Theory of Attitude Formation and Attitude Change This information which is known to self and unknown to others can
This information which is known to self and unknown to others can be transferred through socializing with others. While the part that is known to others but unknown to
THEORY OF ATTITUDE FORMATION
1. Cognitive Consistency Theories
Research has generally concluded that people seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behaviour. This means that people seek to
reconcile divergent attitudes and align their attitudes and behaviour so that they appear rational and consistent. When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to
return the individual to an equilibrium state where attitudes and behaviour are again consistent. This can be done by either altering the attitude or the behaviour or by
developing a rationalization for the discrepancy.
The cognitive consistency theories are concerned with inconsistencies that arise between related beliefs, bits of knowledge and evaluation about an object or an issue.
Though various consistency theories differ in several respects, all of them have a common object that is reducing the inconsistency and returning the individual to the
equilibrium state.
2. Functional Theory
The functional theory considers how attitudes and efforts are related to the motivational structure of the individual.
This theory focuses on two things:
(i) The meaning of the influence situation in terms of both the kinds of motives that it arouses and
(ii) The individual’s method of coping and achieving his goals.
An understanding of the functions served by attitudes is important for attitude change procedures since a particular method may produce change in individuals whose
attitudes serve one particular function, but may produce no change in individuals for whom the attitudes serve a different function.
The most prominent person who visualized functional theory is Katz and he suggested four functions of attitudes. However, Katz functional theory has not stimulated
much research except for the work on changing ego defensive attitudes.
Kelman has given another approach about the functional approach of attitudes.
He has distinguished three processes of attitude formation and change:
(i) Compliance
(ii) Identification and
(iii) Internalisation.
This theory is directed towards the types of social relationships that occur in social influence situations.
Compliance occurs when an attitude is formed or changed in order to gain a favourable impression from other person or group.
Identification occurs when a person forms or changes his attitude because this adoption helps him establish or maintain a positive self defining relationship with the
influencing agent.
Internalization involves adopting an attitude because it is congruent with one’s overall value systems.
This approach makes an important contribution towards an understanding of the conditions that influence the maintenance and stability of attitude change.
3. Social Judgment Theory
The social judgment theory was originally formulated by Sherif and Hoveland. This theory attempts to explain how existing attitudes produce distortions of attitude
related objects and how these judgments mediate attitude change. Thus, a person’s initial attitude towards an issue, serves as an anchor for the judgment of attitude
related stimuli. The person’s initial attitude on an issue provides a point of reference against which he evaluates other opinions.
These views can be considered in terms of attitudinal continuum and can be considered as comprised of latitudes. The latitude of acceptance, which is the range of
opinions the individual finds acceptable, encompasses the opinion that best characterises his own stand. The attitude of rejection, which is the range of opinions the
individual finds objectionable, encompasses the opinion he finds most objectionable. The attitude of non-commitment is the range of opinions that the person finds
neither acceptable nor unacceptable.
ATTITUDE CHANGE
Attitudes are associated beliefs and behaviors towards some object. They are not stable, and because of the communication and behavior of other people, are subject
to change by social influences, as well as by the individual’s motivation to maintain cognitive consistency when cognitive dissonance occurs—when two attitudes or
attitude and behavior conflict. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of affective and cognitive components. It has been suggested that the inter-structural
composition of an associative network can be altered by the activation of a single node. Thus, by activating an affective or emotional node, attitude change may be
possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined.
These three processes represent the different levels of attitude change:-
1. Compliance
Compliance refers to a change in behavior based on consequences, such as an individual’s hopes to gain rewards or avoid punishment from another group or person.
The individual does not necessarily experience changes in beliefs or evaluations of an attitude object, but rather is influenced by the social outcomes of adopting a
change in behavior. The individual is also often aware that he or she is being urged to respond in a certain way.
Compliance was demonstrated through a series of laboratory experiments known as the Asch experiments. Experiments led by Solomon Asch of Swarthmore College
asked groups of students to participate in a “vision test”. In reality, all but one of the participants were confederates of the experimenter, and the study was really about
how the remaining student would react to the confederates’ behavior. Participants were asked to pick, out of three line options, the line that is the same length as a
sample and were asked to give the answer out loud. Unbeknown to the participants, Asch had placed a number of confederates to deliberately give the wrong answer
before the participant. The results showed that 75% of responses were in line with majority influence and were the same answers the confederates picked. Variations in
the experiments showed that compliance rates increased as the number of confederates increased, and the plateau was reached with around 15 confederates. The
likelihood of compliance dropped with minority opposition, even if only one confederate gave the correct answer. The basis for compliance is founded on the
fundamental idea that people want to be accurate and right.
2. Identification
Identification explains one’s change of beliefs and affect in order to be similar to someone one admires or likes. In this case, the individual adopts the new attitude, not
due to the specific content of the attitude object, but because it is associated with the desired relationship. Often, children’s attitudes on race, or their political party
affiliations are adopted from their parents’ attitudes and beliefs.
3. Internalization
Internalization refers to the change in beliefs and affect when one finds the content of the attitude to be intrinsically rewarding, and thus leads to actual change in beliefs
or evaluations of an attitude object. The new attitude or behavior is consistent with the individual’s value system, and tends to be merged with the individual’s existing
values and beliefs. Therefore, behaviors adopted through internalization are due to the content of the attitude object.
The expectancy-value theory is based on internalization of attitude change. This model states that the behavior towards some object is a function of an individual’s
intent, which is a function of one’s overall attitude towards the action.
>Johari Window
Johari Window is a technique for improving self-awareness within an individual. It helps in understanding your relationship with yourself and others. Johari Window
model can be a useful tool if you want to improve your communication skills.
It was developed by American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955, hence the name Johari. Johari Window is generally used in Self-help groups in
exercises which help a person to learn and discover things about themselves, like heuristic exercise.
Johari Window is a method used for self-discovery. Let us understand Definition and meaning of Johari Window Model with examples.
What is Johari Window?
Generally, it is believed that we have in a group based on our perception of others. And that is why to improve communication in a group it is important to develop the
perception of an individual in the group.
Johari window model is based upon two things – to acquire the trust of others by revealing your information to them and by learning about yourself through feedback by
others.
Browse more Topics under Intro To Business Communication
Johari Window Model Description
There are four questions in the model just like panes in a window and each person fits into one of this pane. Each window in Johari window model signifies feelings,
personal information, and motivation.
Also, the important point to know here is that through window panes one must determine whether one is known or unknown to oneself as well as the others.
>Johari Window
Here as you can see in the photo there are four different panes and each signifies one crucial idea behind it. Further, the panes are in the horizontal axis as well as the
vertical axis. So, you have to determine in which window you fall and based on that your personality can be known.
In this model, the main focus is on feedback. Accepting of feedback and conveying of this feedback is done through this model. The panes given in the vertical direction
represents part that is known and unknown to others. While the horizontal part represents the known and unknown part to your self.
That is two windows represent your true self while the other two windows represent the part that is known to others but unknown to self.
3. Incentive theory
The incentive theory suggests that management can invoke motivation by reinforcement, recognition, through incentives and rewards. The incentive theory also
proposes that people display certain behaviours to achieve a specific result, incite a particular action or receive a reward. Here are a few examples of incentives in the
workplace:
Bonus: A bonus is a monetary reward that a company may give an employee based on their performance.
Praise: Praise can be useful for one-on-one situations, such as quarterly employee reviews. Praising and appreciating an employee by giving positive feedback about
their performance helps build trust and significantly reduce attrition.
Training and education: Providing opportunities such as paid training or continuing education may give a team an incentive to increase their knowledge in a specific field conditions for the team are stable when a decision is made.
or develop a skill set.
