Unit 1 3

UNIT 1: THE SELF FROM THE VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES
Lesson 1: PHILOSOPHY
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from the philosophical perspectives.
2. Compare and contrast how the self is examined from the philosophical views.
3. Demonstrate a reflective thought by defining the self-based on these views.
THE PHILOSOPHICAL SELF

A.) SOCRATES
Brief Background and Significant Events

• He was accused of disrespect for the city of gods and corrupting the youth of Athens because he led the
youths to question all things including many traditional beliefs. He was a controversial figure in Athens
because of his argumentative skill.
• Socrates’ way of searching for meaning and truth was abrasive in nature (ex. endless process of asking
questions). This gave birth to the “Socratic method of questioning”.
Philosophical Statement: “Know thyself”
• The unexamined life is considered as not worth living, humans must strive to seek their purpose and value
Definition of the SELF: The self is an immortal soul which exists over time
• The self is also the source of all knowledge. Individual experience is important when you want to know
yourself. Hence, to truly know about something, you must understand its essence.
Example: It is not enough to identify something as beautiful; one must know WHY IT IS BEAUTIFUL.
Socrates view of reality is dualistic:

1. Physical Realm - it is constantly changing, transient and imperfect (ex. the physical body)
2. Ideal Realm - it considered as unchanging, eternal and immortal (ex. the soul, truth, goodness and
beauty)
B.) PLATO
• The death of Socrates was a turning point in the life of Plato because he elaborated on Socrates’ ideas
after the former’s death.
• He contributed original ideas on a wide range of issues such as morality, politics, metaphysics and
epistemology.
THE THREE-PART SOUL (The Three-Part Self)

1. Reason- it enables the individuals to think deeply, make choices and achieve true understanding.
2. Physical Appetite- this refers to basic biological needs such as thirst, hunger and sexual desire.
3. Spirit or Passion- this refers to basic emotions like love, anger, aggressiveness and empathy.
The three-part self may act in consonance or may act in conflict with each other.
For example, you may have a relationship with someone who is intelligent (reason); with whom you are
passionately in love (spirit) and whom you find sexually attractive which ignites your desires (appetite). In
this case, the three-part self is in consonance.
Another example is when you fell in love with a person (spirit) who is sexually attractive (appetite) who
does not satisfy your ideal type, he/she is the total opposite of the person you are looking for (reason). In this
case the selves are in CONFLICT.
Genuine happiness can be achieved when REASON is in control of SPIRITS and APPETTITES
ILLUSTRATION: “The Chariot Analogy”- the soul is likened to a chariot drawn by two powerful winged
horses.
Noble horse - spirit
Wild horse - embodying the appetite
Charioteer - reason; the task is to guide the chariot to the eternal realm by controlling the two independent-
minded horses
C.) ST. AUGUSTINE

• Plotinus (Roman Philosopher) influenced the thinking of St. Augustine. Plotinus based his views on Plato’s
core concepts. He believes that “The soul possesses superiority over the body”. He is committed to his
Platonic ideas regarding the imperfection of his physical body; in contrast to the perfection of his eternal
soul. He refused to celebrate his birthday because he was ashamed that his immortal soul had to be
contained in imperfect vessel as his body.
• Plotinus ideas had a profound influence on St. Augustine
Relationship of body and the soul
• He considers the body as a “slave” to the soul
• Then he alters his view that “the soul makes war with the body”
• He changed it again into “the body as the spouse of the soul” with both attached to one another by a
natural appetite.
• He finally concluded that “The body is united with the soul so that man maybe entire and complete”.
What is a virtuous life for St. Augustine?

To live a virtuous life is to live in LOVE, all sins are the result of turning away from love and God.
Plato’s vision of immortal souls striving to achieve union with the eternal realm through INTELLECTUAL
ENLIGHTENMENT became transformed by Augustine into IMMORTAL SOULS STRIVING TO ACHIEVE
UNION WITH GOD through faith and reason. Hence, this is the start of the medieval Christian Doctrine and
Western Philosophy.
D.) RENE DESCARTES

• Founder of Modern Philosophy
• He was a mathematician and a scientist
• He is a rationalist who emphasized that thinking must follow a logical and rational process
Philosophical Statement: Cogito Ergo Sum “I think therefore I am”- this is the essence of your SELF;
humans are thinking thing!
• Descartes believed that man is a thinking being, genuine knowledge must be based on independent
rational inquiry and real-world experimentation. Performing mental operations was essential to being a
human self.
• To arrive at knowledge, human must use their thinking abilities (investigate, analyze, experiment and
develop well-reasoned conclusions)
Definition of the SELF: The self is a thinking thing, distinct from the body
Dualistic View of the Self
• The thinking self (or soul): nonmaterial, immortal, conscious being and independent of the physical laws of
the universe. The conscious self is part of the spiritual realm governed by the laws of reason and God’s will.
• The physical body is a material, mortal, non-thinking entity governed by the physical laws of nature.
Rationalist View: Reasoning ability provides the origin of knowledge
Rationalism - the view that reason is the primary source of all knowledge and that only our reasoning
abilities can enable us to understand sense experience and reach accurate conclusions.
E.) JOHN LOCKE

• His background as a physician influenced his beliefs about the nature of the self.
Definition of the SELF: Personal identity is made possible by self- consciousness
Knowledge is based on the careful observation of sense experience/ or memories of previous
experiences.
Reason is a vital element in making meaning out of the sense experience of a person.
Empiricist view: all knowledge originates in our direct SENSE EXPERIENCE
Empiricism- the view that sense experience is the primary source of all knowledge and that only a careful
attention to sense experience can enable us to understand the
world and achieve accurate conclusions.
LOCKE’S CONCLUSION ON EXAMINING ONE’S EXPERIENCES:

1. To discover personal identity, one must establish how it is to be a person
2. A person is a thinking, reflecting and analyzing being
3. A person is the same thing in different times and places
4. Consciousness is accompanied by thinking
5. Consciousness makes it possible to exhibit the same identity in different times and places
NOTE: Conscious awareness and memory of previous experiences are the keys to understanding the self
F.) EMMANUEL KANT

• A German philosopher who wrote his books while dressed in a bathrobe and slippers.
Philosophical Statement: “We construct the self”
Definition of the SELF: The self is a unifying subject, an organizing consciousness that makes intelligible
experience possible.
• Kant argued that when we perceive objects, we encounter mental states that appear to be composed of
bits and pieces and are organized meaningfully. (For example, taking the raw data of experience and
actively synthesizing it into familiar, orderly, meaningful world in which we live.)
• Knowledge of the world begins with sensations: sounds, colors, tastes, feels, smells are the basic data for
experience
• The mind actively sorts, organizes, relates and synthesizes the raw data. It is yourself that is actively
organizing all your sensations and thoughts into a picture that makes sense to you. YOUR WORLD
ACCORDING TO YOUR TERMS! Ergo, WE CONSTRUCT THE SELF!
G.) SIGMUND FREUD

• he was the founder of psychoanalysis, a theory of how the mind works and a method of helping people in
mental distress.
• Freud argued that human behavior is largely determined by unconscious motivations that stem from
childhood experiences, specifically encounters with love, loss, sexuality and death, and complex emotional
attitudes to parents and siblings.
Definition of the SELF: “The self is multi-layered”
THREE LAYERS OF THE SELF:
1. ID - it is present at birth, entirely unconscious, includes all innate instincts. It is motivated entirely
by the pleasure principle. It has no sense of logic, time, or self-preservation. Its only resource is to form
wish-fulfilling mental images of desired objects.
2. EGO - It begins to develop out of the ID at about 6to8 months. It operates in accordance with the
logical and self-preservative secondary process. The EGO is motivated by the REALITY PRINCIPLE.
(Example, delaying pleasure until a suitable and safe object has been found.
- The ego is the locus of all emotions, including anxiety and tries to keep the ID under control
by using various DEFENSE MECHANISM (repression, denial, rationalization, displacement etc.)
3. SUPEREGO - it begins to develop out of the ego at about age 3to5 years. It is partly
conscious and unconscious. It includes standards or RIGHT and WRONG. The SUPEREGO results from
parental standards. It operates under the MORALITY PRINCIPLE.
H.) GILBERT RYLE
• Analytic philosopher who analyzed language to solve philosophical puzzles.
Definition of the SELF: “The self is the way people behave”
• In defining the self, it is necessary to focus on OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR because these are
concrete evidences of how the minds works and functions.
• The self is defined in terms of what is presented to the world.
• What the minds wills, it is the body that executes it.
• The self is better understood as a pattern of behavior, the tendency for a person to behave in a certain
way.
I). PAUL CHURCHLAND

• A contemporary American Philosopher and professor at the University of California.
Definition of the SELF: “The self is the brain”
• Mental states will be superseded by the brain states
• The physical states (health of our bodies, the food we ingest, the experiences we endure) have an impact
on our mental and emotional functioning.
• The emotional and mental states likewise impact on our physical conditions (ex. stress, depression,
psychosomatic disorder)
• To understand the nature of the mind, we must fully understand the nature of the brain. The brain links the
self to the physical wiring and physiological functioning of the brain.
J). MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY

• He worked in the Army as an officer and was eventually appointed as a Philosophy professor at University
of Lyon
Definition of the SELF: “The self is embodied subjectivity”
• “I live in my body”- entity that can never be objectified or known in a completely objective sort of way.
• The living body is a natural synthesis of mind and biology and separating them would be nonsensical and
artificial.
• Everything that we are aware of is contained within our own consciousness.
Consciousness is a dynamic form responsible for actively structuring our conscious ideas and physical
behavior.
• For him, perception was the source of knowledge and must be studied before the conventional sciences.
Sources:
Henley, T.B. (2017). Hergenhahn’s an introduction to the history of psychology. Retrieved from
https://books.google.com
Shultz & Shultz (2017). A history of modern psychology 10th edition. Wadsworth Cengage Learning
UNIT 1: LESSON 2
THE SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY
Learning Objectives:
1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from the sociological perspective.
2. Examine the different environmental and social factors that shape the self.
THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN SOCIETY AMONG OTHER CONSTRUCTIONS

SOCIOLOGY is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Its subject matter is diverse,
ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of race and social class to the
shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical change in whole societies. Unifying
the study of these diverse subjects of study is sociology’s purpose of understanding how human action and
consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social structures.
▪ MODERNIZATION has significantly changed society, and this has affected how individual builds and
develops his/her “identity”. It also caused the destruction of the traditional way of life “delocalized” the self
(Mannheim, 1950). The self is dislocated and deracinated from its traditional attachment to the community.
- PREMODERN SOCIETY- centered on survival, people behaved according to social rules and traditions.
- MODERNIZATION- has improved people’s living conditions; a person in the modern society is free to
choose where to live, what to do, and who to be with. In modern societies, individualism is dominant and
developing one’s self- identity is central.
DELOCALIZATION- the self is released from time- honored traditions and communal attachments and faces
infinites possibilities (i.e. free to seek its own identity).
Note: The self as a product of modern society is free to seek its own identity and free from customary
constraints.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERNITY:
1. Industrialism- the social relations implied in the extensive use of material power and machinery in all
processes of production. (ex. people are more and more dependent on machines)
2. Capitalism- a production system involving both competitive product markets and the commodification of
labor power.
3. Institutions of surveillance- the massive increase of power and reach by institutions, especially in
government.
4. Dynamism- the most evident characteristic of modern society. Dynamism is characterized as having
vigorous activity and progress. In modern society, it is a society that is full of possibilities, everything is
subject to change (nothing is permanent; living in times of uncertainty)
WHAT IS A SOCIAL GROUP?

• This is described as having two or more people interacting with one another, sharing similar characteristics,
and whose members identify themselves as part of the group. (ex. family, barkada, classmates)
TWO TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUP:

A. ORGANIC GROUPS- it is naturally occurring, and it is highly influenced by your family. You joined these
groups because your family is also a part of it.
B. RATIONAL GROUPS- Modern societies are made up of different people coming from different places.
Rational groups are formed as a matter of shared self-interests; people join these groups out of their own
free will.
WHAT IS A SOCIAL NETWORK?

