ES & BMS

Control Fundamentals

29-Aug-17 K H Ng, ES & BMS 1

 Control Fundamentals
 Introduction
 Definitions
 Control System Characteristics
 Control System Components
 Characteristics and Attributes of Control
Methods

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 Introduction
 Controls are essential to the proper system
operation
 It should be considered in the early design
process

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 Introduction
 In a HVAC system, automatic controls
regulate the system output in response to
varying indoor and outdoor conditions
 To maintain general comfort conditions in
offices; and
 To provide narrow temperature and humidity
limits for product quality

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 Introduction
 Automatic controls
 Optimize system operation, e.g. adjust
temperature and pressures automatically;
 Limit energy usage

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 HVAC Systems Characteristics
 All the processes in HVAC system require
automatic controls
 These processes include heating, cooling,
dehumidification, humidification,
ventilation and filtration

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 Control System Characteristics
 Automatic controls are used wherever a
variable condition must be controlled
 In HVAC systems, the most commonly
controlled conditions or variables are
pressure, temperature, humidity and flow
rate

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 Control System Characteristics
 In control systems, the following terms need
to be clarified:
 Controlled variables;
 Control loop;
 Control methods; and
 Control modes

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 Control Variables
 An automatic control system control the
variable by manipulating a second variable
 For example, air in a room moves through a
hot water coil
 The thermostat measures the temperature
(controlled variable) of the room air
(controlled medium)

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 Control Variables
 As the room cools, the thermostat operates a
valve which regulates the flow (manipulated
variable) of hot water (control agent)
through the coil
 The coil supplies heat to warm the room air

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 Control Loop
 A control loop consists of
 a sensing element (sensor傳感器) which
receives an input, e.g. temperature sensor ;
 a controller控制器 that processes the input and
produces an output signal; and
 a final control element that operates according
to the output signal from the controller, e.g.
valve

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 Sensor
 Measures the value of the controlled
valuable, e.g. temperature
 Sends the resulting signal to the controller

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 Controller
 Receives the sensor signal
 Compare it with the desired value or set-
point, e.g. temperature
 Generates a correction signal to direct the
operation of the controlled device or the
final control element, e.g. valve

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 Final Control Element
 The final control element varies the control
agent, e.g. hot water to device, to regulate
the output (e.g. flow rate) of the control
equipment (e.g. valve)
 The desired condition is achieved

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 Control Loop
 Open or closed

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 Open Loop
 The system assumes a fixed relationship
between a controlled condition and an
external condition, e.g. control of perimeter
heating based on outdoor temperature
sensor
 It does not take into account changing space
conditions from other changing variables in
the building
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 Open Loop
 Does not provide close control
 May result deviation from the targeted
values of the measurable variables
 Thus, it is not common in residential or
commercial applications

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 Close Loop
 Relies on measurement of controlled
variable to vary the controller output
 Example: temperature of discharge air in a
heating system
 Sensor measures the discharge air
temperature
 Sends a feedback signal to the controller

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 Close Loop
 Controller compares the feedback signal to
the set-point
 Based on the difference (deviation), the
controller issues a corrective signal to a
valve
 The valve regulates the hot water flow to
meet the demand

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 Close Loop
 Changes in the controlled variable
(temperature) reflect the demand
 Sensor continues to measure changes in
discharge air temperature and feeds the new
condition back to the controller for
continuous comparison and correction
 Feedback reduce the magnitude of deviation
and produce system stability

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 Control Methods
 Automatic control system is classified by
 Type of energy transmission; and
 Type of control signal (A or D) used to perform
its functions
 Most common forms of energy are
electricity and compressed air
 Systems may comprise one or both forms of
energy

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 Control Methods
 Electromechanical, electronic or
microprocessor control systems use
electrical energy
 Pneumatic control systems use varying air
pressure from the sensor to a controller
which output a pneumatic signal to a final
control element