Promotion: Providing an opportunity for career advancement is often one of the most influential incentives a manager can offer because it can give an employee a
feeling of importance and growth. A promotion may include an advanced role, a new job title and a salary increase.
Salary or wage hike: Management teams find that offering a pay raise or a salary increase can be effective motivators. For optimal results, managers use salary or wage 6. Transactional Leadership
incentives for individual employees, rather than for all employees and departments within a business.
Paid vacation or time off: Consider offering employees compensation for taking days off or give them additional vacation days every quarter or year. Employees may
value this incentive if they plan for a family vacation or desire some extra time to rest at home.
Managers can use incentive theories to help employees to work on tough or challenging tasks that many professionals avoid. Some popular incentives are cash,
products, experiences, gift cards and tickets to popular sporting and entertainment events. It is important that a manager uses these incentives as rewards only for
achieving goals and not without reason.
4. Herzberg's two-factor theory
Herzberg's two-factor theory is a content-based theory. It describes two sets of factors that may lead to either satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Herzberg defines the factors
that lead to satisfaction or dissatisfaction as hygiene and motivating factors:
Hygiene factors: These are factors affecting satisfaction, relating to working conditions, professional relationships, office policies, rules of conduct and attitudes of
supervisors. Improving a few or all hygiene factors can help decrease dissatisfaction and improve motivation among employees.
Motivating factors: Factors like professional achievements, recognition, responsibility and career and personal growth are motivating factors for professionals.
Addressing these factors increases job satisfaction.
Management can implement Herzberg's two-factor theory by reforming company policies, offering competitive wages and providing effective supervision, job security
and more autonomy. Administrative professionals can take a proactive role in employee welfare initiatives. A company can reduce dissatisfaction by offering
professionals ways to find a sense of purpose, both professionally and personally.
5. Vroom's expectancy theory
Vroom's expectancy theory is a process-based motivation theory which assumes that an individual's behaviour results from the conscious choices they make from
multiple available alternatives. Individuals make specific choices believing that they may guarantee more satisfaction and comfort. Vroom's theory suggests that an
individual gets motivation from the following three factors:
Expectancy is an individual's belief that the harder they work, their chances of success increases.
Instrumentality is an individual's belief that they may receive a reward if they meet performance expectations.
Valence is the importance an individual places on an expected outcome.
Vroom's expectancy theory states that if an employee believes that they can accomplish a task, it may motivate them to work harder. An unrealistic or unattainable goal
can demotivate professionals. Managers can assess how well employees understand their role in achieving organisational goals. If an employee is unsure of their
capability or feels that a goal is challenging, managers can train them to align their performance with organisational goal
>Leadership and Its Different Types
“A leader is one who knows the way, goes the way, and shows the way” – John C Maxwell
There are multiple types of leadership styles such as Democratic, Bureaucratic, and Autocratic. Choose the type of leader you want to become. If someone asks you, Autocratic leaders typically have self-confidence and are self-motivated. They communicate clearly and consistently, are dependable and follow the rules. They value
‘what is leadership’, what would your answer be? Think carefully before you answer because it will reveal what kind of a leader you are or want to be, and the leadership highly structured environments and are proponents of supervised work environments.
styles you want to undertake going forward.
The benefits and challenges of an autocratic leadership style include:
There are multiple types of leadership styles. Your personality and the way you want to lead your team will help you realize which of the leadership styles you want to
choose from. The longer a person leads teams and processes in a company, the better equipped they will be at understanding the leadership styles that suit them the
most.
Understanding the types of leadership and various leadership styles can add a lot of value to the impact that leaders can create on their organizations. Let us first
understand what leadership is, followed by the types of leadership, different leadership styles and career opportunities.
What is Leadership?
Leadership refers to the art of motivating people in an organization to work towards a common goal. It is based on ideas that can be a person’s own or inspired by other
leaders.
Leadership is also an art of communicating these ideas effectively to others and encouraging them to take up responsibilities and grow personally besides leading the
company towards growth. Effective leadership is not only inspirational for the self but also for others.
If you also want to become an inspirational and successful leader in the near future, it is important to understand that leaders must have certain critical thinking skills
which can help them in directing an organization’s resources for better growth prospects. Now, let’s skim through the different leadership styles.
Different Types of Leadership
The next few sections will give you insights into the leadership styles you can choose from. It will also give you an understanding of leadership courses you may want to
take to hone your skills.
1. Democratic Leadership
This is as clear as its name. In democratic leadership, the leaders make or break decisions democratically, based on their team’s opinion and feedback. Although it is
the leader who makes the final call, every opinion counts. This is easily one of the most effective leadership styles since it allows employees to have a voice.
self is conveyed through feedback that you get through other members in the group.
This model works on the basis of communication happening in the group and how to improve yourself. The model is very simple to understand and as a result, it is used
in various organizations.
Now, we have divided the panes into 4 different panes to make you understand further about how compromises in these panes.
Johari Window Quadrant 1: Open Area or Arena
This area or pane is called open area because the information in this pane about the behavior, feelings, emotions about the person is known to that person itself as well
as the other members in this group.
In this arena, all the communication occurs through a two-way process. Such that the person socializes about himself with others and constantly receives feedback from
the other members of the group. As a result, the group becomes more effective and the relationship in this group is very dynamic.
In this group, the process of feedback solicitation is very common. This process occurs in the group that has an understanding and the feedbacks of the other person
are heard.
So, the open area through this group can be increased horizontally such that the blindspot area is reduced and vertically it is increased so that the hidden and unknown
areas of a person are reduced when that person reveals about his feeling to the other person.
Johari Window Quadrant 2: Blindspot or BlindSelf
Blindspot is the area in which the certain information on your personality is known to others but that information is not known to you.
In simple terms, other people may interpret your personality different than you might have expected. For efficient communication, this area must be reduced.
One way to do it is through feedback that you get from other members in the group.
Johari Window Quadrant 3: Hidden Area or Hidden Self
Hidden area is the information that you hide from others. Here, the information is known to you but the others are unknown to this information.
The reason for this may be the information might be personal to you so that you are reluctant to share it with others. This includes secrets, past experiences, feelings,
etc. Many people keep their information private and do not share it with others.
Johari Window Quadrant 4: Unknown Areas or Unknown Self
In this area, the information is unknown to you as well as the others. Generally, certain feelings, talents, information, etc fall in this area.
The reason for this might be some traumatic experience in the past about a particular event or experiences which might be unknown for your ever.
The person, as well as the group, is unaware about this till he or she discovers it. One way to reduce this area is through open communication.
>Motivation Theories (Definition, Types And Examples)
Motivational theories can help employees and management staff determine the best way to achieve a business goal or work towards an outcome. Successfully applying
motivation theories can also help managers support their employees efficiently. If you are a professional, a manager or a student of management, understanding
motivational theories can be beneficial. In this article, we explore different types of motivational theories, describe five important theories and examine how you can use
these theories effectively.
What are motivation theories?
Psychologists and management experts develop motivation theories to identify factors that motivate an individual. These theories also cover how an organisation can
apply them to optimise performance. Motivation is a force that drives employees to work towards individual and organisational goals. Qualified professionals may
require motivation to perform at their optimum level consistently. A motivated employee is likely to perform better than an unmotivated employee at work, because they
derive satisfaction from their professional engagement.
Motivation is a continuous process and managers use motivation theories to improve productivity, profits, employee retention rates and employee satisfaction levels.
The objective of a motivation theory is to discover what factors drive individuals to work towards a goal or an outcome. Managers and organisations may adopt and
implement motivational theories that suit them to create a consistently productive workforce.
What are the different types of motivational theories?
Motivational theories can be content-based theories, process-based theories and cognitive theories. Content theories describe needs that can drive motivation, whereas