- refers to the ties or connections that link you to your social group. (ex. The connection you have with your
family is your blood relation, the connection you have with your barkada is your friendship)
The SOCIAL SELF according to George Herbert Mead:

• Mead was a sociologist from the late 1800s. He is well known for his “theory of the Social Self”
• Mead’s work focused on how the “self” is developed. His theory is based on the perspective that the self is
a product of social interactions and internalizing the external (i.e., other people’s) views along with one’s
personal view about oneself.
• Mead believed the “self” is not present at birth; rather it developed over time through social experiences
and activities.
TWO SIDES OF SELF: “I” and “Me” of George Mead:
• The “I” and “Me” have a didactic relationship, which is like a system of checks and balance.
• “Me” is the product of what the person has learned while interacting with others and with the environment.
Learned behaviors, attitudes and expectations comprises the “me”. The ‘me’ exercises control over the self,
it sees to it that rules are not broken.
- The “I” is that part of the self that is unsocialized and spontaneous. It is the individual’s response to the
community’s attitude toward the person. The ‘I’ presents impulses and drives.
- The ‘I’ enables the person to express individualism and creativity and it does not blindly follow rules.
BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY:

- the ecological theory focuses on the impact that environment plays on the growth and development of an
individual.
The MICROSYSTEM - The microsystem refers to the environment in which an individual life. This system
includes family members, peers, religious communities, neighborhoods and
others whom the individual has regular interaction and direct contact with.
The MESOSYSTEM - The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s microsystems,
such as the interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or between school peers and siblings.
For instance, if a child’s parents communicate with the child’s teachers, this interaction may influence the
child’s development. Essentially, a mesosystem is a system of microsystems. According to the ecological
systems theory, if the child’s parents and teachers get along and have a good relationship, this should have
positive effects on the child’s development, compared to negative effects on development if the teachers and
parents do not get along.
The EXOSYSTEM - The exosystem is a system in which the individual plays no role in the construction of
experiences, but these experiences have a direct impact on the microsystems the individual is part of. An
example of an exosystem could include a husband being laid off and this lack of employment having a direct
impact on the family's financial state that could affect their day-to-day lifestyle and the stress level in the
home.
The MACROSYSTEM - The macrosystem is influenced greatly by the culture and society in which a person
lives. The belief systems and ideology of the individual's culture influence the person directly, however, the
individual does not necessarily have as much freedom in determining his or her surroundings
The CHRONOSYSTEM - The chronosystem reflects the cumulative experiences a person has over the
course of their lifetime. These experiences include environmental events, as well as major transitions in life.
Some notable transitions include divorce, marriage or the birth of a baby. These transitions are major
experiences in an individual's lifetime.
UNIT 1: LESSON 3
THE SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ANTHROPOLOGY
Learning Outcomes:
1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from the anthropological
perspectives.
2. Examine how culture influences an individual in shaping one’s self.
THE SELF EMBEDDED IN CULTURE
• Cultural anthropologists have argued that the self is culturally shaped and infinitely variable (e.g. cultural
traditions and social practices regulate, express and transform the human psyche resulting less in psychic
unity for humankind).
TWO WAYS OF HOW THE SELF IS CONSTRUCTED

1.INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTS- the characteristic of individualistic culture such as North America.
Individualistic culture represents the self as separate, distinct, with emphasis on internal attributes, skills and
values.
2.INTERDEPENDENT CONSTRUCT- it is typical of the collectivist culture in East Asia which stresses the
essential connection between the individual to other people (ex. strong family ties).
Developmental psychologist Catherine Raeff (2010), believed that culture can influence how you view:
relationships, personality traits, achievement, and expressing emotions.
Relationship- may be viewed as voluntary or duty based; some Eastern societies practice arranged marriage
while Western societies are free to choose whom they will marry
Personality traits- culture influences whether (and how) you value traits, like humility, self-esteem and the
like.
Achievement- Culture influences how you define success and whether you value certain types of individual
and group achievements
Expressing Emotion- Culture influences what will affect you emotionally, as well as how you express yourself
(example: Showing your feelings in public or keeping it private).
TWO BASIC COMPONENTS OF CULTURE

Nonmaterial culture- includes the values, beliefs, symbols, and language that define a society.
Material culture- includes all the society’s physical objects, such as its tools and technology, clothing, eating
utensils, and means of transportation.
THE ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
1. Symbols - Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something else and that often evoke
various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal communication (gestures
and movements), while other symbols are in fact material objects.
2. Language - The most important set of symbols is language. It is crucial to communication and thus to any
society’s culture.
3. Norms - Cultures differ widely in their norms, or standards and expectations for behaving.
4. Rituals - Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures and ceremonies that often
mark transitions in the life course. As such, rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms and other
elements from one generation to the next.
5. Values - Values are another important element of culture and involve judgments of what is good or bad
and desirable or undesirable. A culture’s values shape its norms.
6. Artifacts - The last element of culture is the artifacts, or material objects, that constitute a society’s
material culture.
References:
Evans, O. (2020). Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Bronfenbrenner.html
Santrock, John W. (2011). Life-span development. 13th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Shultz & Shultz. (2011). A History of Modern Psychology https://www.britannica.com/biography/George-
Herbert-Mead
http://www.sociologygroup.com/george-herbert-mead-biography-theories
Quinatocan-Pestaňo, A.E. & Almerez-Wong, M. (2018). Understanding the self. Cebu: University of San
Jose Recoleto
UNIT 1: LESSON 4
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF
Learning Outcomes:
1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from the psychological perspective.
2.Examine the different psychological factors that can influence one’s identity.
A.THE SELF AS COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTION by JEAN PIAGET

JEAN PIAGET was a Swiss clinical psychologist and he pioneered the “theory of cognitive
development”. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT is a progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting
from biological maturation and environmental experience.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY

Schema- the building blocks of knowledge. Schemas are mental organizations that individuals use to
understand their environments and designate action.
Adaptation-it involves the child’s learning process to meet situational demands.
TWO PROCESSES OF ADAPTATION
Assimilation-the application of previous concepts to new concepts.
Accommodation- happens when people encounter new information or when existing ideas are challenged.
Stages of cognitive development- they reflect the increasing sophistication of the child’s thought process.
• SENSORIMOTOR (0-2 yrs old)- the child learns by doing: looking, sucking, touching. Object Permanence
emerges.
• PREOPERATIONAL (2-7 yrs old)- the child uses language and symbols.
• CONCRETE OPERATIONS (7-11 yrs old)- the child demonstrate conservation, reversibility, serial
ordering, understanding of cause and effect.
• FORMAL OPERATIONS (12+)- the individual demonstrates abstract thinking (ex. Ability to understand
hypothetical situations).
B. HARTER’S SELF DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT

Dr. Susan Harter (1999) detailed the emergence of self-concept. The development of self-concept
according to Harter is as follows:
EARLY CHILDHOOD- the child describes the “self” in terms of concrete, observational characteristics, such
as physical attributes (ex. I am pretty/ugly/strong), material possessions (ex. I have lots of toys).
MIDDLE TO LATER CHILDHOOD- the self is described in terms of trait like constructs (e.g. smart, honest,
friendly, smart).
ADOLESCENCE- this is the emergence of more abstract self- definitions, such as inner thoughts, emotions,
attitudes, and motives.
EMERGING ADULTS- the marked characteristics of “self” for emerging adults is having a vision of a
“possible self”; the “age of possibilities”.
C. WILLIAM JAMES AND THE ME-SELF; I-SELF

William James is “the father of American psychology”. According to James, the ‘self’ has two elements:
1. I-SELF- it is the pure ego, it is the subjective self, It is the “self” that is aware of its own actions.
FOUR FEATURES:
▪ A sense of being the agent or initiator of behavior- I believe my actions have an impact
▪ A sense of being unique
▪ A sense of continuity- I am the same person from day to day
▪ A sense of awareness about being aware- I understand what is going on in me and around me.
2. ME-SELF- it is the self that you can describe such as your physical characteristics, personalities, social
role, or relationships, thoughts, feelings. The dimensions of the me-self include:
Material- physical appearance and extensions of it such as clothing, immediate family, and home;
Social- social skills and significant interpersonal relationships; and
Spiritual- personality, character, defining values.
D. CARL ROGERS-PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT AND THE SELF CONCEPT
Carl Rogers was an American psychologist and among the founders of Humanistic Psychology- this
approach highlighted the individual’s innate drive toward self-actualization and the process of realizing and
expressing one’s own capabilities and creativity.
Rogers divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self. The IDEAL SELF is the
person you would like yourself to be; the concept of the “best me” who is worthy of admiration. The REAL
SELF is the person you are, it is how you behave right now. According to Rogers, “If the way that I am (the
real self) is aligned with the way that I want to be (the ideal self), then I will feel a sense of mental being or
peace of mind.
When your REAL SELF and IDEAL SELF are very similar you experience CONGRUENCE. When there
is a great inconsistency between your IDEAL and REAL SELVES, then you experience INCONGRUENCE.
According to Allport, a “trait” is your essential characteristic that never, ever changes and sticks with you all
your life.
E. ERIC BERNE-THE EGO STATES

Psychiatrist Eric Berne develop his transactional analysis model as a basis of understanding behavior.
Transactional analysis is anchored on two notions:
1. Every person has three parts called “ego states” in his/her personality.
2. People communicate with one another assuming roles of any of the ego states.
TYPES OF EGO STATES:
• THE PARENT EGO STATE- is the voice of authority, it could be comforting voice or a “controlling/critical
parent” voice that tells what you should, or you should not do.
• THE ADULT EGO STATE- is the rational person, it is the voice that speaks reasonably and knows how to
assert herself/himself.
• THE CHILD EGO STATES
o THE NATURAL CHILD- who loves to play but is sensitive and vulnerable
o THE LITTLE PROFESSOR- the curious child who wants to try everything.
o THE ADAPTIVE CHILD- the one who reacts to the world, he/she could be trying to fit in or is rebelling
against authority.
Sources:
Jose Recoletos.
Villafuerte, S.L. (2018). Understanding the self. Nieme publishing house co, ltd
UNIT 1: LESSON 5
THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHT
Learning Outcomes:
1. Discuss the eastern and western concept of self.
2.Compare and contrast how the self has been represented by the western and eastern perspectives.
A. WESTERN CONCEPT OF THE SELF

• Ancient Philosophers see humans as the bearers of irreplaceable values.
• Thomas Aquinas believed that the body constitute individuality.
• The individual was the focus of Renaissance thought, for example Rene Descartes’ famous “I think,
Therefore I am”. This is the epitome of the Western idea of the self.
• The western tradition is acknowledged to be “imbued with a style of thinking based on dichotomy and
binary opposition”.
• Frank Johnson (1985) outlined four categories on how the term ‘self’ is used in contemporary western
discussion.
1. Analytical- the tendency to see reality as an aggregate of parts. The ‘self’ is an observer separate and
distinct from external objects.
2. Monotheistic- the tendency toward unitary explanation of phenomena and a closed-system view of ‘self’
as modelled after a unitary, omnipotent power (“Man was created by God, in his image”)
3. Individualistic- A quality of western thinking where self-expression and self-actualization are important
ways of establishing who one is.
4. Materialistic/Rationalistic – western thinking tends to discredit explanations that do not use
analytical deductive modes of thinking (Goldin, 2000).
B. EASTERN SELF CONCEPT

• The earliest religious writings in the East are the Vedas. It formed the Hindu philosophy and dharma (the
principle of cosmic order).
• The chants and hymns in the Vedas illustrate the eastern mind set of a nondual universe but rather a
creation that is completely unified with the creator, with no distinction.
• According to this sacred Hindu texts, the true nature of humans is described as “Brahman” which is the
divine universal consciousness encompassing the universe. The “Brahman” is the Self that is all within us.
Thus, the main points of Hinduism focus on how to “change your perception of the world to perceive the
Brahman in oneself and others”.
• In Buddhist traditions, the ‘self’ is not an entity, a substance, or essence. Rather, the ‘self’ is a dynamic
process. It is interdependent and ever changing.
- The doctrine called anatta which is defined as “no-self or no-soul”. Anatta is a concept that the sense of
being a permanent, autonomous ‘self’ is an illusion. It is the teaching that there is no eternal, unchanging
‘self/soul’ inhabiting our bodies or living our lives.
• In Confucianism, the quest for the ‘self’ in terms of substance of spirit, of body, or of essence does not
exist (The qualities that forms a person’s character are not something that exist inherently, it is something
that is formed through upbringing and the environment).
- Confucian philosophy presented the idea that every person is born with four beginnings. These are:
1. Heart of compassion that leads to Jen;
2. Heart of righteousness that leads to Yi;
3. Heart of propriety that leads to Li; and
4. Heart of wisdom that leads to Chih
- Jen means goodwill, sympathy towards others, politeness and generosity. Yi means rightness and the
respect of duty (you must respect your position as a Personality (in the Confucian perception) is an achieved
state of moral excellence rather than a given human condition. The Confucian concept of self is embedded
within the family and society, and it is only in that context that the self comes to be what it is guardian toward
nature and humanity). Li means having the right to practice propriety in all that you do. The Chih means
wisdom; this wisdom is expressed by putting jen, yi and li into practice.
• The Arabic word for the word ‘self’ is Nafs written in the Holy Qu’ran. It pertains to the psyche (the totality of
the conscious and unconscious human mind) or the soul.
- The Qu’ran does not ascribe any property of goodness or evil to the ‘nafs/self’. Instead, the ‘nafs’ is
something which must be nurtured and self-regulated so that it can progress into becoming “good” through
its thoughts and actions.
- The “self” in Islamic tradition is used both in the individualistic and collectivistic sense.
A. COLLECTIVISM
- Collectivism refers to the extent that we value our duty to groups which we belong, and to group harmony.
- Highly collectivist people define themselves by their group membership and value harmonious relationship
within those groups. A study conducted by Patricia Licuanan, a Filipino psychologist and educator
determined that one of the strengths of the Filipino character is our deep love and concern for the family. To
the Filipino, one’s family is the source of personal identity, the source of emotional and material support.
- People in collectivistic culture emphasize the interdependence and harmonious relatedness with one
another.
B. INDIVIDUALISM
- Individualism refers to the extent that you value independence and personal uniqueness. Highly
individualist people value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control over their lives, and appreciation of their
unique qualities that distinguish them from others. Individualistic cultures emphasize the moral worth of the
individual. Individualists encourage asserting one’s goals and desires. Individualistic cultures are oriented
around the individual (a person should be independent instead of having the mentality of identifying with a
group).
Sources:
Jose Recoletos.
Salvacion L. villafuerte (2018). Understanding the self. Nieme publishing house co, ltd.
Villafuerte, S.L., Quillope, A.F., Tunac, R.C., & Borja, E.I. (2018) Understanding the self. Quezon City:
NIEME Publishing House, Co. LTD.
CLICK THE LINK BELOW TO UNDERSTAND MORE ABOUT THE EASTERN AND WESTERN CULTURE.
Me or We? https://youtu.be/78haKZhEqcg
Eastern Philosophy vs. Western Philosophy https://youtu.be/Eu3oIVuvbJg
Do ASIANS think differently? https://youtu.be/aEd7msMYLgU
UNIT 2: UNPACKING THE SELF
LESSON 1: The Physical Self
Learning Outcomes:
1. Explore the physical development of self.
2. Identify the different factors that impact the development of self.
The Physical Self