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 Control Methods
 Pneumatic, electromechanical and
electronic systems performed limited, pre-
determined control functions and sequences
 Microprocessor-based controllers use digital
control for a wide variety of control
sequences

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 Control Methods
 Self-powered systems use power of
measured variable to induce necessary
corrective action
 Many complete control systems use a
combination of external power and self-
power

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 Analogue Control
 Analogue devices are traditionally used in
HVAC control
 In a pneumatic controller, the sensor sends a
continuous pneumatic signal (pressure) to
controller
 The signal (pressure) is proportional to the
value of the variable being measured

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 Analogue Control
 The controller compares the sent signal with
the desired value of air pressure as
determined by the set-point
 An output signal is sent based on the
comparison

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 Digital Control
 The digital controller receives electronic
signals from sensors
 The signals are converted into digital pulses
(values) and mathematical operations are
performed on these pulses
 Controller re-converts the output value to a
signal to operate an actuator

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 Digital Control
 The digital controller periodically updates
the process as a function of a set of
measured control variables and a given set
of control algorithms
 The controller works out the entire
computation, including the control
algorithm
 Sends a signal to an actuator

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 Digital Control
 In most commercial control systems, an
electronic-pneumatic transducer converts
the electric output to a variable pressure
output
 The variable pressure output is responsible
for the pneumatic actuation of the final
control element

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 Control Modes
 Control systems use different control modes
to accomplish their purposes.

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 Control Modes
 These include
 Two-position
 Step;
 Floating;
 Proportional (P);
 Proportional-integral (PI);
 Proportional-integral-derivative (PID); and
 Adaptive

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 Two-position Control
 The final control element occupies one of
two possible positions
 Used in simple HVAC systems to start and
stop fan coil units and refrigeration
machines
 Two values of the controlled variable
determine the position of the final control
element

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 Two-position Control
 Between these values is a zone called
“differential gap” or “differential”
 When the controlled variable is within this
differential, the controller cannot initiate an
action of the final control element
 For close temperature control, the cycling
must be accelerated or timed

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 Basic Two-position Control
 Cyclical operation of the control equipment
 The controlled variable cycles back and
forth between 2 values (‘on’ and ‘off’ points)
 Influence by the lag in the system
 The differential is the minimum possible
swing of the controlled variable

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 Basic Two-position Control
 Overshoot and undershoot conditions are
caused by the lag of the system
 It is best used in systems where
 Minimal total system lag (including transfer,
measuring and final control element lags)
 Close control is not required

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 Timed Two-position Control
 Anticipates requirements and delivers
measured quantities of heating or cooling
on a percentage on-time basis
 Reduce control point fluctuations
 Timing is accomplished by a timer
 The controller responds to gradual changes
in the average value of the controlled
variable rather than to cyclical fluctuations

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 Timed Two-position Control
 Overshoot and undershoot are reduced or
eliminated
 Faster cycling rate of mechanical equipment
 Closer control of the variable than basic
two-position control

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 Timed Proportioning Control
 Provides more effective two-position
control
 Available with sophisticated
electromechanical thermostats and
electronic and microprocessor-based
controllers

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 Step Control
 Step controllers operate switches or relays
in sequence to enable or disable multiple
outputs, or stages, of two-position devices
 Uses a proportional signal to attempt to
obtain proportional output from equipment
that is typically either on or off

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 Step Control
 Stages may be arranged to operate with or
without overlapping operating (on/off)
differentials
 Typical two-position differentials still exist
 Total output is proportioned

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 Floating Control
 A variation of two-position control
 Often called “three-position control”
 Available in most microprocessor-based
control systems
 Requires a slow-moving actuator and a fast
responding sensor
 Keeps the control point near the set-point at
any load level

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 Floating Control
 Can only be used on systems with minimal
lag between the control medium and the
control sensor
 Used primarily for discharge control
systems where the sensor is immediately
downstream from the coil, damper or device
that it controls

