S. And European service levels.

Network Channels Line Rate

T1 24 channels at 64 kbps 1.544 Mbps

each

E1 32 channels at 64 kbps 2.048 Mbps

 each

T3 28 T1 circuits 672 channels 44.736 Mbps

E3 16 E1 circuits 512 channels 34.368 Mbps

T and E Carrier Comparison

OC-3 – OC-192
The SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) signaling technique uses fiber-optic cabling to provide
fault tolerant high-bandwidth WAN connections. SONET uses multiplexing to combine multiple T1
lines. SONET became internationally deployable when the SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy)
was implemented. The synchronous data transmission depends on all devices conforming to the
timing scheme maintained by a clock that can be checked by individual nodes. When measuring the
data rates the OC (Optical Carrier) method is used.

SONET Line Rate

OC-3 155.52 Mbps

OC-12 622.08 Mbps

OC-48 2.49 Gbps

OC-192 9.95 Gbps

Optical Carrier Data Rates

Metropolitan Ethernet
You may also see Metropolitan Ethernet labeled Metro Ethernet. Both terms can be used to describe
the technology used to ensure that cities and municipalities were able to communicate during
emergencies that interrupted traditional Ethernet services. The Metro Ethernet has since evolved,
through the use of the T-carrier system, into what we now call Carrier-Ethernet Transport (CET).
CET establishes a virtual tunnel that uses a predetermined path. The Metro Ethernet has the
advantages of familiarity for LAN technicians, cost savings using existing Ethernet hardware and
scalability by nature of easily expandable Ethernet configurations.

PRI – See ISDN

Transmission mediums
Satellite
There are close to 5,000 satellites currently orbiting the Earth! They serve various purposes from
observation to GPS. Of particular interest to us are the nearly 800 communication satellites. The
communication satellites make it possible for us to communicate with nearly every part of the globe
delivering data, voice or video. This is made possible by placing the satellites in a geosynchronous
orbit, meaning that when viewed from Earth the satellites appear to be stationary. Some
communication satellites maintain a geosynchronous orbit above the equator and are called
geostationary. This stationary technique allows accurate transmissions between the Earth and the
other geosynchronous satellites. Satellite communication relies on line of sight transmission and is
subject to physical obstructions like thick storm clouds, a condition known as rain fade. It also has
higher latency than other WAN technologies since the signal is transmitted thousands of miles to the
satellite then thousands of miles back down.

Copper
From the first telegraph line to today’s high-speed networks, copper cabling has been fundamental.
While it is being displaced in WANs you will still find copper in last mile implementations like coaxial
Broadband, DSL and the T1-T3 local loop. Ethernet and wired phone systems will also be copper.
Copper is a low cost, low maintenance installation

Fiber
Since fiber-optic cabling transmits light it offers very high-speed connections that can travel long
distances. Fiber offers very high data rates and is the backbone of SONET.

Fiber-optic cabling is quickly challenging some of the traditional copper connections. You will see
fiber to copper deployments. Some service providers are even offering fiber to premise installations
that will bring the full features right to your home or office.

Wireless
The best example of a wireless WAN is the cellular network. Today’s smart devices can access the
internet, make calls and send data almost seamlessly. This is important to business travelers and
field technicians who may not have alternative options. We say almost seamlessly because your
connection quality is relative to your distance from the cell tower. Most cell tower coverage areas
overlap and hand the signal off from one tower to another when you are in motion.

Characteristics of service
MPLS
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a connection-oriented method that is used to route data
between nodes on a network over the most efficient route. It allows Layer 3 protocols to operate at
Layer 2 It allows packet-switched data to travel over circuit-switched connections. SONET and Metro
Ethernet networks use MPLS. The first router to encounter MPLS traffic adds labels called a shim
which is placed between Layer 2 and Layer 3 information. Next, a Layer 2 Protocol header is added.

Frame relay
A group of Layer 2 protocols were defined in the 1980s as frame relay, a fast packet-switched
network for ISDN connections. Frame relay is connection-oriented. It can be used for virtual circuits.
Frame relay data is separated into frames of variable length and are relayed from node to node
without any processing. A PVC is established by routers and the frames are tagged with a DLCI
(data-link connection identifier) to allow routers to quickly forward the packet without inspection.

ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is considered Layer 2 WAN technology. Its protocols can
extend to Layers 1 and Layer 3. It can employ multiplexing techniques and network access. Since it
is asynchronous it is not bound to the timing restrictions of SONET and can transmit data randomly
as needed. ATM uses a fixed size 53-byte cell to transmit data. This cell consists of 48-bytes of data
plus a 5-byte header and provides predictable efficient network communication. ATM uses virtual
circuits using the optimal path determined before the transmission.

PPP
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) directly connects two endpoints on a WAN. PPP uses headers
and trailers to encapsulate packets into frames using 8 to 10 bytes of additional data. Along with
establishing the connection, PPP supports authentication using protocols like EAP or MS-CHAPv2.

PPPoE
PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE) denotes the use of PPP on an Ethernet network.

DMVPN
To support both client-to-site and site-to-site on an enterprise-wide WAN the Dynamic Multipoint
VPN (DMVPN) was developed. This technique allows VPN tunnels to be created dynamically on
demand. This reduces the need for static site- to site tunnels.
SIP trunk
Where there is an existing broadband connection SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) trunking can use
VoIP to create virtual circuits supporting multiple VoIP calls using all available bandwidth. SIP
trunking is an economical alternative to the T1 PRI.

Termination
Demarcation point
It is important to know where the provider’s responsibilities end and the customer’s begins. This
point is called the demarc (demarcation point). Today’s demarks will be a NID (Network Interface
Device) or NIU (Network Interface Unit) placed on the outside of your building or directly inside the
premise. The provider is responsible for the delivery of the signal to the demarc and its operation
while the customer is responsible for the signal distribution from that point. This is a good place to
start troubleshooting network issues.

Smart jack
Often you will find that the demarc device is a smart jack capable of monitoring the connection for
data errors and reporting them to the carrier. The smart jack can also be checked by the technician
by monitoring the status and activity LEDs.

CSU/DSU
The CSU (channel service unit) is usually a stand-alone device that is placed between the NID and
the first internal router. It serves as a digital signal termination point and uses error correction and
line monitoring to ensure data integrity. The DSU (data service unit), built-in with the CSU, converts
the incoming frames from the T-carrier into Ethernet frames for the network. The process is reversed
for transmissions. The evolution of these devices has made the CSU/DSU available as an add-on
card in a router lowering cost and maintenance concerns.