• the tangible aspect of the person which can be directly observed and examined (Singh, 2009)
• Physical development on the other hand refers to the quantitative biological changes that underlie
psychological development as well.
• Refers to the – the physical structure and material substances of the human being
• Physical development rapidly happens when fertilization has occurred. Prenatal development is divided into
three stages: germinal stage, embryonic stage, and the fetal stage.
Prenatal Stages
1. Germinal Stage
• begins when the ovum is penetrated by a sperm in the fallopian tube and begins its journey, as a zygote (the
single-celled organism formed from the union of the egg and sperm)
• the zygote travels down to the uterus where it gets implanted, happens during the 1st two weeks together with
the formation of the placenta (the sac which envelopes the developing baby allows nutrients, oxygen, and
waste materials to pass from the mother to baby via the umbilical cord)
2. Embryonic Stage
• occurs during the 2nd-8th week of pregnancy and the developing cell is now called and embryo
• major organs and body systems begin to develop: respiratory, digestive, and nervous system
• this is a critical stage in prenatal development because teratogens can harm the developing embryo
• teratogens are external agents such as radiation and drugs which can harm the embryo
List of Major Known Teratogens

Drugs Medicines/ Prescriptive drugs
Antibiotics (example: streptomycin)
Antiepileptics (example: dilantin)
Analgesics (example: aspirin/ibuprofen
Sex hormones (example: birth control pills)
Sedatives/antidepressants (example: lithium)
Vitamins (example: Vitamin A derivative)
Illegal drugs
Cocaine Marijuana
Heroine Methadone
Addictive substances
Alcohol caffeine
Amphetamines
Diseases Viruses
AIDS Influenza
Chicken pox Mumps
Rubella (German measles)
Bacteria
Chlamydia Syphilis Malaria
Gonorrhea Tuberculosis
Other complications
Diabetes
Hypertension
Environmental Mercury radiation nicotine
pollutants Polycarburs lead
3. Fetal Stage
• covers the 9th week to the 38th week of pregnancy
• end of 12th week all the are already formed and in proportion to the fetus, though some organ systems are
still not fully functional
• 12th week: increased activity in the womb such a slight kicking and fluttering of the infant known as
quickening
Risk Factors During Pregnancy

a. Mother’s Age
• More than enough studies have revealed that the age of a mother impacts on an infant’s well-being
during pregnancy
• Too young and the mother is most likely to have a difficult birth because the bodies of teenagers are
still not mature enough to nurture an infant.
• Too old and the mother is most likely to suffer from prenatal complications such gestational diabetes
and pregnancy induced hypertension
• Pregnancy during adolescence and after 35 increases significantly the risk of atypical prenatal
development, and both younger and older women are more likely to give birth prematurely.
• The risk of having a child with Down’s Syndrome increases with maternal age
b. Fetal Malnutrition
• a diet of 2,700 to 3,000 calories a day that contains adequate amounts of vitamins and minerals to
ensure the development of a healthy child (Fifer, 2005)
• fetal malnourishment produces infants who are often lethargic, have aversive cries, and
are slow to develop
c. Maternal stress
• Stress decreases nutrients and oxygen going to the placenta and results in premature birth and low birth-
weight
• Maternal stress prevents nutrients to pass from the baby to the mother. The mother’s weakened immune
system and hormonal fluctuations makes the fetus vulnerable as well.
d. Environmental Risk Factors

• Birth defects occur in 3% to 5% of all newborns, and about 10% of those are caused by teratogens (Fifer,
2005), substances that come into contact with the fetus through the mother that interfere with typical
development
• Potential results of exposure to teratogens: Miscarriage, Low infant birth weight, Premature birth, Physical
malformations (internal: for example, brain; and external, for example, limbs) Damage to visual and/or audition
systems, Delay or damage of physical development (for example, slow growth), Delay or damage of cognitive
development (for example, mental retardation) Higher vulnerability of regulatory systems (for example:
attention, arousal level, mood)
Genes
• the basic biochemical units of heredity. Genes are reproduced and passed along from parents to their
children.
Chromosomes
• are threadlike structures found in every cell of your body, except in red blood cells.
• All chromosomes contain strands of the molecule deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.
Changes Occurring During Physical Development
a. Changes in the Brain and Body Size

• not all parts of the body grow at the same rate
• Height: sharp increase during infancy and adolescence
• Brain and Head: rapid growth during the prenatal period until the preschool years
• Reproductive organs: no change during childhood, but rapid changes happened again during puberty
b. Skeletal and Dental Changes

• the skeleton starts out as soft cartilage which eventually undergoes ossification (bone tissue formation)
• skeletal development reaches a maximum usually in late adolescence or early adulthood
• Gaps between bones get smaller as children age. The disappearance of growth plates signals the end of
skeletal development.
• another reliable measure of physical age: from 7 months onwards, primary teeth appear; 6th year: secondary
teeth appear, complete loss of primary teeth happens until the 12th year.
c. Changes in Proportion
• Cephalocaudal development begins during the prenatal stage, in humans, large brains relative to body size
must continually develop to promote survival
• Proximodistal development is focused toward the center of the body (from the chest to arms and legs)
Psychological Consequences of Physical Growth During Adolescence
a. Changes in Body Image
• Definition: it refers to one’s mental picture of one’s physical body as well as one’s attitude towards the
physical body
• Body image is influenced by culture, media, and interactions with family members
• Each culture develops social ideals or standards in relation to body image and these often have a profound
impact on an adolescent
• Looking good and being beautiful is simply not limited by physical looks but also inherent personal
characteristics
• Some cultural standards of beauty:

Ex. USA – emphasizes thinness as the idea body image for women
French – take pride in their fashion style of having well-made, well-tailored attire
Japan – being told that one has a small face (kogo) is considered as high praise among women
England – (during the Renaissance), women believed in having large pupils, thus they squeezed Belladonna
extract into their eyes to increase pupil dilation
Africa – women are forcibly fed so that they gain weight, the bigger the body, the more beautiful the Woman
Modelling industry – “size 0” among models was initially the most ideal body image
b. Some findings
• Body image dissatisfaction is correlated with eating disorders (Furnham, Badmin @ Sneade, 2002 as cited
by Pestano & Wong, 2018) such Anorexia (characterized by selfinduced weight loss) and Bulimia (eating
excessively and then forcing oneself to vomit)
• Filipino youth have a healthy body image (YAFS, 2014)
• If you are female, babies will gaze longer (Slater et al., 1998)
• Smell is an important part of the attraction to certain women. (Karremans, 2010 a cited by Bergner, 2010). In
a similar research by National Geographic, women were asked to smell the sweaty shirt of males and were
asked to indicate which scent they were most attracted to.
c. A healthy body image starts with
• an awareness about the good things about one’s body
• acceptance that bodies come in different shapes and sizes
• feeling good about the body by engaging in a healthy lifestyle: exercise, balanced diet, enough sleep, and
maintaining a positive attitude towards the body
Sources:
Alata, E.J.P., Caslib, B.N.Jr.; Serafica, J.P.J. & Pawilen, R.A. (2018) Understanding the self. (1st ed.). Manila:
Rex Publishing Company.
Bjorklund & Blasi, (2012). Child and adolescent development: An integrated approach. USA: Cengage
Wadworth Learning.
Hegelson, V.S. (2012). The psychology of gender. (4th ed.). USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Hogg, M.A & Vaughan, G.M. (2010). Essentials of social psychology. England: Pearson Education Limited
Medical News Today. (2019). Sexually transmitted diseases. Retrieved October 2, 2018 from
www.medicalnewstoday.com.
Quinatocan-Pestaňo, A.E. & Almerez-Wong, M. (2018). Understanding the self. Cebu: University of San Jose
Recoletos.
Singh, S. (2008). The concept of physical self in psychology. Retrieved September 19, 2018 from
https://www.all-about-psychology.com/
Sternberg, R. Duplex theory of love: Triangular theory of love and theory of love as a story. Retrieved
September 24, 2018 from http://www.robertjsternberg.com/love/
UB Psychology Department. General psychology manual. (2014 ed). Baguio City: University of Baguio.
Villafuerte, S.L., Quillope, A.F., Tunac, R.C., & Borja, E.I. (2018) Understanding the self. Quezon City: NIEME
Publishing House, Co. LTD.
Vinluan, M. (2012). Adolescent and youth health program. Retrieved October 1, 2018 from www.ncpdc.gov.ph.
LESSON 2: THE SEXUAL SELF
Learning Outcomes:
1. Discuss the physical and sexual changes of a person and other factors that influences growth and
development.
2. Examine how sexuality influences a person in shaping his/her identity.
3. Demonstrate critical, reflective thought in identifying a healthy sexual self.
The Sexual Self

• during the childhood years, physical growth slowly progresses but by the time young people reach the
adolescence stage, rapid growth and development begin to take place. In adolescents, this happens during the
onset of puberty – the physical process that happens from 10 to 18 years old. Puberty is derived from the Latin
word “pubescere” which means “to grow hairy.”
• During adolescence, a rapid growth spurt happens: rapid increments in height, weight gain and sexual
maturity are observed. Thus, it is the endocrine system which figures prominently during adolescence stage.
The endocrine system is responsible for hormone production in the body.
• Puberty is marked by the activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal system thus a biological
revolution is taking place:
a. Leptin, a hormone produced by fat cells in the body triggers the hypothalamus to produce Gonadotrophin –
a hormone responsible for pubertal changes (Medicine.net, 2012)
b. once a threshold of body fat is achieved in middle childhood, Gonadotropin releasing hormone is triggered
c. The pituitary gland, also known as the master gland, is responsible for growth
• Significantly, hormone levels begin to rise during adolescence
a. Females: Estrogens are especially important, for maturation of the uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes.
Progesterone, plays an important role in regulating menstruation and preparing the uterus for a fertilized egg.
b. Males: Androgens, especially testosterone, are important in the maturation of the penis and testes, and they
enhance sexual feelings.
1. Some factors contributing to delayed onset of puberty

a. an inherited tendency (late puberty may run in your family)
b. having a long-term illness, such as cystic fibrosis (a hereditary disorder associated with lung congestion and
malabsorption of nutrients by the pancreas), diabetes, or kidney disease
c. malnutrition, possibly from an eating disorder, or a chronic illness such as cystic fibrosis
d. over-exercising, such as in the case of professional athletes and gymnasts
e. tumors or other internal damage to your glands
f. hormonal conditions, such as an underactive thyroid gland
g. a genetic condition that affects sexual development, such as androgen insensitivity syndrome (a rare
condition where a person is genetically male, but their body is insensitive to male sex hormones)
2. The Social Construction of Gender

• Starts from the biological determination of sex (XX for females and XY for males). However, there are people
who are born and have Turner’s Syndrome (i.e. a female having only one X or an incomplete X) or Klinefelter’s
Syndrome (i.e. a male having both XX and XY chromosomes)
• Some distinctions:
a. Sex refers to the biological categories of female and male, categories distinguished by genes,
chromosomes, and hormones
b. Gender, by contrast, is a much more fluid category. It refers to the social categories of male and female
c. Gender role refers to the expectations that go along with being male versus female.
• One’s attitudes toward gender can be classified as

a. traditional (i.e. men’s sphere is work and women’s sphere is the home),
b. egalitarian (i.e. power is distributed equally between women and men, and women and men identify equally
with the same spheres), or
c. transitional (i.e. that it is acceptable for women to devote energy to both work and family domains, but
women should hold proportionally more responsibility for the home, and men should focus proportionally more
of their energy on work. (Hochschild, 1989 as cited by Hegelson, 2012)
3. A Healthy Sexual Self

• The expression of sexuality begins with social attraction and it is a necessary component for any friendship to
begin. Although first meetings are by chance, attraction can be the precursor to an intimate relationship (Hogg
and Vaughan, p.289, 2010)
• According to the evolutionary concept of reproductive fitness, people guess whether a prospective mate has
good genes, using cues such as physical health, youthful appearance, and body and facial symmetry (Hogg
and Vaughan, p. 290, 2010)
• Social Psychologists who study attraction, however, have arrived at evidence that physical characteristics are
not the sole basis for attraction and eventual intimacy.
a. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Love

• An important adolescent developmental milestone among adolescents is the capacity to manage their
sexuality. This means that with physical and sexual maturity, they must also incorporate into their personal
identity a set of attitudes about what it means to be male or female; and about expressing attraction towards
others. (Havighurst as cited by Ingersoll, n.d.).
• Love can be understood into three components that interact with each other:
a. Passion – refers to the drives that lead to romance, sexual consummation, strong liking or desire
b. Intimacy – refers to feelings of familiarity, “bondedness” or connectedness with another
c. Commitment – refers to the decision to love another to maintain that love; connotes responsibility
Types of Love
Liking friendship due to the presence of intimacy only.
Infatuation one night stand or hook-ups where only passion is present.
Empty Love the presence of commitment alone like arranged marriages
Romantic Love likened to ‘Hollywood’ relationships where emotional and sexual bond is apparently
established due to the presence of intimacy and passion but would later break up
because of the absence of meaningful and lasting commitment.
Fatuous Love whirlwind courtship and marriage that later faces compatibility problems because of
the existence of passion and commitment but without genuine intimacy
Companionate love distinguished by deep affection and dedication to the relationship due to the
Love presence of intimacy and commitment without passion. It also describes the ideal love
between family members and very strong platonic friendship.
Consummate an ideal and encompassing relationship where all the three elements of love are
Love present.
**nonlove- absence of the three components
b. LOVE LANGUAGE by Dr. Gary Chapman

• Words of Affirmation- Actions don’t always speak louder than words. Hearing the reasons behind that love
sends your spirits skyward. Insults can leave you shattered and are not easily forgotten.
• Quality Time- It is like full, undivided attention. Being really there makes your significant other feel truly
special and loved. Distractions, postponed dates, or the failure to listen can be especially hurtful.
• Receiving Gifts- Don’t mistake this love language for materialism; the receiver of gifts thrives on the love,
thoughtfulness, and effort behind the gift. If you speak this language, the perfect gift or gesture shows that you
are known, you are cared for, and you are prized above whatever was sacrificed to bring the gift to you.
• Acts of Service- Anything you do to ease the burden of responsibilities weighing on an “Acts of Service”
person will speak volumes. Laziness, broken commitments, and making more work for them tell speakers of
this language their feelings don’t matter.
• Physical Touch- This language isn’t all about the bedroom. A person whose primary language is Physical
Touch is, not surprisingly, very touchy. Hugs, pats on the back, holding hands, and thoughtful touches on the
arm, shoulder, or face—they can all be ways to show excitement, concern, care, and love. Physical presence
and accessibility are crucial, while neglect or abuse can be unforgivable and destructive.
c. Reproductive Health Care Program of the Philippines