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 Floating Control
 The farther the control point moves beyond
the dead-band, the faster the actuator moves
to correct the deviation

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 Proportional Control
 Proportions the output capacity of the
equipment to match the heating or cooling
load
 Unlike two-position control, the mechanical
equipment is neither full on nor full off
 Achieves the desired heat replacement or
displacement rate

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 Proportional Control
 The final control element moves to a
position proportional to the deviation of the
value of the controlled variable from the
set-point
 The position of the final control element is a
linear function of the value of the controlled
variable

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 Proportional Control
 The final control element is seldom in the
middle of its range
 The set-point is typically the middle of the
throttling range
 There is usually an offset between the
control point and the set-point

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 Proportional Control
 The throttling range is the amount of change
in the controlled variable required for the
controller to move the controlled device
through its full operating range
 For some controllers, throttling range is
referred as “proportional band”

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 Proportional Control
 Output of the controller is proportional to
the deviation of the control point from set-
point
 The control point is rarely at set-point and
offset may be acceptable
 Compensation is the resetting of the set-
point to compensate for varying load
conditions

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 Proportional Control
 Compensation reduces the effect of offset
for more accurate control
 Compensation is also called “reset control”
or “cascade control”

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 Compensation Control
 A control technique in proportional control
 A secondary, or compensation, sensor resets
the set-point of the primary sensor
 Compensation can either increase or
decrease the set-point
 Positive or summer compensation
 Negative or winter compensation

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 Compensation Control
 Most commonly used for temperature
control
 But can also be used with humidity

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 PI Control
 Reset of control point is automatic
 Also called “proportional-plus- reset”
control
 Virtually eliminates offset and makes
proportional band nearly invisible
 The controlled variable may deviate from
the set-point and offset develops

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 PI Control
 Proportional band gradually and
automatically shifts
 The controlled variable is brought back to
the set-point
 P control is limited to a single final control
element position for eachvalue of the
controlled valuable

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 PI Control
 PI controls changes the final control
element position to accommodate load
changes
 The control point is kept at or very near the
set-point

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 PI Control
 Reset action of the integral component
shifts the proportional band as necessary
around the set-point as the load on the
sysem changes
 Shifting of proportional band keeps the
control point at set-point by making further
corrections in the control signal

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 PI Control
 Offset is eliminated
 Proportional band is usually set fairly wide
to ensure system stability under all
operating conditions
 Reset of control point is not instantaneous
 Whenever the load changes, the controlled
variable changes

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 PI Control
 The proportional control makes an
immediate correction, which usually results
in an offset
 The integral function of the controller
makes control correction to bring the
control point back to set-point
 Has a reset time adjustment that determines
the rate at which the proportional band
shifts
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 PI Control
 Under steady state conditions, the control
point and set-point are the same for any
load conditions
 Integral windup, or an excessive overshoot
condition, can occur in PI control

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 PID Control
 Adds the derivative function to PI control
 Derivative function opposes any change and
is proportional to the rate of change
 The more quickly the control point changes,
the more corrective action PID system
provides

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 Adaptive Control
 Available in some microprocessor-based
controllers
 Its algorithms enable a controller to adjust
its response for optimum control under all
load conditions
 A controller tuned to control accurately
under one set of conditions cannot always
respond well when conditions change

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 Adaptive Control
 An adaptive control algorithm monitors the
performance of a system and attempts to
improve the performance
 One measurement of performance is the
response time towards disturbance
 The shorter the time, the better the
performance

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 Adaptive Control
 The methods used to improve are
determined by the type of adaptive
algorithm
 Used in energy management programmes
such as optimum start

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 Application Guidelines
 Considerations for control requirements
 The degree of accuracy required and the
amount of offset, if any, that is acceptable
 The type of load changes expected, including
their size, rate, frequency and duration
 The system process characteristics, such as time
constants, number of time lag elements and
reaction rate

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 Application Guidelines
 The simplest mode of control that meets
application requirements is best to use, both
for economy and for best results

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