process theories describe how motivation happens. Cognitive theories examine how an individual's perceptions and environment affect motivation. Teachers can apply
these theories to motivate students and coaches can use them to improve the performance of sports persons.
5 Popular motivational theories
These are some effective and popular motivational theories that businesses and individuals can employ:
1. Maslow's theory of hierarchical needs
Maslow's hierarchy is a content-based motivational theory. It outlines a few basic needs a person wants to fulfil before progressing to more complex needs. This
hierarchy categorises needs into five levels:
Physiological: An individual's basic physiological needs are water, shelter, clothing and food. In a work setting, an employee's salary may fulfil their physiological needs.
Safety: This level refers to a feeling of protection that individuals experience. This need may align with an employee's expectation of job security.
Socialisation: To meet socialisation needs, employees may develop friendships at work to create a sense of belonging for themselves. Management can fulfil this need
by creating opportunities for employees to bond, by hosting company lunches and team-building activities.
Esteem: Employees often reach this level by receiving recognition, which can help them feel confident in their work and increase their self-esteem. Recognising a
professional's achievements and providing positive feedback are two methods that can help build their self-esteem.
Self-actualisation: To reach this level, employees may try to achieve complex, long-term professional or personal goals. Self-actualised employees can motivate
themselves to complete workplace goals effectively.
An administrative professional can use Maslow's theory of hierarchical needs to understand the aspirations of their team and work towards fulfilling them. They can
organise professional development and team-building programmes in addition to the pay, benefits and perks that an employee earns. Managers can begin by
periodically communicating with employees about plans or operations to make them feel that they are a part of an organisation. They can create an environment that is
naturally conducive to cooperation and collaboration. The quality of projects, growth opportunities and work-life balance are factors that can motivate an employee to
excel in a role.
2. McClelland's theory of needs
This is a content-based theory and it affirms that humans have three motivational drivers, regardless of age or gender. One of the three drivers may be dominant in
every human being, depending on their life experiences. The three drivers are:
Achievement: People who thrive on achievement may have a powerful urge to set and achieve goals and take calculated risks during the process. They may expect
feedback, acknowledgement and appreciation for their work and may prefer to work alone.
Affiliation: People who thrive on affiliation favour collaboration and may prefer to work in a group. They would want team members and colleagues to like them and may
side with the majority to do what a larger portion of the group insists on.
Power: People who thrive on power may show tendencies to control and influence others and win arguments. They may be highly competitive and may enjoy status and
recognition.
An administrative professional can use McClelland's theory to identify the primary motivational drivers of team members and use the information to build a team with
diverse competencies and character traits. This theory helps team managers and hiring managers identify the right candidates for a job role. Employees who enjoy
power may become good leaders, mentors and supervisors. Employees who thrive on affiliation may not be effective managers as they may struggle with tough
decisions while trying to cater to the interests of all concerned parties.
2. Autocratic Leadership
This is exactly the opposite of democratic leadership wherein the opinions of employees are not considered. Leaders with this style expect others to adhere to the
decisions they take, which is not a sustainable approach for the long term.
3. Laissez-faire Leadership
Laissez-fire means “let them do”. This style is the least intrusive and leaders with this approach ensure that the authority lies with the employees. While this leadership
style can empower, it may also limit development, therefore, must be kept in check.
4. Strategic Leadership
Strategic leadership acts as a bridge between the senior team and the employees. Leaders adopting this style ensure that both executive interests and working
5. Transformational Leadership
This kind of leadership always aims at transforming and improving functions and capabilities. There may be tasks and schedules assigned and leaders following this
style may ask employees to push their boundaries constantly. Most growth-minded companies tend to adopt this kind of leadership style.
This is a very common leadership style today based on the action-and-reward concept. For instance, an employee or team may receive an incentive or bonus for
achieving a target set by the company.
7. Coach-Style Leadership
This leadership style focuses on larger growth while encouraging individual team members to focus on their strengths and talent. Though this is similar to strategic and
democratic leadership styles, the focus here is more on the individual.
8. Bureaucratic Leadership
This kind of leadership style goes by the books. Although leaders with this approach do listen to employees and their opinions, they may negate or reject it, in case they
go against the company’s ethos or policy.
Extensive Training/Leadership Development Programs
Now that we understand the nitty-gritty of leadership, different leadership styles, and other aspects, it is important to understand why you must undertake a leadership
development program at some point of your career.
Undertaking a leadership development program will ensure that leaders keep themselves updated and are capable of switching to other leadership styles according to
the prevailing circumstances.
An effective leadership program should be a part of everyone’s career planning, irrespective of their field. Emeritus offers different leadership courses in collaboration
with renowned institutions across the globe.
Ongoing leadership training will help you develop a global perspective coupled with future-ready strategic thinking and data-driven decision-making skills. Here’s your
chance to boost your growth by learning from the best.
Whether your team is new, transitioning through change, or is under pressure to perform, as a leader in charge of creating value for your organization, refine and build
your identity as an effective leader in line with your company’s strategic interests and goals. Challenge your established understanding of business management and
advance your ability to think strategically of your role as a business leader with this course, designed to empower you to lead your organization confidently.
In today’s data-led, digital-driven era, the IDC mantra of “change at the speed of digital” is no longer a choice as customer journeys are increasingly becoming digital.
Strongly aligned to making you industry-ready in this evolved digital reality, this course will enable you to lead effective digital business transformation. Become
proficient in identifying, developing, and executing digital business strategies to lead a data-driven, forward-thinking organization.
A leadership training program can play a crucial role at a juncture in your career when you feel you are at a critical point of growth in the organization. In addition to the
leadership training programs mentioned above, you can explore other leadership courses on our website. Sign up; now is the time to become the next-gen leader.
Types of leadership styles
Here's an overview of eight common leadership styles, from autocratic to visionary, with a look at the benefits and challenges of each style:
1. Autocratic leadership style
Also called the “authoritarian style of leadership,” this type of leader is someone who's focused primarily on results and team efficiency. Autocratic leaders often make
decisions alone or with a small and trusted group and expect employees to do exactly what they’re asked.
Benefits: Autocratic leaders can promote productivity through delegation, provide clear and direct communication and reduce employee stress by making decisions
quickly on their own.
Challenges: Autocratic leaders are often prone to high levels of stress because they feel responsible for everything, plus their lack of flexibility can lead to team
resentment.
2. Bureaucratic leadership style
Bureaucratic leaders are similar to autocratic leaders in that these leaders expect their team members to follow the rules and procedures precisely as written. The
bureaucratic style focuses on fixed duties within a hierarchical system, where each employee has a set list of responsibilities, and there's little need for collaboration and
creativity.
This leadership style is most effective in highly regulated industries or in departments like finance, health care or government. This style may fit your leadership
approach if you're detail-oriented and task-focused, value rules and structure, are strong-willed and self-disciplined and have a great work ethic.
The benefits and challenges of a bureaucratic leadership style include:
Benefits: This style can be efficient in organizations that need to follow strict rules and regulations. These leaders separate work from relationships to avoid clouding the
team's ability to hit goals.
Challenges: This style doesn't promote creativity, which can feel restricting to some employees. This leadership style is also slow to change and does not thrive in an
environment that needs to be dynamic.
3. Coaching leadership style
A coaching leader is someone who can quickly recognize their team members’ strengths, weaknesses and motivations to help each individual improve. This type of
leader often assists team members in setting smart goals and then provides regular feedback with challenging projects to promote growth. They set clear expectations
and creating a positive, motivating environment.
The coach leadership style is one of the most advantageous for employers as well as the employees they manage. Unfortunately, it’s often also one of the most People are "born" with leadership traits.
underused styles—largely because it can be more time-intensive than other types of leadership. Coaching leaders are supportive and value learning as a way of Even today, books, and articles tout the various characteristics necessary to become a great leader, suggesting that leadership is somehow predestined in some (or is
growing. They're self-aware, offer guidance instead of giving commands and ask guided questions. at least more likely) while unlikely, if not impossible, in others.2