The Adolescents Health Program of the Philippines is guided by various international laws such as the United
Nations (UN) Convention on the Rights of Children and the UN Action for the Promotion and Protection of the
Health of Adolescents. Locally, counterpart laws have also been created to complement the international laws
to ensure that young people grow up in healthy environments and are informed about their reproductive rights.
The Adolescent Health Program is anchored on the principle that making informed choices is necessary to
achieve a healthy lifestyle.
Statistics on the Adolescent Health and Development Program (DOH, 2018)
Violence: Sixteen percent (16.6%) of women age 15-19 have experienced physical violence at least once in
their life and 4.4% are survivors of sexual violence. Seventeen percent (17%) of Young Adult Fertility and
Sexuality Survey in 2013 (YAFSS) adolescent respondents have experienced violence in the past year, and 23
% have been aggressors of violence between the aged 15 – 24 years old. Almost half (47.7%) of 13-15 year
old schoolchildren in the 2013 Global Scholl Health Survey (GSHS) have experienced bullying and 4.8% of
YAFSS adolescents have been harassed using technology.
Alcohol, Tobacco, and Illegal Substances: In the 2013 National Nutrition Survey (NNS), 6.8% of
adolescents are current smokers and 5.7% are former smokers. Fifteen percent (15.6%) of YAFSS (2013)
respondents are current smokers and 2.6% have ever used drugs. In YAFSS, 8.1% of adolescents 15-19
years old have ever passed out drunk. The 2015 Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS), together with Global
School Based Health Survey (GSHS) and YAFS describe other risk behaviors. In 2015, GSHS found that
18.2% of schoolchildren 13-15 years old have experienced being really drunk at least one drinking alcohol
once one or more days during the past 30 days. According GSHS, 11.0% have smoked cigarettes in the past
month. In 2015, GYTS analyzed that a total of 16.0% of the respondents currently use any tobacco product
(smoked tobacco and/or smokeless tobacco) and 28.1% of students are ever tobacco users.
Malnutrition: It is a double burden with 12.4% of adolescents wasted and 8.3% overweight or obese. The
latter is somewhat expected given that 42.2% consume soft drinks one or more times per day while only 13.9%
were physically active for a total of at least 60 minutes daily on five or more days during the past week. On the
other hand, one in three (37.2%) pregnant adolescents are nutritionally at risk (based on weightfor- height
classification, P<95).
Sexual and Reproductive Health: While General Fertility (GF) has significantly decreased since 1970, Age
Specific Fertility Rates (ASFR) of adolescents has changed little. The 2017 National Demographic and Health
Survey (NDHS) places adolescent ASFR at 47 livebirths per 1,000 women 15-19 years old, up from 57 in the
2013 NDHS. According to YAFSS 4, data shows that in the Philippines, an increasing proportion of
adolescents and young people have early sexual encounters. In 2013, 1 in 3 young people report having
premarital sex. The prevalence of early sexual encounters has increased over the last 20 years. Males are
more likely to report having premarital sex than females. In 2013, 36% of males reported having early sexual
encounters compared to 29% of females. The highest levels of early sexual encounters are reported in NCR
(41%) & Central Luzon (31%) regions. Also, many young people marry young, and it is important that they
have good information before they are married so that they can make healthy, informed decisions.
HIV and AIDS: In April 2017, there were 629 new HIV antibody sero-positive individuals reported to the HIV/
AIDS & ART Registry of the Philippines (HARP). More than half were from the 25-34 year age group while
30% were youth aged 15-24 years. 33 adolescents aged 10-19 years were reported. All were infected through
sexual contact (8 male-female sex, 19 male-male sex, 6 sex with both males & females). From January 1984
to April 2017, 1,606 (4%) of the reported cases were 19 years old and below. Seven percent (111 out of 1,606)
were children (less than 10 y/o) and among them, 108 were infected through mother-to-child transmission, 1
through blood transfusion and 2 had no specified mode of transmission. Ninety three percent (1,495 out 1,606)
were adolescents. Among these, 1,359 (91%) were male. Most (93%) of the adolescents were infected through
sexual contact 185 male-female sex, 843 male-male sex, 367 sex with both males & females), 85 (6%) were
infected through sharing of infected needles, 8 (<1%) through mother-to-child transmission, and 7 had no
specified mode of transmission.
d. Family Planning Methods

Natural Family Planning Methods Artificial Family Planning Methods
1. Continuous abstinence 3. Barrier methods
2. Natural family planning/rhythm method • Contraceptive sponge
• cervical mucus method • Diaphragm, cervical cap, and cervical shield
• basal body temperature, • Female condom
• sympto-thermal method • Male condom
• standard days method
4. Hormonal methods
• Oral contraceptives — combined pill ("The pill")
• Oral contraceptives — progestin-only pill ("Mini-pill")
• The patch
• Shot/injection
• Vaginal ring
5. Implantable devices
• Implantable rods
• Intrauterine devices
6. Permanent Methods
• Sterilization implant
• Surgical sterilization
7. Emergency Contraception
e. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (Medical News Today, 2018)

• Refers to infections that are passed on from one person to another through sexual contact (MedlinePlus,
2018). STDs are also known as venereal diseases (VD)
• Mode of transmission can be from mother to infant during childbirth or breastfeeding, blood transfusions,
through vaginal secretions, through the semen, and through needle-use.
• Fast facts:
Globally, more than 1 million new STDs are acquired each day. People between the ages of 15-24 acquire half
of all new STDs
• Most common diseases transmitted:
- Chlamydia caused by a bacterium around the genital area
- Chancroid is a bacterial infection which causes painful sores to develop in the genital area
- Crabs or pubic lice
- Genital herpes cause by the herpes simplex virus (HSV) which affects the skin, cervix, and genitals
- Hepatitis B virus (HBV) results in serious liver damage and can sometimes be chronic
- Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) attacks the immune system leaving a person vulnerable to infections.
Can be transmitted through blood to blood contact, sexual contact, childbirth, sharing of needles. If left
untreated, it can progress into stage, AIDS.
f. Reproductive Health Risks in Adolescence

• Unintended and too early pregnancy
• Sexually Transmitted Illnesses including HIV/AIDS
• Sexual violence and unwanted sexual activity
Sources:
Alata, E.J.P., Caslib, B.N.Jr.; Serafica, J.P.J. & Pawilen, R.A. (2018) Understanding the self. (1st ed.). Manila: Rex
Publishing Company.
Bjorklund & Blasi, (2012). Child and adolescent development: An integrated approach. USA: Cengage Wadworth
Learning.
Hegelson, V.S. (2012). The psychology of gender. (4th ed.). USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Hogg, M.A & Vaughan, G.M. (2010). Essentials of social psychology. England: Pearson Education Limited
Lurvespy (2018). The 5 Love Languages’ by Dr. Gary Chapman. https://www.itsalllurve.com/the-5-love-languages/

Retrieved on September 20, 2021.
Medical News Today. (2019). Sexually transmitted diseases. Retrieved October 2, 2018 from
www.medicalnewstoday.com.
Quinatocan-Pestaňo, A.E. & Almerez-Wong, M. (2018). Understanding the self. Cebu: University of San Jose
Recoletos
Singh, S. (2008). The concept of physical self in psychology. Retrieved September 19, 2018 from
https://www.all-about-psychology.com/
Sternberg, R. Duplex theory of love: Triangular theory of love and theory of love as a story. Retrieved September 24,
2018 from http://www.robertjsternberg.com/love/
UB Psychology Department. General psychology manual. (2014 ed). Baguio City: University of Baguio.
Villafuerte, S.L., Quillope, A.F., Tunac, R.C., & Borja, E.I. (2018) Understanding the self. Quezon City: NIEME
Publishing House, Co. LTD.
Vinluan, M. (2012). Adolescent and youth health program. Retrieved October 1, 2018 from www.ncpdc.gov.ph.
Lesson 3: The Material Self
Learning Outcomes:
1. Explore the different “material” aspects of self and how it affects one’s identity
2. Examine one’s self against these different “material” aspects of self
The Material and Economic Self: “I shop therefore I am.”

All people have a “material” self-according to William James. This includes family, body and reputation
but also clothes, houses, cars and others. All the physical elements that serve as possessions constitutes the
material self.
Material Possession Attachment

• it reflects a vital and ubiquitous way people valuate goods
• it involves acquisition, consumption, and disposition behaviors, how it compares to place, brand, or
consumption experience bonds, whether marketing activities influence possession attachment, and
how having attachments affects consumer well-being
• it is a multi-faceted property of the relationship between an individual or group of individuals and a
specific material object that has been psychologically appropriated (something that we have
psychologically claimed), de-commodified, and singularized through person-object interaction.
Characteristics of Material Possession (Kimmel, 2015)

1. Specific material object
• Material possession attachment forms with specific material possessions, not with product classes or
brands. The material objects are acquired through exchange, received as gifts, self-produced, or found. Most
often attachment possessions are ordinary objects that have special meaning formed through experiences
involving the object.
2. Psychologically Appropriated Material Object

▪ Attachment does not require legal or physical possession only psychological appropriation; that is, a
sense the object is “mine. Through consumption people extract cultural meaning from, give meaning to, and
claim goods as theirs.
▪ Examples of psychological appropriation include students taking possession of “their” chair in a
classroom for the term; lost, stolen, or destroyed valued possessions still perceived by the owner to be “mine”;
jointly held possessions perceived to be “ours” or singular culturally shared possessions, such as the Statue of
Liberty. Psychological appropriation is necessary but not sufficient for material possession attachment to form.
3. A Type of Self-Extension and the attachment has strength

• We extend ourselves into things such as people, places, experiences, ideas, beliefs (see also
Abelson 1986), and material possession objects. Conceptually, self-extension, encompasses objects perceived
to be“mine,”including but not limited to possession attachments. However, more empirical relationship
between self- extension and material possession is needed.
Four levels of the extended self (Belk, 1988)

a. Individual level: personal possessions; jewelry, car, clothes
b. Family level: residence, furnishings house as body for family
c. Community level: in terms of your neighborhood, town, city,
d. Group Level; social groups, landmarks, monuments, sports teams
4. Decommodified, Singular Possessions

• We construct meanings for material objects in ways similar to how we construct meanings for people
over time we get to know them as individuals (Kopytoff 1986). Self-extension processes decommodify,
singularize, and personalize material objects symbolizing autobiographical meanings (Belk 1988).
• Perceived singularity often is associated with an unwillingness to sell the possession for market value.
A singular, irreplaceable possession becomes non-substitutable. It "is one that a consumer resists replacing,
even with an exact replica, because the consumer feels that the replica cannot sustain the same meaning as
the original")
• Example
✓ A young child’s baby blanket is one well-known example of no substitutability;
✓ The concept of “limited edition” “collector’s item”
5. Personal History Between Person and Material Possession

• Over time, specific materials become irreplaceable via possession rituals (e.g., using, displaying,
cleaning, storing, discussing, comparing) that extract meaning from, and give meaning to the goods.
• Attachment to a possession can be relatively strong or weak. Generally, strong attachment
possessions include those regarded as "most difficult to part with and most cherished, "attached to," or
"irreplaceable." . Strong attachments are more central to the proximal self, whereas weak attachments do not
reflect the self as much or at all. The strength of attachment may be indicated by behavioral tendencies such
as unwillingness to sell possessions for market value or to discard objects after their functional use is gone.
• Example: A toddler becomes attached to a special object (e.g., baby blanket, stuffed animal) over
many, many repeated uses.
• Adult possessions may become evident through constant or habitual use and dependency
(e.g. one’s “faithful” wristwatch or constantly worn piece of jewelry) endowing it with personal meaning
connecting self and object.
6. Attachment is Multi-Faceted
• Attachment is a multi-faceted, relatively complex concept. It portrays the extended self (including
attachments) as being comprised of different layers from the private inner self-core to the outermost collective
layer. Special possession objects vary in their symbolic purposes and identify. Various motivations for
attachments, suggesting multi-faceted person-possession ties. Each self is associated with different kinds of
possession attachments that reflect specific self-developmental tasks.
7. Attachment is Emotionally Complex

Attachment possessions, laden with personal, deeply emotional meanings are "extraordinary,
mysterious, and emotion evoking rather than merely functional."
• Attachment is emotional in experience quality, recorded in a cognitive-emotive understanding of the
possession’s symbolic, autobiographical, personalized meaning formed via a history between self and object.
8. Attachment is Dynamic
• The meaning associated with a possession and the intensity of attachment to it does not remain static
but evolves as the person’s self evolves and the autobiographical function of the object change. It has been
observed that material possessions bring happiness that is very short lived. This is also known as “instant
gratification”, which soon fades away and once it does, a person no longer feel attached to the things he
wants. At times it can start a feeling of depressed or gloomy.
There can be many types of possessions from things that serve to change our lifestyle to things that
boost our confidence and make us more self-assured. There is a need to categorize things as important and
unimportant so that a person can experience happiness in its true sense rather than feeling pleased or blissful
for only some time. At the same time, there are some material possessions have an important place in an
individual’s life.
When a person distinguishes needs from wants, then he or she find out that the things that brings
happiness is not desires but those that makes a person self-assured, important and valued. Materialism is
also discouraged because it harms our environment and makes people less sensitive to those around them.
Sources:
Beker, S. & Kleine, S. (2004). An Integrative Review of Material Possession Attachment.
https://dsef.org/articles/an-integrative-review-of-material-possession-attachment/
Belk, R.W. (1988) The journal of consumer research, 15:2, pp. 139-168 USA: The University of Chicago Press
Stable retrieved October 9, 2018 from URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2489522
Kimmel, A.J. (2015). People and products: Consumer behavior and product design. USA: Routledge.
Van Boven et al. (2010). Stigmatizing Materialism: On Stereotypes and Impressions of Materialistic and
Experiential Pursuits. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2010; 36 (4): 551 DOI:
10.1177/014616721036279
Lesson 4: The Digital Self
Learning Outcomes:
1. Explore the different aspects of the digital self.
2. Identify and situate the self in the use of digital technology and how it affects one’s Identity
DIGITAL SELF
• The self that is constructed online is generally called the digital self (Otig et al., 2018).
• The term online identity implies that there is a distinction between how people present themselves online and
how they do offline. But any split between “online” and “offline” identity is narrowing, for two reasons:
1. In contrast to the Internet of the 1990s, people today use social media primarily to communicate with people
they know in “real life” contexts (e.g., home, work, school, etc.); and
2. Wireless networking and portable devices like smartphones and tablets make it easy to access social media
as part of day-to-day life, rather than having to formally “log on” to the Internet (Marwick, 2013 as cited in
Villafuerte et al., 2018).
I. ONLINE IDENTITY AND ‘SELF’ IN CYBERSPACE: I, Me, Myself and My User ID Online Identity
Your online identity is not the same as your real-world identity because the characteristics you
represent online differ from the characteristics you represent in the physical world. Every website you interact
with has its own idea of your identity because each one you visit sees you and your characteristics differently
(InternetSociety.org, 2011 as cited in Villafuerte et al., 2018)
II. Impression management