The benefits and challenges of a coaching leadership style include:
Benefits: Coaching leadership is positive in nature and promotes the development of new skills, empowers team members and fosters a confident company culture.
They're often seen as valuable mentors.
Challenges: While this style has many advantages, it can be more time-consuming as it requires one-on-one time with employees which can be difficult to obtain in a
deadline-driven environment.
4. Democratic leadership style
The democratic style (aka the "participative style") is a combination of the autocratic and laissez-faire types of leaders. A democratic leader asks their team members for While the list of leadership traits can vary by whoever is drawing up the list, a recent study outlined behavioral traits that separated lower-level supervisors from higher-
input and considers feedback from the team before they make a decision. Because team members feel their contributions matter, a democratic leadership style is often level supervisors.5
credited with fostering higher levels of employee engagement and workplace satisfaction.
Democratic leaders value group discussions and provide all information to the team when making decisions. They promote a work environment where everyone shares
their ideas and are characteristically rational and flexible.
The benefits and challenges of a democratic leadership style include:
Benefits: Working under the democratic leadership style, employees can feel empowered, valued and unified. It has the power to boost retention and morale. It also
requires less managerial oversight, as employees are typically part of decision-making processes and know what they need to do.
Challenges: This leadership style has the potential to be inefficient and costly as it takes time to organize group discussions, obtain ideas/feedback, discuss possible
outcomes and communicate decisions. It also can add social pressure to members of the team who don’t like sharing ideas in group settings.
5. Laissez-faire leadership style
The laissez-faire style is the opposite of the autocratic leadership type, focusing mostly on delegating many tasks to team members and providing little to no
supervision. Because a laissez-faire leader doesn't spend their time intensely managing employees, they often have more time for other projects.
Managers may adopt the laissez-faire style when all team members are highly experienced, well-trained and require little oversight. However, it can cause a dip in
productivity if employees are confused about their leader’s expectations, or if some team members need consistent motivation and boundaries to work well.
The benefits and challenges of a laissez-faire leadership style include:
Benefits: The laissez-faire leadership style encourages accountability, creativity and a relaxed work environment, which often leads to higher employee retention rates.
Challenges: This style typically doesn't work well for new employees, as they need guidance and hands-on support in the beginning. Other employees may not feel
properly supported.
6. Pacesetter leadership style
The pacesetting style is one of the most effective for achieving fast results. Pacesetter leaders primarily focus on performance, often set high standards and hold their
team members accountable for achieving their goals.
While the pacesetting leadership style can be motivational in fast-paced environments where team members need to be energized, it’s not always the best option for
team members who need mentorship and feedback.
The benefits and challenges of a pacesetter leadership style include:
Benefits: Pacesetting leadership pushes employees to hit goals and accomplish business objectives. It promotes high-energy and dynamic work environments.
Challenges: Pacesetting leadership can also lead to miscommunications and stressed-out employees as they are always pushing toward a goal or deadline.
7. Servant leadership style
Servant leaders live by a people-first mindset and believe that when team members feel personally and professionally fulfilled, they’re more effective and more likely to
regularly produce great work. Because of their emphasis on employee satisfaction and collaboration, they tend to achieve higher levels of respect.
Servant leaders motivate their teams and have excellent communication skills. You may find this leadership style a match for your own style if you tend to encourage
collaboration and engagement among team members and if you commit to growing your team professionally.
The benefits and challenges of a servant leadership style include:
Benefits: Servant leaders have the capacity to boost employee loyalty and productivity, improve employee development and decision-making, cultivate trust and create do it or showing a lack of commitment. The leader need not worry about showing them what to do, but instead should be concerned with finding out why the followers
future leaders.
Challenges: Servant leaders can become burnt out as they often put the needs of their team above their own They may have a hard time being authoritative when they followers feel good when they show the necessary commitments for success. Delegating – This leadership approach is most appropriate when the followers have high
need to be.
8. Visionary leadership style
Visionary leaders possess a powerful ability to drive progress and usher in periods of change by inspiring employees and earning trust for new ideas. A visionary leader have less need for support or frequent praise, although as with anyone, occasional recognition is always encouraged.
is also able to establish a strong organizational bond. They strive to foster confidence among direct reports and colleagues alike.
Visionary style is especially helpful for small, fast-growing organizations, or larger organizations experiencing transformations or restructuring. Visionary leaders tend to tools to eliminate defects, identify the cause of the error, and reduce the possibilities of error. Thus, Six Sigma creates an environment of continuous process
be persistent and bold, strategic and open to taking risks. They're often described as inspirational, optimistic, innovative and magnetic.
Since the publication of Carlyle's thesis, psychologists have examined and argued about the trait-based theory of leadership. From the 1940s to the 1970s, psychologist
Ralph Melvin Stogdill suggested that leadership is the result of the interaction between the individual and the social situation and not merely the result of a predefined
set of traits.3
Soon after in the 1980s, James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner posited that credibility was a key indicator of leadership skills, characterized by such traits as being
honest, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent.4
The 8 Major Theories of Leadership
Leadership Traits
According to the researchers, the traits most commonly associated with great leadership include:
Adaptability and flexibility: Effective leaders don't get stuck in a rut. They are able to think outside of the box and adapt quickly to changing situations.
Assertiveness: A great leader is able to be direct and assertive without coming off as overly pushy or aggressive.
Capacity to motivate people: A great leader knows how to inspire others and motivate them to do their best.
Courage and resolution: The best leaders are brave and committed to the goals of the group. They do not hide from challenges.