It is also called self-presentation which involves the processes by which people control how they are
perceived by others. People are more motivated to control how others perceived them when they believe that
their public images are relevant to the attainment of desired goals, the goals for which their impressions are
relevant are valuable, and a discrepancy exists between how they want to be perceived and how other people
perceive them. When people are motivated to manage their impressions, the impressions that they try to
convey are influenced by the roles that they occupy and the norms in the social context, the values of the
individuals whose perceptions are of concern, how they think they are currently perceived, their self-concepts,
and their desired and undesired selves.
WHY DO PEOPLE ENGAGE IN SELF-PRESENTATION? (Otig et al., 2018)

o it helps facilitate social interaction;
o it enables individuals to attain material and social rewards; and
o it helps people privately construct desired identities.
Generally, social media platforms are used for:

o social browsing; social searching; communication; and impression management.
Impression management strategies:

✓ Self-promotion. A proactive process in which a person actively says things or takes action to show
their to an audience (Rosenfeld et al., 1995 as cited in Otig et al., 2018).
✓ Exemplification. A strategic self-sacrifice so that observers may recognize the dedication. An
exemplifier often wants other people to know how hard they have been working because of the need to
advertise their behavior (Rosenfeld et al., 1995 as cited in Otig et al., 2018).
✓ Intimidation. A strategy that involves showing off authority, power, or the potential to punish in order to
be seen by observers as someone who could be or is dangerous. This is designed designed to
increase the credibility of one’s threats and in turn enhance the probability that the target will comply
with the demands for agreement (Tedeschi & Riess, 1981 as cited in Otig et al., 2018).
✓ Supplication. An approach where the individual exploits their weaknesses or shortcomings to receive
help or benefits (Otig et al., 2018).
III. YOUR BRAIN AND SMARTPHONES (Alampay, 2018)
• Notifications, texts, “likes”, new info on your feed – are inherently rewarding & therefore addictive via
the action of dopamine in your brain
• Mere presence of a smartphone in your environment reduces cognitive attention and capacity
• Long and late-night exposure to the blue light of smartphone screens disrupts melatonin and circadian
rhythms
Smartphones Affect How We Think

Research has shown that smartphones adversely affect cognition (Kaufer, 2020).
“With smartphones, you have a whole encyclopedia and beyond of information at your fingertips at any point in
time. But this results in a much more superficial or shallow way to access information,” Dr. Kaufer said. “The
more we rely on these types of information aids or sources, the less work and processing our brains actually
do.” In other words, our brains do not have to work hard to obtain the information, so we don’t retain it as well
either. For example, when you read a book, you generate the images described in the book with your mind.
“That involves making connections between different parts of your brain,” Dr. Kaufer said. But “when you look
at a picture that is already there, it’s much more passive. You’re not working [as many] parts of your brain.”
This applies to smartphones as well as watching television or a computer screen.
Smartphones Can Impair Social and Emotional Skills

The more time you spend looking at a screen, the less time you spend interacting in person with others.
This makes it more difficult to establish interpersonal connections and strong relationships, which are important
for mental health and the health of the community at large. Also, that lack of face-to-face interaction can lead to
depression.
Smartphones Can Make Your Brain “Lazy”

Research shows this overreliance on your smartphone can lead to mental laziness.
“If you give people the ability to store information remotely, outside of their brain, they become more dependent
on that, which actually can have a negative effect on people’s memory,” Dr. Kaufer said. “Because they
become too dependent on that external aid, they lose that skill of being able to remember things as freshly as
they could, absent that external aid.”
IV. THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA

Social media is an undeniable force in modern society. From giving us new ways to come together and
stay connected to the world around us, to providing an outlet for expression, social media has fundamentally
changed the way we initiate, build and maintain our relationships.
• iGen fuse their social lives & personal identities with their social media apps
• Social networking sites are used to initiate, maintain, and deepen social ties – family, friends, “communities”
• The platform or “stage” where identity explorations are enacted, validated, and managed
CYBERBULLYING (Alampay, 2018)

• insults, shaming, spreading lies/rumors, social exclusion,
• context, time, audience of bullying extends beyond the school
• anonymity and distance diminish empathy and increase aggression
FEAR OF MISSING OUT (FOMO) (Przbylski, Murayama, DeHaan, & Gladwell, 2013)
• “...the uneasy and sometimes all-consuming feeling that you are missing out – that your peers are
doing, in the know about, or in possession of more or something better than you.”
SOCIAL MEDIA = SOCIAL COMPARISON
• SOCIAL MEDIA ENVY is a moderate significant predictor of symptoms of depression among Filipino
high school students (Ocampo & Lee-Chua, 2017).
The good impact of social media:

✓ Social media can add creativity to our thinking as people can share their views and work with others.
✓ It allows people to explore and become actively involved without the fear of rejection.
✓ While no one advocates spending hours after hours gaming, social media games can build social
connections, improve a person’s self-efficacy, boost their cognitive flexibility and self-control. They can
teach students how to deal with successes and failures in real life.
✓ Social media enables connectivity with families, friends and some government safety organizations.
The bad impact of social media:

✓ Face-to-face interactions which are necessary for development of personalities, learning social skills
and communication skills, have been removed from the lives of people, especially younger generations.
✓ Children are having a difficult time interacting with others, which might lead to unsociable behavior.
✓ Comparison with other lives has been made easy by social media. People become unhappy with their
current circumstances, leading to problems with self-esteem and depression.
✓ Social media use has also been associated with cyber bullying and cyber abuse by anonymous users
online, which leads to problems of self-esteem and privacy
✓ Most studies have shown that, social media’s violent games result in increase in violent tendencies and
behaviors in children.
✓ Social media has also been used as tool to spread negativity and rumors online which has led to
increase in the instances of violence in the society.
✓ With social media it has become nearly impossible to avoid bad news and the negative influences on
our lives. This can lead to long-lasting psychological repercussions and ultimately lead to thoughts of
our world falling apart, stress and anxiety.
THE GOLDILOCKS HYPOTHESIS (Przybylski & Weinstein, 2017)

too little – deprive youth of “just right” or moderate – too much – mental, health /
benefits of technology and derive benefits without the ill well-being suffers; increase
social media use effects. exposure to risks
Just as Goldilocks in the fairytale Goldilocks and the Three Bears finds that moderation (in porridge -not
too hot, not too cold), and beds (not too hard, not too soft)) is “just right”, so too would it seem to be for screen
time.
The study, which involved 120,115 English 15-year old and was conducted in 2016, looked at the link
between digital screen time (smartphone, computer, consoles and TV) and wellbeing as measured by the 14
question Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale*.
The study, led by Andrew K. Przybylski (University of Oxford) and Netta Weinstein (Cardiff University)
found that high levels of daily screen-time (e.g. 2+ hours of smartphone use) particularly on weekdays was
linked to lower levels of wellbeing. But the study also found that extremely low (or no) daily screen time was
also linked to lower levels of wellbeing (e.g. no smartphone use has the same negative outcomes as 2hrs per
day). For smartphones, optimum wellbeing was associated with just under one hour’s use per day.
The authors call this curvilinear relationship between digital screen time and wellbeing the ‘digital
Goldilocks hypothesis’, and suggest that it should replace a simplistic ‘displacement hypothesis’ – the idea that
digital screen use is intrinsically harmful because it displaces (replaces) activities that would otherwise
contribute positively to wellbeing.
The authors conclude that their findings support the Goldilocks hypothesis and refute the displacement
hypothesis. The data suggests that moderate digital screen use may be contributing positively to
wellbeing by enabling and empowering people to pursue their goals, be more active, feel connected with
others and enjoy life. Any detrimental impact of screen time may be small and limited to extensive screen time
that displaces activities that promote wellbeing (as cited by Masden, 2018).
Digital Natives: Growing Up Online (Hicks, 2011)

Children today have a digital life from the moment they are in the uterus. When that first image or text
appears for a person online this is referred to as their digital birth. A study commissioned by Internet security
company AVG has found that children are beginning to have a presence online before some of them are
even born. The study found that in the US almost a third of children (34%) have a digital birth that is before
their actual birth date, a result of parents posting sonograms online. The study also reported that worldwide
81% of children under the age of two already have a digital profile or 92% in the United States. And then
their digital lives continue to grow with each birthday as new photos are posted and
YouTube videos are put up for friends and family to view. As they start school and other extra-curricular
activities, photos and videos of each and every event are posted on the web: science fair projects, a 4th
place soccer tournament triumph, a pop-song he sang or a sonata she played on the piano.
I think about how to maintain a balance between my "digital life" and my "non-digital life"; however, for
kids today, one's digital life is simply- life. Adolescents who are now 16 and 17 were born during the
commercial launch of the World Wide Web in 1995. They have witnessed countless pop culture stars, such
as Justin Bieber, attaining fame through YouTube. They have digitally witnessed and participated in national
and international revolutions. This blog entry is not meant to frighten parents, but rather, as with all Digital
self postings, to encourage thought.
• What kind of digital footprint do you actually want to create for your child?
• What will they think about the information you've uploaded when they are adolescents or adults? Do you
remember how you felt (pride or horror) when your parents ran to unearth the family photo album as you
introduced a new boyfriend/girlfriend?
• To the family, a funny tantrum might seem hysterical and amusing. However, it might appear differently to
that preschool you are trying to enroll your child at.
Talk show host Jimmy Kimmel recently asked parents to play a joke on their children: tell them that you
ate all of their Halloween candy and post their reaction on YouTube! After reading the posts of viewers, it is
true that most find the videos hysterical. A few of the children displayed some strong reactions: throwing
items at their parents, punching a wall, telling their father that he is ugly. However, what will these children
think of these public videos in 10 years? When does the child's privacy become theirs? Might those adorable
videos and photos of your daughter splashing in the bathtub embarrass her when she's older? Or worse- be
utilized for future taunting from a peer?
Even if you remove a photo or video, someone may have already downloaded it and could use it in the
future. If you decide that you want a posting removed there is a service that can monitor your public Internet
life and assist in removing unwanted information. Reputation.com is a fee-based service that searches out
negative content and then proceeds to remove the content from searched sites. Who knows, your child
might grow up to become a psychologist, wanting to keep their private life as just
that: private.
Why is the digital self so important for your future career? The simple reason is that once you go online
as your real self, using your own name or appearance, you have an online presence that can be traced back to
you in the real world. Your online presence is hard to hide, difficult to control, and easy for recruiters and hiring
managers to find. Because of this, it’s important to manage your online identity carefully, to ensure that your
public image is presented in the best possible light.
CONCLUSIONS
Not that online identity transforms identity but that it makes us more aware that offline identity was
already more multiple, culturally contingent and contextual than we had appreciated. Given that your online
behavior makes a huge impact on how you present your digital self, it’s important to always use social media
with care and consistency—always aware of how your personal brand can be affected by what you say and do.
Always assume that potential employers in the future will perform an online search, so make sure that
everything they find is positive and professional.
Sources:
Frith, E. (2017). Social media and children’s mental health: A review of the evidence. United Kingdom: Education Policy
Institute.O’Keefe, G., Clarke-Pearson, K., & Council on Communications and Media (2011). Clinical report: The impact of
social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics. doi: 10.1542/peds.2011-0054
Otig, V. S., Gallinero, W. B., Bataga, N. U., Salado, F. B., & Visande, J. C. (2018). A holistic approach in
understanding the self: A workbook-textbook for college students. Malabon City, Philippines: Mutya
Publishing House, Inc.
Przbylski, A.K., & Weinstein, N. (2017). A large-scale test of the Goldilocks hypothesis: Quantifying the relations between
digital screen use and the mental well-being of adolescents. Psychological Science, 28(2),
204-215.
Przbylski, A.K., Murayama, K., DeHaan, C., & Gladwell, V. (2013). Motivational, emotional, and behavioral
correlates of fear of missing out. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(4), 1841-1848.Self-presentation (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/self/selfpresentation/
Villafuerte, S. L., Quillope, A. F., Tunac, R. C., & Borja, E. I. (2018). Understanding the self. Quezon City, Philippines:
Nieme Publishing House Co. Ltd.
Ward, A., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces
available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association of Consumer Research, 2(2), 140-154.
Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Survey (2013). University of the Philippines, Quezon City: Demographic
Research and Development Foundation, Inc
UNIT II: UNPACKING THE SELF
Lesson 5: The Political Self
Objectives:
1. Explore the political self.
2. Examine one’s involvement in the society and how it affects the development of one’s identity.
THE POLITICAL SELF:

Aristotle defines man as a “political animal” and people want power, to control the flow of things. No
one wants to be controlled and for that individuals strive for power and fights hard to get it. It is said that
political self is a component of the self, it constitutes knowledge about the Constitution, government, and
governance. The political self helps in defining the structure and functions of the government, in telling and
understanding the relationship between the state and the citizens and in describing their rights, freedom, and
obligations as citizens.
The political community where people belong offers an opportunity for them to define themselves and
provides opportunities to satisfy their needs for affiliation. Political self organizes one’s beliefs, attitudes, and
affiliations and use their political values and belief systems to define themselves as unique individuals of
society. All members must also commit to and take responsibility for fostering and maintaining an environment
in which political participation can occur. For instance, ordinary Filipino citizens must be allowed to take part in
the policy and decision-making process regarding the administration of the country which is in accordance to
the democratic nature of Philippine society.
•Citizenship – refers to the most basic identification with the nation (Diokno, ed.). Citizenship embodies not
just obligations but rights as well. It may further include a person’s identity.
•Erik Erikson (as cited by Yates and Youniss, 1998) described the development of political commitment
as a key aspect of identity formation in adolescence which means that young people reflect on values,
ideologies, and traditions in their communities and the possible roles they will undertake in adulthood.
Who are classified as Philippine citizens?

Under the 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article IV, Section 1, it states that:
1. Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of this Constitution;
2. Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens of the Philippines;
3. Those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine citizenship upon reaching the
age of majority; and
4. Those who are naturalized in accordance of law
Modes of acquiring citizenship in the Philippines

1. Filipino by birth
a. Jus soli which is the legal principle that a person’s nationality at birth is determined by the place of birth
(e.g. the territory of a given state)
b. Jus sanguinis which is the legal principle that, at birth, an individual acquires the nationality of his/her
natural parent/s. The Philippine adheres to this principle.
2.Filipino by naturalization which is the judicial act of adopting a foreigner and clothing him with the
privileges of a native-born citizen. It implies the renunciation of a former nationality and the fact of entrance into
a similar relation towards a new body politic
Factors that influence the formation of the Filipino’s Identity

1. Individual attitudes and traits – presence of contradictions in Filipino’s everyday behavior. Attitudes
change and these are shaped by events that a nation goes through (ex. being colonized, martial law, EDSA,
calamity experiences)
- Ex. Value for cleanliness is seen in bathing everyday, yet, they throw their cigarette butts anywhere,
Filipinos help in emergencies but are indifferent to violations of human rights
Positive traits: caring for others (paglingap) sympathy in time of need (damayan) and a basic respect for
Elders.
2. Institutional Factors – family, church, school, media, government, non-government and people’s
organizations influence the values of citizenship and democracy.
• The Filipino family is so strong a social unit that all other societal entities pale in comparison. The Filipino
family commands the greatest loyalty and affiliation of its members (Diokno, n.d.).
• Extreme family ties are unhealthy for democracy (ex. political dynasties in politics and business).
• The church and other sects also influence the Filipino identity: pastoral letters and sermons are read during
religious celebrations
• Government does not often appear as a role model of positive values. Based on the Philippine experience,
government officials and institutions have proven unreliable for promoting responsible citizenship and
democracy
3. Macro-factors at the Societal Level

• The degree of identification depends on the type of community to which one belongs to and the extent to
which individuals benefits from the state
• Communitarian values still prevail in all matters of collective concern: choice of leaders, sharing or resources,
resolution of conflicts
• Umili (in Isabela) derives from one’s relation to the ancestry of the land as separate from those who acquired
membership by migration
Pakikisangkot (active involvement), pakikilahok (participation) as a Means of Developing a Political Identity
• When youth are given opportunities to use social skills to redress social problems, they can experience
themselves as having agency and as being responsible for society’s well-being (Yates & Younis, 1988).
• In developing a Filipino political identity, the following indigenous concepts are demonstrated: pakikialam
(concerned interference), pakikisangkot (active involvement), pakikilahok (participation)
DEGREES OF PARTICIPATION
1) Manipulation. Happens where adults use young people to support causes and pretend that the causes are
inspired by young people. This rung of the ladder reflects adultism.
2) Decoration. Happens when young people are used to help or "bolster" a cause in a relatively indirect way,
although adults do not pretend that the cause is inspired by young people. This rung of the ladder reflects
adultism.
3) Tokenism. When young people appear to be given a voice, but in fact have little or no choice about what
they do or how they participate. This rung of the ladder reflects adultism.
4) Assigned but informed. This is where young people are assigned a specific role and informed about how
and why they are being involved. This rung of the ladder can be embodied by community youth boards.
5) Consulted and informed. Happens when young people give advice on projects or programs designed and
run by adults. The young people are informed about how their input will be used and the outcomes of the
decisions made by adults. This rung of the ladder can be embodied by youth advisory councils.
6) Adult-initiated, shared decisions with young people. Occurs when projects or programs are initiated by
adults but the decision-making is shared with the young people. This rung of the ladder can be embodied by
participatory action research.
7) Young people-initiated and directed. This step is when young people initiate and direct a project or
program. Adults are involved only in a supportive role. This rung of the ladder can be embodied by youth-led
activism.
8) Young people-initiated, shared decisions with adults. This happens when projects or programs are
initiated by young people and decision-making is shared between young people and adults. These projects
empower young people while at the same time enabling them to access and learn from the life experience and
expertise of adults. This rung of the ladder can be embodied by youth/adult partnerships.
ESTABLISHING A DEMOCRATIC CULTURE
DEMOCRACY - a government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them
directly or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodically held free elections.
1. In a democracy, all citizens are equal before the law.

The idea that every single person should be treated equally before the law is a very noble one. It would
be really nice if political connections and nepotism would not count and all people have the same chance to be
judged fairly.
2. In a democracy, all citizens have equal right to the power.
In theory, any and all citizen can become candidates for any elective office function.
3. Democracy is freedom
Aristotle defined democracy as freedom, where rule by the many should allow the citizen to live as they
please. While there should be some sort of government ruling over citizen and some sort of constitution
defining the liberties, the freedom should be the paramount goal of a peaceful togetherness. While this
wonderful theory has nothing to do with the harsh reality, a true democracy would employ citizens’ preferences
into a binding law.
Sources:
Yates, Miranda and Youniss, James, (1998) "Community Service and Political Identity Development in
Adolescence"
Civic Engagement 21 retrieved from https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/slceciviceng/2

Benefits of (2020). Benefits of Democracy. http://benefitof.net/benefits-of-democracy/
UNIT II: UNPACKING THE SELF
Lesson 6: The Spiritual Self
Learning Outcomes:
1. Explore the different aspects of religion and spirituality.
2. Examine the meaning of spirituality and its influence on one’s identity.
THE SPIRITUAL SELF: Spirituality, Religion and the Supernatural

✓ The spiritual self has a direct connection with the spiritual dimension. People of faith believe that each
person’s soul communicates with a divine spirit (Culliford, 2012, p. 8).
✓ it is the part of an individual to connect with the sacred, supernatural and the universe
✓ it is the experience with oneness with a higher being that gives a deeper meaning in a person’s life.
SPIRITUAL vs. RELIGIOUS

Spirituality in general includes a sense of connection to something bigger than us and it typically
involves a search for meaning in life. It is “also concerned with the sacred but is often individual rather than the
collective.” It does not necessarily require a distinctive format or traditional organization. It leads individuals to
a deeper connection with the Divine. It is a path of direct and personal connection. A spiritual person places
little importance on the beliefs and traditions and is more concerned with growing and experiencing the Divine.
Religion is “a set of organized beliefs, practices, and systems that most often relate to the belief and
worship of a controlling force, such as a personal god or another supernatural being. It is organized because it
is associated with ceremonial practices. It is people’s way of connecting themselves to God as they search for
the meaning of life. A religious person is someone who believes in a god or group of gods and consciously
adheres to the beliefs of his/her religion.
Spirituality Religion
Can be practiced individually Often practiced in a community
Doesn't have to adhere to a specific set of rules Usually based on a specific set of rules and customs
Often focuses on a personal journey of Often focuses on the belief in deities or gods,
discovering what is meaningful in life religious texts, and tradition
WHY IS SPIRITUALITY IMPORTANT?

✓ Spirituality has been a source of comfort and relief from stress for multitudes of people. While people
use many different paths to find God or a higher power, research has shown that those who are more
religious or spiritual and use their spirituality to cope with challenges in life experience many benefits to
their health and well-being ( Akbari, 2018).
✓ Research has shown that religion and spirituality can help people cope with the effects of everyday
stress. Everyday spiritual experiences helped older adults better cope with negative feelings, and
enhanced positive feelings ( Whitehead & Bergeman, 2012).
✓ Research shows that older women are more grateful to God than older men, and they receive greater
stress-buffering health effects due to this gratitude ( Manning LK , 2012)
There are many different types of spirituality. Some examples of how people get in touch with their own
spirituality include:
✓ Meditation or quiet time
✓ Prayer
✓ Service to their community
✓ Spending time in nature
✓ Spiritual retreats
✓ Yoga
Other people express their spirituality through religious traditions such as Buddhism, Christianity,
Hinduism, Islam, Judaism.
One potential pitfall of spirituality is a phenomenon known as spiritual bypassing. This involves a
tendency to use spirituality to avoid or sidestep problems, emotions, or conflicts. For example, rather than
apologizing for some type of emotional wound you have caused someone else, you might bypass the problem
by simply excusing it and saying that "everything happens for a reason" or suggesting that the other person
just needs to "focus on the positive."
THE PRACTICE OF RELIGION

Much of religion’s value comes from organized activities which results in feelings of closeness to
participants. Ceremonial practices and beliefs vary from one religion to another. Some “outsiders” may even
find certain religions practices bizarre.
Example: In the Philippines, self-flagellation is considered taboo, but to the locals, this is a practice
necessary as penance for sins committed.
Religion often involves cultural beliefs, worldviews, texts, prophecies, revelations, and morals that have
spiritual meaning to members of the particular faith, and it can encompass a range of practices, including
sermons, rituals, prayer, meditation, holy places, symbols, trances, and feasts.
While Freud believed that religious belief was a form of pathological wish fulfillment, other researchers
have proposed that how the human brain works often predisposes people to believe. The human mind looks
for patterns, purpose, and meaning, which may influence why people turn to religion to guide their belief
systems.
Parenting and cultural influences also play an important role since people tend to belong to the religion in
which they were raised. The human need to belong, combined with the desire for social connection, also
contributes to the desire to be part of someone larger than the self.
SUPERNATURAL BEINGS AND POWERS

Religion and Spirituality often lead to the belief of the existence of spiritual forces that can be talked to
and who are concerned with human affairs as well. Humans believed and worshipped gods who displayed
various powers. Societies often subordinate goddesses in a way that gods are given masculine characteristics.
➢ Monotheism: belief in one divine being
➢ Polytheism: belief in many divine beings
THE ROLE OF RITUALS AND CEREMONIES IN RELIGION

Rituals are patterned forms of behavior that have something to do with the supernatural realm (Sosim,
2010 as cited in Villafuerte et. al, 2018). Strictly speaking, not all ceremonial acts are religious in nature but
these play a crucial role in religious activity.
Purpose:
a. religious ritual is the means through which people relate to the supernatural, (Haviland et. al, 2007 p.297)
b. rituals serve to relieve special tensions and reinforce a group’s collective bonds
c. rituals serve as a means of marking important events and lessening social disruption such as personal
suffering, crisis and even death
Rites of Passage – is a type of ritual which marks important stages in an individual’s life cycle such as
birth, marriage, and death. Rites of passage follow the process of separation (removal of the individual from
society)
THE FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION (Emile Durkheim)

✓ Religion is an expression of collective consciousness
✓ It provides social cohesion to help maintain social solidarity through shared rituals and beliefs
✓ Offers meaning and purpose to answer any existential questions
✓ A means social control to enforce religious-based morals and norms to help maintain conformity and
control in society
RELIGION IN THE PHILIPPINES
The Philippines is a secular (neutral) nation, with the Constitution guaranteeing separation of church
and state, and requiring the government to respect all religious beliefs equally. There is no law restricting
freedom of religion or belief in the Philippines. No legislation was made honoring or prohibiting the free
exercise of the establishment of religion. Open practice and enjoyment, without prejudice or inclination, of
religious profession and worship is permitted.
Religion in the Philippines is marked by majority of people being adherents of the Christian faith ( PSA,
2014). Indigenous Philippine folk religions, the traditional religion of Filipinos which predates Philippine
Christianity and Islam, is practiced by an estimated 2% of the population, which is made up of many
indigenous peoples, tribal groups, and people who have reverted into traditional religions from
Catholic/Christian or Islamic religions. These religions are often syncretized/combined with Christianity and
Islam. Indigenous Philippine folk religions are the distinct native religions of various ethnic groups in the
Philippines, where most follow belief systems in line with animism. Generally, these indigenous folk religions
are referred to as Anito or Anitism.
In the postmodern world…

• Religious life has decreased substantially; patriotism has been replaced with distrust in government
• More people are falling victim to ennui – the dreadful feeling of bitter disillusionment from the loss of meaning
in their lives.
The meaning of life according to Viktor Frankl