Creativity: Perhaps most importantly, great leaders not only possess their own creativity, but they are also able to foster creativity among members of the group.5
Decisiveness: A great leader is capable of making a decision and is confident in his or her choices.
Eagerness to accept responsibility: Strong leaders take on responsibility and don't pass the blame on to others. They stand by their success and take ownership of their
mistakes.
Emotional stability: In addition to being dependable overall, strong leaders are able to control their emotions and avoid overreactions.
Intelligence and action-oriented judgment: Great leaders and smart and make choices that move the group forward.
Need for achievement: Strong leaders have a need to succeed and help the group achieve goals. They genuinely care about the success of the group and are
committed to helping the group reach these milestones.
People skills: Excellent interpersonal skills are essential for leading effectively. Great leaders know how to interact well with other leaders as well as with team members.
Perseverance: Strong leaders stick with it, even when things get difficult or the group faces significant obstacles.
Self-confidence: Many of the best leaders are extremely self-assured. Because they are confident in themselves, followers often begin to share this self-belief.
Task competence: A great leader is skilled and capable. Members of the group are able to look to the leader for an example of how things should be done.
Trustworthiness: Group members need to be able to depend upon and trust the person leading them.
Understanding their followers and their needs: Effective leaders pay attention to group members and genuinely care about helping them succeed. They want each
person in the group to succeed and play a role in moving the entire group forward.
> The Situational Leadership Model (Adapted from the model by Ken Blanchard and Paul Hersey in Management of Organizational Behavior, ’96) The Situational
Leadership Model suggests that there is no “one size fits all” approach to leadership. Depending on the situation, varying levels of “leadership” and “management” are
necessary. However, leaders must first identify their most important tasks or priorities. Second, leaders must consider the readiness level of their followers by analyzing
the group’s ability and willingness. Depending on the level of these variables, leaders must apply the most appropriate leadership style to fit the given situation. The four
different types of situational leadership are: Directing Coaching Supporting Delegating The Three Steps of the Situational Leadership Model Step 1: Identify the Most
Important Tasks or Priorities Step 2: Diagnose the Readiness Level of the Followers Step 3: Decide the Matching Leadership Style Step 1: Identify the Most Important
Tasks or Priorities Suggestions to consider when deciding your three most important tasks or priorities: 1. Focus your three priorities or tasks on big picture items that
will require participation and commitment from the entire chapter. This doesn’t mean you should eliminate a possible priority just because you fear the chapter won’t go
along with it; it simply means that your priorities should be big enough that executing them will require the chapter’s involvement. 2. Your three priorities should be
fundamental to the success of the chapter. For example, “Creating a new recruitment slogan” is not as important as “Creating a working Kai Committee.” 3. Whenever
possible, be specific! For example, “Recruitment” is a vague priority, but “Create and execute a year round recruitment model resulting in a 25 man pledge class next
fall” is specific. 4. Sometimes our best priorities are things we should STOP doing. For example, if your chapter has high-risk social practices (i.e. providing hard alcohol
to underage guests), it is a worthy priority to “Eliminate high-risk social factors and create a new culture of social conduct in the chapter.” 5. Don’t hesitate to go after
bold tasks such as winning the “Top Chapter” award on campus, achieving a 3.0 chapter GPA, or increasing your membership size to 75 men. All of these will require
participation and commitment from the rest of the chapter. 6. Don’t worry about how you will achieve the priorities just yet. Decide what they should be first! 7. You may
need to brainstorm a list of 5-10 priorities and then narrow the list to your top three. What are the three most important tasks or priorities that your executive committee
will lead the chapter through this year? 1The Four Types of Situational Leadership Directing – This leadership approach is most appropriate when the followers have low
willingness and low ability for the task at hand. When the followers cannot do the job and are unwilling or afraid to try, then the leader must take a highly directive role.
Directing requires those in charge to define the roles and tasks of the followers, and supervise them closely. Decisions are made by those in charge and communication
is one-way. If the leader focused more on the relationship in this situation, the followers would become confused about what must be done and what is optional.
Directing is often used when the issue is serious or comes with drastic consequences if not successful. The leader maintains a directive position to ensure all required
actions are completed. Coaching – This leadership approach is most appropriate when the followers have high willingness but low ability for the task at hand. Like
Directing, Coaching still requires leaders to define roles and tasks clearly, but the leader seeks ideas and suggestions from the follower. Decisions remain the leader's
prerogative, but communication is much more two-way. Followers needing coaching require direction and supervision because they are still relatively inexperienced, but
they also need support and praise to build their self-esteem, and involvement in decision-making to restore their commitment. While Coaching, the leader spends time
listening, advising, and helping the follower gain necessary skills in order to do the task autonomously next time. Supporting – This leadership approach is most
appropriate when the followers have low willingness but high ability for the task at hand. Supportive leadership works when the follower can do the job, but is refusing to
are refusing and work to persuade them to cooperate. The key to supportive leadership is motivating and building confidence in people! Clarification on the details of the
process won’t matter, as the follower already knows what to do but lacks the motivation to act. Supportive leadership involves listening, giving praise and making the
willingness and high ability. Leaders should rely on delegating when the follower can do the job and is motivated to do it. There is a high amount of trust that the follower
will do well, and the follower requires little supervision or support. Delegating still keeps the leader involved in the decisions and problem-solving, but execution is mostly
in the hands of the followers. Because the follower has the most control, he is responsible for communicating information back up to the leader. Followers at this level
> What is Six Sigma?
Six Sigma is a term used to define various techniques and management tools designed to make business processes more efficient and effective. It provides statistical
improvement, enabling businesses to provide better products and services to customers. It was developed by Motorola, Inc. in 1986.

The benefits and challenges of a visionary leadership style include: Six Sigma

Benefits: Visionary leadership can help companies grow, unite teams and the overall company and improve outdated technologies or practices.
Challenges: Visionary leaders may miss important details or other opportunities, like recognizing their teams, because they’re so focused on the big picture.
>Trait Theory of Leadership Rationale
The trait theory of leadership is tied to the "great man" theory of leadership first proposed by Thomas Carlyle in the mid-1800s.1 According to Carlyle, history is shaped
by extraordinary leaders. This ability to lead is something that people are simply born with, Carlyle believed, and not something that could be developed. Carlyle's ideas
inspired early research on leadership, which almost entirely focused on inheritable traits.
Carlyle's theory of leadership was based on the rationale that:
Certain traits produce certain patterns of behavior.
Patterns are consistent across different situations.
Six Sigma can be applied to any process in any industry to establish a management system for identifying errors and eliminating them. It provides methods to improve
the efficiency of business structure and quality of processes, enhancing the profitability of the business.
The term “Six Sigma” is derived from the bell curve in statistics, in which sigma represents the standard deviation from the center. Hence, a process with six sigmas will
achieve an extremely low defect rate. The failure of a business process or product is regarded as a defect. When a process produces less than 3.4 defects for one
million chances, it is considered efficient.
Summary
Six Sigma is used to identify and reduce errors and increase the efficiency of business processes.
The primary objective of Six Sigma is customer satisfaction, and to achieve the objective, various methods are followed to improve the performance of a product or
business process.
DMAIC and DMADV are the main methodologies of Six Sigma that apply to different business environments.

Six Sigma Principles If the nature of work is uniform, typical and ordinary, it can be effectively monitored and regulated through programmed decisions. As a result, this leads to an increase
There are five main principles of Six Sigma: in the span of control.

1. Customer focus Similar Activities

The main objective is to maximize the benefits for customers. Hence, a business must understand the needs of their customers and the drivers of sales. It requires If the subordinates are given the same or similar activities, then it is possible for the manager to supervise more employees. And if problems occur it would be similar in
establishing quality standards according to the market or customer demands. nature and would be easier to solve.

2. Assess the value chain and find the problem Complexity of Activities
Outline the steps of a process to find out unwanted areas and gather related data. Define goals for data collection, purposes for data gathering, and expected insights. If the activities that the employees are performing are complex and sophisticated and require constant supervision, then it would be more difficult for the manager to
Verify that the data is assisting in achieving the objectives, whether more information is needed to be collected, or if data cleansing is required. Find out the problem and handle too many employees at once, and hence, a narrow span of control would be desirable.
its root cause.
Closeness of Employees Areas
3. Eliminate defects and outliers The closer the subordinates are to each other in a physical location, the easier it will be for the manager to handle more employees.
After the identification of the problem, make appropriate modifications in the process to eliminate defects. Eliminate any activity in the given process that does not
contribute to the customer value. If the value chain is unable to reveal the problem area, various tools are used to find out the problem areas and outliers. Eliminating Direction and Coordination
the outliers and defects removes the bottlenecks in a given process. The span of control would also be determined by the coordination between subordinates, both within the units and other departments. If the units need continuous
directions and extra time from managers in coordinating these activities, then fewer employees would be better to manage.
4. Involve stakeholders
A structured process should be adopted where all stakeholders collaborate and contribute to finding solutions to complex issues. The team needs to achieve proficiency Capability of Subordinates
in the methodologies and principles applied. Hence, specialized knowledge and training are required to lower project failure risks and ensure optimal performance of the Workers who are well trained, professionally developed, and experienced, need little supervision. In such situations, more employees can be effectively supervised.
processes.
These subordinates can further be helped by providing them with “standing plans” that are applicable in repetitive operations and routine recurring problems, thus
5. Flexible and responsive system requiring less supervisory assistance.
Whenever an inefficient or faulty process is eliminated, the employee approach and work practices need to be changed. A flexible and responsive environment to the
changes in processes can lead to the efficient implementation of the projects. Workforce of Manager
If the manager has a supporting staff that is equally skilled in handling situations, then it would be possible to handle a wider span of control because the responsibilities
The departments involved should be capable of adapting easily to the change. Companies that periodically examine the data and make appropriate changes to their of supervision would be shared.
processes may achieve a competitive advantage.
Relationship Between Manager and Subordinates
Six Sigma - Objectives The optimum number of subordinates under a manager would vary and directly dependent upon the type of relationship between the manager and subordinates, not
only on a one-to-one basis but also with subordinates as groups, taking into consideration the cross-relationships among the employees themselves.
Six Sigma Methodology
The following are the two main methodologies of Six Sigma, which are used in different business environments: Planning
The effectiveness of supervision would also depend upon how much time managers spend on planning. If the managers spend too much time in systems planning then
DMAIC they will not have time to supervise the activities of too many employees.
DMAIC is a data-driven approach used for optimizing and improving the existing business designs and processes. It is an effective method of controlled change
management. The five phases of DMAIC are listed below, and each phase involves tools and tasks to help find the final solution. Types of Span of Control/Management
There are two types of span of control structures. Which are discussed below:
Define the problem and the goals of the project
Measure the different aspects of the existing process in detail Narrow Span Structure
Analyze data to find the main flaw in a process Wide Span Structure
Improve the given process Narrow Span Structure
Control the way the process is implemented in the future Narrow span refers to the existence of too many levels in an organization. There are some advantages and disadvantages of the narrow span structure which are:
DMADV
DMADV focuses on the development of an entirely new process, product, or service. It is used when existing processes, even after improvement, do not satisfy the Advantages of Narrow Span Structure
customer’s needs, and new methods are required to be developed. It comprises five phases:
Effective leadership and control can be directly exercised on subordinates.
Define the purpose of the project, product, or service
Measure the crucial components of a process and product capabilities The senior can easily communicate and effectively coordinate the efforts of his subordinates since their number is small.
Analyze data and develop design alternatives, ultimately selecting the best design
Design the selected best alternative and test the prototype Direct contact, close supervision, and tight control can help improve the performance pattern.
Verify the effectiveness of the design through several simulations and a pilot program Disadvantages of Narrow Span Structure
> What is Span of Management?
When we are talking about the span of management or the “span of control”, we are referring to the same phrase. In management span of control refers to the number Too many levels delay two-way communication when a message has to pass through different levels.
of employees a manager directs effectively and efficiently. In a wider span of control, a manager has many employees who report to him. In a narrow span of control, a
manager has fewer employees under him. A large number of managers is required which results in additional salaries and a high cost of management.