Viktor Frankl published the book entitled “Man’s Search for Meaning“ in 1945. It inspired millions of
people to identify their attitudes towards life. Frankl lived through the horrors of the Holocaust, a prisoner in
Auschwitz and Dachau. He overcame it stoically and it laid the foundation of a very personal type of therapy,
logotherapy (the search for meaning”).
3 principles of logotherapy:
A. Freedom of will
Freedom of will unfolds through a specifically human capacity known as “self-distancing”. It is the
possibility of seeing, accepting, regulating, and visualizing oneself. According to the teachings of Frankl, it
gives us freedom from three sources of influence: Instincts, Heritage, Environment. Man possesses all three of
these things, but they do not determine us. We are not predetermined or finalized. We are free from these
three aspects. Whenever humans are liberated from something, it is for a reason. Herein lies the concept of
responsibility. Man is free to be responsible and is responsible because he is free. From this existential
analysis, man is responsible for the realization of meaning and values. Man has a call to realize the meaning of
his life and the values that give meaning to it. Man is the only one responsible for this call.
B. Will of meaning
The will of meaning and the self-transcendence that characterizes humans are closely related. Man
always points beyond himself, towards a meaning he must first discover and whose fullness he must achieve.
The will to pleasure (Freud) and the will to power (Adler), lead man to immanence. However, these concepts
oppose self-transcendence and would frustrate our existence. From the perspective of logotherapy, pleasure
and power are consequences of reaching an end, but not the end itself. Hence why people who pursue only
pleasure or power live in frustration. They feel pulled into a great existential vacuum. The will to meaning does
not seek power or pleasure. It does not even seek happiness. Its focus is the finding a reason to be happy.
C. Sense of life
The two principles that we mentioned speak of a person willing to take a stand before the
circumstances of life, with total freedom, based on a meaning that conveys it. This is the profile of man in
search of meaning. Life has meaning. That meaning is unique to each one of us. Thus, our duty as conscious
and responsible beings is to discover our own version of this meaning.
Sources:
Akbari M, Hossaini SM (2018) as cited by Scot, E (2022). The relationship of spiritual health with quality of life,
mental health, and burnout: The mediating role of emotional regulation. Iran J Psychiatry. 2018;13(1):22-31.
PMID:29892314
Manning LK as cited by Scot E. (2022). Spirituality as a lived experience: Exploring the essence of spirituality
for women in late life. Int J Aging Hum Dev. 2012;75(2):95-113. doi:10.2190/AG.75.2.a
Whitehead BR, Bergeman CS cited by Scot, E. (2022). Coping with daily stress: Differential role of spiritual
experience on daily positive and negative affect. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2012;67(4):456-459.
doi:10.1093/geronb/gbr136
Otig, V. S., Gallinero, W. B., Bataga, N. U., Salado, F. B., & Visande, J. C. (2018). A holistic approach in
understanding the self: A workbook-textbook for college students. Malabon City, Philippines: Mutya Publishing
House, Inc.
Stibich, M. (2022). The Psychology of Why People Believe. https://www.verywellmind.com/religion-improves-

health-2224007
Villafuerte, S. L., Quillope, A. F., Tunac, R. C., & Borja, E. I. (2018). Understanding the self. Quezon City,
Philippines: Nieme Publishing House Co. Ltd.
UNIT3: Managing and Taking Care of the Self
LESSON 1: GOAL SETTING
Learning Outcomes:
1. Examine the importance of goals and its application to one’s life.
2. Discuss some theoretical underpinnings on how to develop a positive self in order to achieve one’s goals.
I. THE IMPORTANCE OF A GOAL

❖ First, goals serve a directive function; they direct attention and effort toward goal – relevant activities and
away from goal – irrelevant activities.
❖ Second, goals have an energizing function. High goals lead to great effort than low goals.
❖ Third, goals affect persistence. When participants are allowed to control the time they spend on a task, hard
goals prolong effort. Faced with a difficult goal, it is possible to work faster and more intensely for a short
period or to work more slowly and less intensely for a long period.
❖ Fourth, goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery, and/or use of task – relevant
knowledge and strategies. (Wood & Locke, 1990, as cited by Locke & Latham, 2002).
A. Bandura’s Self-efficacy
• Students’ goal can be achieved only if they are worthy of believing these goals can be achieved. As
Gandhi perfectly understood the essential role of self-belief in the students’ lives: “Your beliefs become your
thought. Your thoughts become your words. Your words become your actions. Your actions become your
habits. Your habits become your values. Your values become your destiny.”
Self-efficacy was developed by Albert Bandura.

a. Self – efficacy beliefs are an important aspect of human motivation and behavior and they influence
the actions that can affect one’s life.
b. Self-efficacy, as Bandura (1995) explains, “refers to belief in one’s capabilities to organize and
execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations.” More simply, self-efficacy is what an
individual believes he or she can accomplish using his or her skills under certain circumstances.
People with high assurance in their capabilities:

1. Approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered
2. Set challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them
3. Heighten or sustain their efforts in the face of failures or setbacks
4. Attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are acquirable
5. Approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them.
On the contrary, people who doubt their capabilities:

1. Avoid tasks they view as personal threats
2. Have low aspirations and weak commitment to goals they choose to pursue
3. Dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse outcomes
rather than concentrating on how to perform successfully
4. Loosen their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties
6. Are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks
7. Fall easy victim to stress and depression
Four (4) Main Sources of Efficacy Beliefs (Bandura, 1997)
1. Mastery Experiences - It is also known as personal performance accomplishments; are the most effective
way to create a strong sense of efficacy.
Positive example: If an individual performed well in a previous job assignment, then they are more likely
to feel confident and have high self-efficacy in performing the task when their manager assigns them a similar
task. The individual’s self-efficacy will be high in the particular area, and since he or she has a high self-
efficacy, he or she is more likely to try harder and complete the task with much better results.
Negative example: If an individual experience a failure, he/she will most likely experience a reduction in
self-efficacy. However, if these failures are later overcome by conviction, it can serve to increase self-motivated
persistence when the situation is viewed as an achievable challenge (Bandura, 1977).
2. Vicarious Experiences - These are done through observance of social models that also influence one’s
perception of self-efficacy. The most important factor that determines the strength of influence of an observed
success or failure on one’s own self-efficacy is the degree of similarity between the observer and the model.
Increase in self-efficacy example: Mentoring programs, where an individual is paired with someone on
a similar career path who will be successful at raising the individual’s self-efficacy beliefs. This is even further
strengthened if both have a similar skill set, so a person can see firsthand what they may achieve.
Decrease in self-efficacy example: Smoking cessation program, in which, individuals witnessing several
people’s failure to quit, may worry about their own chances of success, leading to low self-efficacy for quitting;
or a weight – loss program in which others do not achieve the results you are hoping for.
3. Verbal or Social Persuasion - It is a “way of strengthening people’s belief that they have what it takes to
succeed.” When it is effective in mobilizing a person to action, and their actions lead to success, the enhanced
self-efficacy may become more permanent. It is influenced by encouragement and discouragement pertaining
to an individual’s performance or ability to perform.
Positive example: A teacher telling a student: “You can do it; I have confidence in you.” Using verbal
persuasion in a positive light generally leads individuals to put forth more effort; therefore, they have a greater
chance at succeeding.
Negative example: A teacher saying to a student; “This is unacceptable! I thought you could handle this
task”, can lead to doubts about oneself resulting in lower chances of success.
4. Emotional and Physiological States--The state a person is in will influence how he or she judges self-
efficacy. Stress reactions or tension are interpreted as signs of vulnerability to poor performance whereas
positive emotions can boost confidence in skills.
Some examples of physiological feedback are: giving a speech in front of a large group of people,
making a presentation to an important client, taking an exam, etc. All of these tasks can cause agitation,
anxiety, sweaty palms, and / or a racing heart. Although this source is the least influential of the four, it is
important to note that if one is more at ease with the task at hand he/she will feel more capable and have
higher beliefs of self-efficacy.
B. Carol Dweck’s Mindset

Mindset is a simple idea discovered by world-renowned Stanford University psychologist Carol Dweck
in decades of research on achievement and success. Mindset are beliefs, beliefs about one’s self and one’s
most basic qualities.
People with fixed mindset people believe their qualities are fixed traits and therefore cannot change.
These people document their intelligence and talents rather than working to develop and improve them. They
also believe that talent alone leads to success, and effort is not required.
According to Dweck, when a student has a fixed mindset, they believe that their basic abilities,
intelligence, and talents are fixed traits. They think that you are born with a certain amount and that's all you
have. There are many people with this consuming goal of proving themselves, in the classroom, in their
careers, and in their relationships. Every situation calls for a confirmation of their intelligence, personality, or
character. Every situation is evaluated (Dweck, 2006).
People with growth mindset see their qualities as things that can be developed through their dedication
and effort. They are brainy and talented, but that is just the starting point. They understand that no one has
ever accomplished great things without years of passionate practice and learning. This is based on the belief
that their basic qualities are things they can cultivate through their efforts. Although people may differ in every
which way, in their initial talents and aptitudes, interests, or temperaments, everyone can change and grow
through application and experience (Dweck, 2006).
People with a growth mindset are also constantly monitoring what’s going on, but their internal
monologue is not about judging themselves and others in this way. Certainly, they’re sensitive to positive and
negative information, but they’re attuned to their implications for learning and constructive action as reflected in
the questions: “What can I learn from this? How can I improve? How can I help my partner do this better?”
(Dweck, 2006).
Your fixed beliefs about you will hold you back from making positive change. If you have a trait that you
believe cannot be changed, such as your intelligence, your weight, or your bad habits, you will avoid situations
that could possibly be uncomfortable or that you think that are useless.
Four (4) Simple Steps to Begin Changing Mindset

1. Learn to hear your fixed mindset “voice.”
2. Recognize that you have a choice.
3. Talk back to it with a growth mindset voice.
4. Take the growth mindset action.
C. Angela Duckworth – GRIT

A Psychologist from the University of Pennsylvania and is the world’s leading expert on Grit; she
devoted her research on the qualities that lead to success. Grit is passion and sustained persistence applied
toward long-term achievement, with no particular concern for rewards or recognition along the way. It
combines resilience, ambition, and self-control in the pursuit of goals that take months, years, or even
decades.
MAIN PROPOSITIONS:
a. Showing up: Although talent and luck play a part in success, when it comes to facing a wide variety of
challenges, the most successful people display a large amount of grit.
b. Effort counts twice: Many times, talented people are not the highest achievers; instead, people who work
incredibly hard can be more successful.
c. Duckworth feels that although tests of talent are imperfect, the real problem is that the focus on
talent distracts people from focusing on effort, which is more important to success.
d. Duckworth created two equations to explain how people can transition natural talent into achievement:
talent x effort=skill and skill x effort=achievement.
To be successful, a person should set a top-level goal and then ensure that he is working towards that
goal and not wasting time on things that are distracting.
e. Grit grows: Grit may be partially genetic but it can also grow through maturity and life circumstances. There
are four things that the grittiest people have in common: interest, practice, purpose, and hope.
f. Interest: It takes time and diligence to discover and deepen one’s interest. According to research, people
are happier and perform better in their careers when they are doing something that they enjoy. Many
successful people who love their careers did not always have a singular passion for their work; they
experimented with other things before arriving to their true passion.
g. Practice: The most successful people not only practice longer than others, but they also deliberately
practice on improving their weaknesses. Deliberate practice begins by setting a stretch goal, which refers to a
particular weakness that the person is trying to improve. Once the person sets the goal, he focuses solely on
improving that weakness by practicing and getting feedback from others on how he can improve. Then the
person practices continuously until he can easily do the thing that he once found difficult. Once he has
mastered the stretch goal, he sets another. Mastering many small goals leads to great success.
h. Purpose: Purpose is the desire and aim to help others. The passion of a gritty person is comprised of both
interest and purpose. Most people begin with a self-oriented interest, hone that interest through practice, and
finally find a way to bring purpose into their work.
i. Hope: Gritty people embrace an optimistic growth mindset that helps them overcome setbacks. Rather than
passively waiting for things to get better, people with grit believe that they can develop a better future for
themselves.
j. Parenting for Grit: Wise parents who are equal parts supportive and demanding and who model grit in their
own lives are far more likely to have gritty children.
k. The Playing Fields of Grit: Students who participate in an extracurricular activity for at least two years are
more successful later in life because extracurricular activities teach discipline and persistence.
l. A Culture of Grit: Culture has the ability to shape our identity, so if we are part of a gritty culture, we can
become grittier people. A culture is comprised of a group of people who have the same values. There are
sports teams, businesses, and schools that qualify as a culture. After a while of belonging to a certain culture,
people will begin to assimilate that culture’s values into their own identities. Gritty people will sometimes live
their lives in ways that are confusing to others because the rewards for what they are doing are so far off, but
their culture and identity can explain why they make hard choices.
Sources:
Companion Reads (n.d.) Grit summary. Retrieved from https://companionreads.com/grit-summary/#tab-con-20
Fessler, L. (2018). Angela Duckworth’s “Grit”. Retrieved from https://qz.com/work/1233940/angela-
duckworthexplains-grit-is-the-key-to-success-and-self-confidence/
Image. Retrieved at https://sites.dartmouth.edu
UNIT 3: MANAGING AND TAKING CARE OF THE SELF
LESSON 2: STRESS MANAGEMENT

Learning Outcomes:
1. Identify the different factors that can hinder a person in managing and taking care of him/herself.
2. Discuss healthy ways of coping with stress especially in dealing with the current pandemic.
TAKING CARE OF ONE’S HEALTH

A. Stressors and Responses
• If, in fulfilling one’s goals, obstacles get in the way and the surrounding conditions become unfavorable, then
stress is very much of an invitation. Humprey, Yow & Bowen (2000) described stress as any factor that makes
adaptation to an environment difficult for the individual to maintain a state of equilibrium between himself and
the external environment. It includes a physical and mental response to meet the demands of the stressful
event.
• These events or conditions that put a strain on the individual are called stressors (Santrock, 2003). In
addition, stressors are situations that are experienced as perceived threat to one’s well-being or position in life,
when the challenge of dealing with which, exceeds the person’s perceived availability resources (Scott, 2017).
• There are two broad categories of stressors, according to the Center for Studies on Human Stress (2017):
physiological (or physical) stressors and psychological stressors.
a. Physiological (or physical) stressors are those that put strain on the body (i.e., very cold/hot temperatures,
injury, chronic illness or pain).
b. Psychological Stressors are events, situations, individuals, comments, or anything we interpret as
negative or threatening (i.e., not being able to review your notes for the exam as you are taking care of your
sick parent in the hospital).
Moreover, scientists are now proposing that stressors can be further divided into:
Absolute Stressors – those to which everyone exposed would interpret as being stressful. These are
objective stressors that are universal (ie.: earthquakes, a tsunami, or events of September 11th 2001).
Relative Stressors are those to which only some persons exposed would interpret as being stressful.
These are subjective stressors that cause different reactions in different people (i.e.: time pressure at work and
school traffic, paying taxes or bills, writing or taking exam).
B. How does the body respond to Stress?