So we can say, the number of employees that can effectively be managed for supervision and delegation of authority would be finite and depend upon a number of A tall structure may have an adverse impact on morale because of the absence of a close link between the top executive and the bottom worker.
factors. Wide Span Structure
A wide span of control means a manager can supervise and control effectively a large number of people at a time. It is because the shorter span of control leads to a
Definition of Span of Control rise in the number of steps or levels in the chain of command which leads to a tall organization. Furthermore, wide span structure has its own advantages and
The followings definition of span of control given by authors: disadvantages which are:

“Span of control refers to the number of people that a manager can supervise.” Advantages of Wide Span Structure

Lois Allen It indicates that the chain of command is short. Because of this, communication tends to be quicker and more effective.
“Span of control refers to the maximum number of subordinates which may be placed under the jurisdiction of one executive immediately superior to them.”
This system allows delegation of authority and the development of subordinates.
Peterson and Plowman
“Span of control is the number and range of direct, habitual communication contacts between the chief executive of an enterprise and his principle fellow officers.” Subordinates feel more autonomous and independent in wide-span organizational structures.
Disadvantages of Wide Span Structure
Dimock
Factors Affecting Span of Management A flat structure makes supervision and controls loose and less effective.
Following are some important factors affecting span of management:
A single executive may not have enough time and energy to supervise all subordinates.
Management Policies
Nature of Work It is not at all suitable for large manufacturing organizations that have developed businesses with narrow span structures.
Similar Activities
Complexity of Activities >delegation of authorities?
Closeness of Employees Areas
Direction and Coordination When it comes to running a business, or rather an organization, it is a must that you understand all the aspects that are associated with it. One such aspect is where
Capability of Subordinates the tasks run smoothly, without a delay. This is where one has to take into account all the considerations like many of the things including how the tasks must be
Workforce of Manager distributed. Now, the tasks have to be done in more of a streamlined manner where all the people are given responsibilities where they can actually work more efficiently
Relationship Between Manager and Subordinates and take the organization to newer heights.This can happen by taking the very first steps such as delegation of authority. This is the one task that all managers must put
Planning into practice due to the fact that there is a lot of ground to cover. One can rest assured by bringing such things into practice that they can have the work done in a more
Management Policies efficient manner where deadlines can be met pretty easily. Although there is a phenomenon where one must take the authority of the work given to them, it is also a
Management has a great influence on the span of control. If the policies are clear and comprehensive, this results in an increase in the span of control. The clarity in must that one challenges their subordinates with new responsibilities. Since running an organization is not a one person job, so is the case with taking the authority for
plans, definiteness in fixing responsibility and use of standing plans reduce the pressure of decision-making by the top managers that increase the span control. various things. It is a great thing for every manager to include their subordinates in the tasks and put them as one in authority. Elements of Delegation of AuthorityNow
that you know what delegation of authority is, you must also know that it is not just transfer of tasks and authority to one's subordinates. However, the meaning seems to
Nature of Work be a simple one, there are many benefits along with a fair share of risks involved. It is the job of a manager that they take into account the various risk factors along with
the trust factor of their subordinates and then delegate the work accordingly.Here are the three elements of Delegation of
Authority:AuthorityAccountabilityResponsibilityIt is worth noting that these three may look like elements, but these are all predominant when it comes to the functioning
of an organization. It has many effects for the organization, which can make or break it, in a major way. Process of Delegation of AuthorityThe Process of Delegation of
Authority has seven sequential steps. Each step has its significance and continuity. So it is important to understand every step then delegate the authority
accordingly.Step 1: The first step in the process of delegation of authority is to set the goals for which we are assigning work to the subordinate.Step 2: After setting up
the goals, the manager or the responsible person needs to define the responsibilities of the employee. This makes the employee learn or understand what he needs to
do and whom he needs to report or take instructions.Step 3: In the process of Delegation of Authority, the third step is more crucial than all other steps. This step is
about defining the Author to subordinates. The authority varies from employee to employee based on the job assigned to them.Step 4: The next step is to motivate all
the subordinates. The manager is supposed to not only delegate or assign the work to the support units. He also needs to encourage his employees to work effectively
and fastly by putting all their efforts. The manager also monitors all the day-to-day actions done by subordinates.Step 5: The process of delegation of authority also has
accountability in its steps. The manager needs to hold accountability regarding his employees. The manager or company should not depend on the employees.Step
6: In the process of delegation of authority, the manager needs to train his subordinates according to the job assigned. If a new task is given to the employee in a
different language, he needs to train his subordinate and ask him to learn and develop his skills by working on new tasks.Step 7: The last step in the process of
delegation of authority is to control the employees by maintaining proper appraisals for the performance. (Image will be Uploaded Soon) Types of Delegation of
AuthorityWe have four different types of Delegation of authority. Each type of Delegation of authority is based on different factors. They are- General or Specific
Delegation. It is based on the job assigned.Formal or Informal Delegation. It is based on the process of giving authority.Top to bottom or bottom to top Delegation. It is
based on the hierarchy.Lateral Delegation. It requires a group or team to work in parallel.These are the various types of Delegation of authority. Hence the delegation of
authority is an art of getting things to be done by the subordinates. It is clear about the meaning of delegation of authority, elements, process types of the delegation of
authority. It can be seen in every organization, so all the companies' tasks can be taken as a delegation of authority example.

> big 5 modal of personality

, productiveness, and responsibility. Highly conscientious individuals prefer order and structure, work persistently to pursue their goals, and are committed to fulfilling
their duties and obligations, whereas

unconscientious individuals are comfortable with disorder and less motivated to complete tasks. Neuroticism (sometimes referred to by its socially desirable pole,
Emotional Stability) captures differences in the frequency and intensity of negative emotions. Highly neurotic individuals are prone to experiencing anxiety, sadness, and
mood swings, whereas emotionally stable individuals tend to remain calm and resilient, even in difficult circumstances. Finally, Openness to Experience (sometimes
referred to as Intellect) represents differences in intellectual curiosity, aesthetic sensitivity, and imagination. Highly open individuals enjoy thinking and learning, are
sensitive to art and beauty, and generate original ideas, whereas close-minded individuals tend to have a narrow range of intellectual and creative interests. Evidence
for the Big Five comes from research examining both everyday language use and formal personality tests. Psycholexical studies—which compare personality-
descriptive language across cultures—have found that many of the world’s languages include words synonymous with each of the Big Five, and that the Big Five
structure can be recovered from personality ratings made using representative sets of personality-descriptive adjectives in these languages. Moreover, the traits
measured by many formal personality tests—including tests that predate the current scientific consensus around the Big Five structure—can be organized in terms of
the Big Five. Thus, the Big Five appear to adequately capture the structure of both lay and expert personality descriptions. Lifespan Development A considerable body
of research has examined how and why the Big Five develop across the life span. Youth versions of the Big Five can be observed and reliably measured by middle
childhood. However, some traits manifest through different behaviors during different developmental periods. Behavioral genetics research has shown that each of the
Big Five is

influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, and that each trait is genetically heritable to an approximately equal degree. However, research attempting to
identify the specific genetic and neurological substrates of the Big Five has had only limited success to date, suggesting that each trait has a complex biological basis.
Other research has examined stability and change in the Big Five over time. In terms of rank-order stability—the extent to which the ordering of individuals from highest
to lowest remains consistent over time—personality traits are moderately stable by middle childhood. Rank-order stability then increases with age (a pattern known as
the cumulative continuity principle), reaching a plateau during late middle age. However, the rank-order stability of the Big Five is not perfect at any age, indicating that
some individuals continue to change throughout the life span. Mean-level change concerns whether the average score on a trait increases or decreases with age. The
most marked patterns of mean-level change in the Big Five occur during adolescence and young adulthood. For example, some negative patterns of personality
development occur from middle childhood into adolescence, including decreases in Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience.
Developmental research also indicates that girls exhibit higher levels of Agreeableness and Conscientiousness than boys from a young age, and that they show higher
levels of Neuroticism than boys by mid-adolescence. In contrast with the negative patterns observed during childhood and early adolescence, the Big Five show
predominantly positive age trends from late adolescence into adulthood. Specifically, most individuals become more conscientious, agreeable, and emotionally stable
from late adolescence through middle age (a pattern known as the maturity principle). The positive mean-

level trends in agreeableness and emotional stability continue into late adulthood, and older adults who show negative personality changes are at increased risk for
disease and mortality. Research examining the causes and correlates of personality development indicates that change in the Big Five is influenced by both biological
and environmental factors. Individual differences in personality change are somewhat heritable (suggesting a biological influence), but have also been linked with a
variety of life experiences (suggesting an environmental influence). For example, changes in Conscientiousness tend to be preceded or accompanied by important
social role experiences such as marriage and work, whereas changes in Neuroticism tend to co-occur with negative life events. Cultural research has found that
patterns of mean-level change in the Big Five are generally similar across a variety of cultures (suggesting a possible evolutionary basis), but that cultural differences in
these patterns may be linked with the culture-specific timing of social role experiences (suggesting a cultural influence). Better understanding the causes and correlates
of stability and change in the Big Five remains an active area of research. Prediction of Life Outcomes Each of the Big Five has been shown to predict a number of
important life outcomes. For example, extraversion consistently predicts social outcomes. Highly extraverted individuals tend to have more friends and dating partners,
and are seen by their peers as having higher social status. They generally prefer and perform better in social and enterprising occupations, and are more likely to adopt
community leadership roles. Psychologically, extraverts tend to experience greater subjective well-being than introverts, especially in terms of the frequency and
intensity of positive emotions. Agreeableness is associated with a number of affiliative and prosocial outcomes. For example, highly agreeable individuals tend to be
better liked by their peers, and their close

relationships tend to be more stable and satisfying. They generally prefer social occupations and are more likely to hold religious beliefs, perform volunteer work, and
serve in community leadership roles. Agreeable individuals are also less likely to engage in criminal behavior. Conscientiousness is an important predictor of
achievement and health related outcomes. Highly conscientious students tend to earn higher grades, and conscientious workers tend to perform better in a variety of
occupations. Highly conscientious individuals also tend to live longer, reflecting their tendency to engage in healthy behaviors (e.g., exercising, maintaining a healthy
diet) and avoid risky behaviors (e.g., smoking, substance abuse, criminal behavior). They are also more likely to hold conservative political attitudes and religious
beliefs. Neuroticism is negatively associated with subjective well-being and psychological health. For example, highly neurotic individuals tend to experience lower
levels of overall life satisfaction, as well as lower satisfaction in a number of specific life domains (e.g., job and relationship satisfaction). They are also at increased risk
for various forms of psychopathology, including anxiety and mood disorders. Openness to Experience is most strongly associated with intellectual and creative
outcomes. Highly open individuals tend to score higher on tests of creativity and intelligence, and to pursue scientific and artistic occupations. They are also more likely
to hold liberal political and social attitudes, and to describe themselves as spiritual (but not necessarily religious).