• Folk (2017) explains; “when danger is perceived, the body’s emergency system automatically
changes the body’s balance by producing the ‘stress response’ (also called the ‘emergency response,’ the ‘fear
response,’ or the ‘fight or flight response.’).
• This change of balance, emergency readiness, is brought about via hormones, chemical messengers
that are secreted into the bloodstream.
• The moment we think we are in danger; the body triggers a stress response. The stress response
causes the body to secrete stress hormones (adrenaline, cortisol, norepinephrine, and others) into the
bloodstream where they travel to targeted spots in the body to bring about specific physiological,
psychological, and emotional changes that enhance the body’s ability to deal with the threat, to either fight with
or flee from it (Folk, 2017).
• These hormones are powerful, that is why, and they can quickly bring about the intended emergency
readiness changes. Because stress hormones travel to many target locations in the body, the stress response
causes many physiological, psychological, and emotional changes, such as: energizes the body, heightens our
awareness of and reaction to danger, elevates heart rate, changes breathing, stimulates the nervous system,
heightens senses, tightens muscles, changes stomach and digestive function, changes brain functioning,
constricts blood vessels, and changes blood flow.
C. Sources of Coping
• Optimism refers to the outcome experiences that good things rather than bad things will happen to the self
(Scheier et.al 1994).
• Personal control or mastery refers to whether a person feels able to control or influence outcomes
(Thompson, 1981).
• Self-esteem, that is positive and high, is also protective against adverse mental and physical health
outcomes, thereby contributing to better psychological well-being. Self-esteem is often defined as an
individual’s self-perception of his/her abilities, skills, and overall qualities that guides and/or motivates specific
cognitive processes and behaviors (McCrae & Costa, 1988).
•Social Support is defined as the perception or experience that one is loved and cared for by others,
esteemed and valued, and part of a social network of mutual assistance and obligations (Wills, 1991).
Types of Coping
- Task Oriented consists of efforts aimed at solving the problem.
- Emotion Oriented coping that involves emotional reactions.
- Avoidance Oriented coping that involves activities and cognitions aimed at avoiding the stressful situation and
can be of a distraction or social diversion nature.
D. The Social and Cultural Dimensions of Stress

No one could ever expound Filipinos’ stress as Dr. Michael L. Tan, a Filipino medical anthropologist.
Below is an excerpt from Tan’s (2006) article entitled, ‘Stress and the Filipino’. It talks about the social and
cultural dimensions of stress experienced by the Filipinos.
Stress is mediated through culture: from the very nature of the stressors, to the ways we respond to the
stress. Understanding this local context might help us develop more culturally appropriate, and therefore more
effective, ways to deal with stress. Culture adapts to circumstances and we are only one of many countries
with large dense populations that have learned to live with the maddening crowds, complete with the “some
odors are so bad, they cause a stomachache”. We sniff everything, from food to lovers, and if we find the
smells good, we tend to indulge to an excess. No wonder aromatherapy’s taken off in the Philippines, as did
those terrible car fresheners and deodorizers.
Filipinos do face many sources of stress, around work and livelihood mainly. Farmers worry about
drought and typhoons; urbanites go berserk with tyrannical bosses and vicious gossipy office-mates. Rural or
urban, we all face the stresses of family; extended Filipino family can be stressful too, with all its obligations.
Overseas workers have a particularly difficult time with all the expectations family members have back home.
The poor migrants who go from impoverished rural areas to work in big cities face even greater stress from
family relations, who can easily contact their now “rich” urban cousins for a share of the pittance these earn in
the city.
But the scenes of smiling and laughing Filipinos, singing and dancing (and drinking) away can be
deceptive. Quite often, we deal with stress by trying to be “happy” – masaya, which is really more of an
externalized merriment. “Pagsasaya” is social camaraderie, it’s making cheer and quite often we do it
precisely because there have been unhappy events, stressful events. The best example can be that of death –
our wakes are notorious for its merry-making, but that, precisely, is part of our stress-coping mechanism.
We warn people about excesses as a cause of illness, and that includes the excessive emotions
generated by stress. The word dalamhati is graphic, describing an inner sadness (from the Malay ‘dalam’,
inside and ‘hati’, the heart or the liver, believed to be seats of our emotions) that slowly consumes the person.
Filipino women are actually more prone to dealing with stressful situations through ‘tiis’ (endurance) and
‘kimkim’ (repression). Check out the local scenes of merriment: it’s usually the men having a good time,
bringing out the beer and toasting their problems away, while the women look for ways to make ends meet.
Many Filipinos express their stress by complaining about recurring headaches, or abdominal pains,
accompanied by dizziness, nausea, or fatigue. Doctors used to dismiss these as being all in the mind, but it
has become clear the physical pain and distress may be quite real, that the pent-up stress is expressed
through the body. Culturally, too, people may attach labels that don’t quite reflect the actual part of the body
that’s affected, as when they say that they’re suffering from nerbyos or “nerves.” Nerbyos doesn’t necessarily
mean being nervous; it’s often hypertension or high blood pressure, for example, and a health professional or
caregiver may miss the problem.
Then, too, there’s the intriguing bangungot, those sudden deaths, usually at night associate with
nightmares. The term itself is derived from bangon, to rise, and ungol, to moan. The medical world remains
stumped, attributing the deaths to everything, from pancreatitis to congenital defects in the heart, but too little
has been done to explore the stress angle.
The Filipino is so attached to home and hearth that we even have a term namamahay, missing home,
to describe a range of symptoms, from insomnia to constipation that plagues us when we are away from home.
That’s stress too. And with men, given the cultural imperative of suppressing their distress, we might expect
nightmares, some with fatal endings.
The manghihilot can be “reinvented” so his or her skills with therapeutic massage can be applied not
just for sprains, but also for broken hearts and weary spirits. Filipino-style, such spaces need not be totally
quiet, but they do give some sense of safety, of sanity in a mad world. Filipino-style, too, we need to think of
how these therapeutic spaces might work out as places where people can engage in social activities, without
becoming more agitated. Alternatives could be offered: gardening, cross-stitching, bingo… anything that calms
the mind.
What we see today around us magnifies the reality of Dr. Tan’s work. How Filipinos deal with stress is a
trademark of orientation they had with the social world, dictated by the stringent cultural compliance they were
exposed to while growing up. In the end, Filipinos are still proud of how unique these manners of coping are;
what makes them ultimately happy in the end is the one that matters much.
E. COVID 19 and Mental Health

Coping with the pandemic (adopted from WHO, 2020)
1.) It is normal to feel sad, stressed, confused, scared or angry during a crisis.
Talking to people you trust can help. Contact your friends and family.
2.) If you must stay at home, maintain a healthy lifestyle - including proper diet, sleep, exercise and social
contacts with loved ones at home and by email and phone with other family and friends.
3.) Don’t use smoking, alcohol or other drugs to deal with your emotions. If you feel overwhelmed, talk to a
health worker or counsellor. Have a plan, where to go to and how to seek help for physical and
mental health needs if required.
4.) Get the facts. Gather information that will help you accurately determine your risk so that you can take
5.) reasonable precautions. Find a credible source you can trust such as WHO website or, a local or state
public health agency.
6.) Limit worry and agitation by lessening the time you and your family spend watching or listening to
media
7.) coverage that you perceive as upsetting.
6.) Draw on skills you have used in the past that have helped you to manage previous life’s adversities and
use those skills to help you manage your emotions during the challenging time of this outbreak.
Taking Care of the Self: The Need for Self- Care and Compassion
Generally speaking, self-care is engaging in activities and behaviors that have a positive effect on one’s
mental and physical health (Greene, 2017). She adds that there’s a bit of “reverse golden rule” aspect to the
practice; that is to treat yourself as compassionately as you treat others.
Reasons why self-care is necessary:
• It increases sense of self-love, allowing appreciation and acceptance of who a person is
• It promotes feelings of calm and relaxation, serving as a way to refocus and come back to daily life refreshed
and ready to take on anything
• It improves both physical and mental health by reducing the effects of prolonged stress on mind and body
Ways to engage in self-care:

• Physical self-care: eating well, exercising regularly, prioritizing sleep and taking care of health
• Emotional self-care: managing anxiety, anger, sadness, and other emotions. Setting boundaries with people
who are not positive or supportive. Spending time alone to rest and recharge. Maintaining a bullet journal.
• Spiritual self-care: volunteering, connecting with nature, meditation, mindfulness
To take care of the self is also to delve into compassion, for the self needs to seek its deeper meaning.
Everyone has had that share of loving-kindness; meaning wishing happiness for another person. Compassion
is wishing for that person to be free from suffering (Germer, 2009). Compassion literally means “to suffer
together.” Among emotion researchers, compassion is defined as the feeling that arises when you are
confronted with another’s suffering and feel motivated to relieve that suffering (Greater Good Science Center,
2017).
Compassion is not the same as empathy or altruism, though the concepts are related. While empathy
refers more generally to our ability to take the perspective of and feel the emotions of another person,
compassion is when those feelings and thoughts include the desire to help. Altruism, in turn, is the kind,
selfless behavior often prompted by feelings of compassion, though one can feel compassion without acting on
it, and altruism isn’t always motivated by compassion (Greater Good Science Center, 2017).
There are various forms of compassion and why they are so important. Paul Ekman (2010)
enumerates:
• Familial Compassion is the seed of compassion, planted through the caregiver – offspring bond. It raises
very interesting questions about people who were brought up without a sing caregiver, or were brought up with
a parent who had a very distant attachment. What is their capacity for compassion? Without the seed, the
flower won’t grow.
• Global Compassion was exemplified by the response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. People around the
world extended assistance to the strangers, or different races and skin colors. Now, that not everyone has it, a
lot of people acted, and a lot of people didn’t. how does one cultivate global compassion? Consider the survival
of children and grandchildren, because planet earth won’t survive without global compassion.
• Sentient Compassion is when one extends feelings of compassion towards cockroaches, toward any living
being. When people got sentient, they also got global; sentient is the highest moral virtue.
• Heroic Compassion is like altruism with a risk. It has two forms: Immediate Heroic Compassion is when,
without thought, one jumps onto the MRT tracks to rescue someone. It is impulsive. Considered Heroic
Compassion isn’t done impulsively; it is done with thought, and it can be maintained for many years.
The most significant contribution of self-compassion is the attention given to the “self,” which is always
associated with the body, and the bodies are built for survival. Self is needed to make progress on the path of
self-compassion. People can cultivate a kind, gentle attitude, not rejecting, not overly prizing, toward the self
until it no longer suffers and has no reason to assert itself. The more compassion one gives to the suffering
“self,” the more flexible it becomes. Compassion from others or from within oneself helps him/her accept
himself in his/her discomfort (Germer, 2009).
Sources:
“Effects of stress on your body.” Retrieved February 2, 2018 from https://youtu.be/lbCWVtZnPNo.
“Long Term Effects of Stress on the Body.” Retrieved November 15, 2018 from https://youtu.be/1B0PGFnYnv4. Villafuerte, S.L.,
Quillope, A.F., Tunac, R.C., & Borja, E.I. (2018)
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UNIT 1: THE SELF FROM THE VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SELF

Brief Background and Significant Events

Socrates view of reality is dualistic:

THE THREE-PART SOUL (The Three-Part Self)

C.) ST. AUGUSTINE

What is a virtuous life for St. Augustine?

D.) RENE DESCARTES

E.) JOHN LOCKE

LOCKE’S CONCLUSION ON EXAMINING ONE’S EXPERIENCES:

F.) EMMANUEL KANT

G.) SIGMUND FREUD

I). PAUL CHURCHLAND

J). MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY

THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN SOCIETY AMONG OTHER CONSTRUCTIONS

WHAT IS A SOCIAL GROUP?

TWO TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUP:

WHAT IS A SOCIAL NETWORK?

The SOCIAL SELF according to George Herbert Mead:

BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY:

TWO WAYS OF HOW THE SELF IS CONSTRUCTED

TWO BASIC COMPONENTS OF CULTURE

A.THE SELF AS COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTION by JEAN PIAGET

BASIC COMPONENTS OF PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY

B. HARTER’S SELF DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT

C. WILLIAM JAMES AND THE ME-SELF; I-SELF

E. ERIC BERNE-THE EGO STATES

A. WESTERN CONCEPT OF THE SELF

B. EASTERN SELF CONCEPT

The Physical Self

List of Major Known Teratogens

Risk Factors During Pregnancy

d. Environmental Risk Factors

Changes Occurring During Physical Development

a. Changes in the Brain and Body Size

b. Skeletal and Dental Changes

• Some cultural standards of beauty:

The Sexual Self

1. Some factors contributing to delayed onset of puberty

2. The Social Construction of Gender

• One’s attitudes toward gender can be classified as

3. A Healthy Sexual Self

a. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Love

b. LOVE LANGUAGE by Dr. Gary Chapman

c. Reproductive Health Care Program of the Philippines

Statistics on the Adolescent Health and Development Program (DOH, 2018)

d. Family Planning Methods

e. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (Medical News Today, 2018)

f. Reproductive Health Risks in Adolescence

Lurvespy (2018). The 5 Love Languages’ by Dr. Gary Chapman. https://www.itsalllurve.com/the-5-love-languages/

The Material and Economic Self: “I shop therefore I am.”

Material Possession Attachment

Characteristics of Material Possession (Kimmel, 2015)

2. Psychologically Appropriated Material Object

3. A Type of Self-Extension and the attachment has strength

Four levels of the extended self (Belk, 1988)

4. Decommodified, Singular Possessions

5. Personal History Between Person and Material Possession

7. Attachment is Emotionally Complex

II. Impression management

WHY DO PEOPLE ENGAGE IN SELF-PRESENTATION? (Otig et al., 2018)

Generally, social media platforms are used for: