Received: 28 August 2022

DOI: 10.1049/elp2.12301

ORIGINAL RESEARCH
- -Revised: 30 November 2022 Accepted: 17 January 2023

- IET Electric Power Applications

Analytical modelling of salient pole synchronous generators

under eccentricity faults by including stator slotting effect

Samaneh Nasiri | Mansour Ojaghi

Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Abstract

Zanian, Zanjan, Iran
Here, a dynamic analytical model is provided for salient pole synchronous generators
(SPSGs) under different eccentricity faults. A useful technique is developed first to describe
Correspondence
Mansour Ojaghi, University of Zanian, Zanjan
the rotor position‐dependent non‐uniform air gap distribution by a proper function in the
4537138791, Iran. healthy state, which includes the stator slotting effect. Then, the exact air gap function is
Email: mojaghi@znu.ac.ir used along with the modified winding function theory to extract non‐integral equations for
computing the SPSG various inductances that are playing critical role during analytical
modelling and simulation of the machine. Afterword, the air gap function and the induc-
tance equations are modified to include all types of the eccentricity fault. A 3 kW SPSG is
simulated and then tested in laboratory under the healthy and the mixed eccentricity (ME)
conditions. There are good accordance between the simulation and corresponding exper-
imental results; they show that some harmonic components are introduced in the rotor and
the stator currents due to the ME fault whose frequencies are integer multiples of the rotor
speed frequency and whose amplitudes increase by increasing the fault severity. The load
level change also affects the amplitudes of the harmonics.

KEYWORDS
fault diagnosis, synchronous generators

1 | INTRODUCTION Salient pole synchronous generators (SPSGs) are mainly

Rotor symmetry axis (Ar), stator symmetry axis (As), and rotor
rotation axis (Aω) are three longitudinal axes in rotating electrical
machines. Ideally, all the mentioned axes coincide each other in
the healthy machine. In practice, however, it is almost impossible
to achieve perfect alignment of the axes. There may be a small
amount of intrinsic misalignment of the axes in newer machines,
depending on the manufacturing and assembly techniques used
[1]. During the machine's lifetime, some factors can increase the
distance between Ar and As beyond the allowable limit and lead
to so‐called eccentricity fault. The eccentricity fault type can be
identified in this instance by locating the Aω. In an eccentricity
fault condition, if Aω coincides with Ar, a static eccentricity (SE)
fault has been occurred, otherwise, if it coincides with As, a
dynamic eccentricity (DE) fault has been occurred [2]. A mixed
eccentricity (ME) fault occurs when Aω is coinciding with neither
Ar nor As. The eccentricity fault, if not early removed, can lead to
a major damage of the machine.
used in hydroelectric power plants. Over the last 2 decades,
although numerous published articles have dealt with the ec-
centricity fault in induction motors [3–9], only a few articles
considered this fault in the SPSGs. Dynamic eccentricity in the
SPSG has been investigated and the resultant harmonics in the
stator current have been examined in Refs. [10, 11] using
the winding function method for modelling and simulation.
The SPSG has been simulated in Ref. [12] under variable DE
severities. In Ref. [13], the effect of the stator tooth magnetic
saturation has been used to model a synchronous machine with
DE fault. In Ref. [14], the SPSG with SE has been modelled
using the winding function method, and the fault has been
diagnosed by analysing the stator voltage and rotor current
signals; however, in addition to SE, about 25% of DE has been
applied to the machine in the laboratory tests. In Ref. [15], the
SE of the salient pole and the cylindrical pole synchronous
generators have been investigated using the finite elements
method (FEM) and the amplitude of a certain stator current

-
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© 2023 The Authors. IET Electric Power Applications published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institution of Engineering and Technology.

IET Electr. Power Appl. 2023;17:743–755. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/elp2 743

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744
- NASIRI AND OJAGHI

harmonic has been introduced as the fault index. However, this SPSG performance is simulated under the ME fault and
study is devoid of laboratory test results. The effects of DE compared to corresponding experimental results and analysed
and SE faults on the synchronous generator performance have in Section 6. Finally, Section 7 concludes the paper.
been investigated in Refs. [16–19]. In Ref. [20], the air gap
function and inductances of the SPSG have been analysed
using the modified winding function method (MWFM) in the 2 | AIR GAP FUNCTION CONSIDERING
presence of all three types of the eccentricity fault but the STATOR SLOTS AND ROTOR SALIENT
laboratory test results were examined only in the case of DE. POLES
Detailed magnetic analysis of the SPSG with SE and DE faults
has been presented in Ref. [21] by focussing on the external According to the modified winding function theory, where the
magnetic field. Then, the eccentricity faults were diagnosed by magnetic core effects including its reluctance as well as the
measuring the external magnetic field through two search coils leakage fluxes are neglected, following equation yields self/
installed on the backside of the stator yoke. mutual inductances of a rotating electrical machine with a non‐
Accurate modelling and simulation of defective electrical uniform air gap distribution:
machines offer a critical tool for designing appropriate condition
monitoring and fault diagnosis systems for them. Although, d‐q Z 2π
reference frame theory gives the simplest method for dynamic Lxy ¼ μ0 r l nx ðα; θÞ Ny ðα; θÞ g−1 ðα; θÞ dα ð1Þ
0
modelling and simulation of the synchronous machine [22], but
it is often inapplicable to defective ones. In practice, the FEM
and the MWFM are the two common methods for modelling where x and y represent the rotor or stator windings, Lxy is the
defective machines [23]. Comparison demonstrates that while mutual inductance of the x and y windings, μ0 is the air
the MWFM simplifies and reduces the computational burden, it magnetic permeability, r is the air gap mean radius, l is the
maintains an acceptable level of accuracy compared to FEM [13, stack length, α is the angle in the stator reference, g−1(α, θ) is
24, 25]. Numerous studies, however, have focussed on efforts to the inverse of the air gap distribution function, nx is the turn
improve MWFM accuracy and eliminate its some simplifying function of the winding x and Ny is the modified winding
assumptions. function of the winding y. The stator slots and the rotor salient
In this paper, the MWFM is used to provide an analytical poles are two factors that produce non‐uniformity in the air
model for the healthy SPSG, first. A useful technique is gap distribution of the healthy SPSG. In this study, to include
developed to describe the rotor position‐dependent non‐ these factors in the air gap distribution function, the air gap is
uniform air gap distribution by a proper function in the separated into two parts by a hypothetical circle in the middle
healthy condition. This function can include the stator slotting of the air gap as shown in Figure 1. Then, proper function is
effect. Then, the exact air gap function is used along with the defined for every part of the air gap. The total air gap function
modified winding function theory to extract non‐integral attains by summing the two functions.
equations for computing the SPSG various inductances that
are playing critical role during analytical modelling and simu-
lation of the machine. Afterwards, the air gap function and the
inductance equations are modified to include all types of the
eccentricity fault with variable intensities. Then, the SPSG
performance is studied using simulation under the ME fault
condition and compared to that of the healthy SPSG. The ME
is selected because there are few previous studies in this topic.
The simulation results are in accordance with corresponding
experimental results, where both the results confirm that the
ME fault introduces some harmonic components to the stator
line current whose frequencies are multiples of the rotor speed
frequency. Further studies show that the amplitudes of the
mentioned harmonics increase by increasing the fault severity.
The load level increase causes increasing of the amplitudes of
the harmonics in the lower frequency range but it causes
decreasing of the amplitudes in some higher frequency range.
Section 2 demonstrates how to define the air gap function
considering the stator slots and the rotor salient poles. Sec-
tion 3 simplifies calculation of the stator and rotor self and
mutual inductances in the healthy state by solving related
definite integral and giving some non‐integral equations. Sec-
tion 4 includes the eccentricity fault effect to the equations. FIGURE 1 Separating the air gap into two parts with a hypothetical
circle.
Section 5 introduces the prepared laboratory test rig. The
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NASIRI AND OJAGHI
- 745

The first air gap function is defined for the stator side,
so, it is denoted by gs(α). This function is independent of
the rotor position angle and may incorporate the stator
slots. According to Figure 1, gs(α) equals 0.5 g0 in front of
the stator teeth and equals 0.5 g0 + hs in front of the
stator slots:
�
0:5g0 ; in front of the stator teeth
gs ðαÞ ¼ ð2Þ
0:5g0 þ hs ; in front of the stator slots

where, as Figure 1 shows, g0 is the air gap length between the

stator teeth and the rotor salient poles in the healthy state and
hs is the stator slot depth. It is obvious that gs(α) = 0.5 g0 when
ignoring the stator slotting effect.
The second air gap function is defined for the rotor side,
so, it is denoted by gr(α, θ). This part of the air gap rotates in
lockstep with the rotor, therefore, it depends on the rotor
position angle θ, too. According to Figure 1, gr(α, θ) equals
0.5 g0 in front of the rotor poles and equals 0.5g0 + hr between
the poles (rotor slots): F I G U R E 2 Inverse of the air gap function of a salient pole
synchronous generator at θ = 0: (a) without stator slots and (b) with stator
slots.
�
0:5g0 ; in front of the rotor poles
gr ðα; θÞ ¼ ð3Þ 3 | SIMPLIFYING INDUCTANCE
0:5g0 þ hr ; in front of the rotor slots
COMPUTATIONS
Assuming stator turn functions to have only step variation at the
where, hr is the rotor slot depth. The total air gap function
centres of the stator slots, Figure 3a depicts the turn function of
obtains by adding the two functions. Therefore, to be used in
phase ‘a’ winding of the stator for the proposed SPSG. The other
(1), the inverse of the air gap function is written as follows:
two phase windings have similar turn functions but with an angle
shift of 60 and 120°, respectively. Figure 3b illustrates the rotor
1 turn function. As Figure 3 shows, the average values of the stator
g−1 ðα; θÞ ¼ ð4Þ
gs ðαÞ þ gr ðα; θÞ and rotor turn functions are zero. This fact along with the
symmetry of the air gap distribution makes modified winding
functions be equal to their corresponding turn functions in the
Figure 2 illustrates variation of inverse of the air gap healthy SPSG. Then, according to the rotor salient poles and
function versus α at a fixed position of the rotor (θ = 0) with/ slots, the inductance Equation (1) is expanded to sum of eight
without including the stator slots for a SPSG with 36 stator integrals (4 integrals over the rotor poles and 4 integrals over the
slots and 4 salient poles. Table 1 gives full technical specifi- rotor slots) to get the following expression for the stator self/
cations of the proposed SPSG in this paper. mutual inductances:

0
Z π 3þθ
= Z 5π 6þθ
= Z 4π 3þθ
=

Lxyss ¼ μ0 rl @ nx ðαÞny ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdθ þ nx ðαÞny ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdθ þ nx ðαÞny ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdθ
θ π 2þθ πþθ
=

Z 11π 6þθ
= Z π 2þθ
= Z πþθ
þ nx ðαÞny ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdθ þ nx ðαÞny ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdθ þ nx ðαÞny ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdθ
3 π 2þθ π 3þθ 5π 6þθ
= = =
1
Z 3 π 2þθ
= Z 2πþθ
þ nx ðαÞny ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdθ þ nx ðαÞny ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdθA ð5Þ
4π 3þθ 11π 6þθ
= =
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746
- NASIRI AND OJAGHI

T A B L E 1 Technical data of the proposed salient pole synchronous

generator (SPSG).

Quantity Value
Rated power 3 kw

Rated voltage 380 V

Rated current 5.7 a

Rated speed 1500 r/min

Rated excitation voltage 70 V

Number of poles 4

Stator connection Y

Stator slots number 36

Air gap length 0.4 mm

Stator slot depth 10 mm

FIGURE 4 Illustrating the angles introduced in equations (6) and (12).
Rotor salient pole depth 57 mm

Stator winding resistance per phase 4.15 Ω eighth integrals are computed over the rotor slots. Considering
Stator winding leakage inductance per phase 4 mH constant values of the stator turn functions between its slot
centres, every integral in equation (5) can be expanded further.
Stator winding turns per coil 20
For instance, expanding the first integral leads to equation (6)
Rotor field winding resistance 23.3 Ω as follows:
Rotor field winding leakage inductance 19 mH Z π 3þθ
=

nx ðαÞny ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdα

Rotor field winding turns per coil 320 θ
Air gap mean radius 72 mm Z αq
� �
¼ nx αq ny αq g−1 ðα; θÞdα
Stack length 98 mm θ
Rotor pole arc 60° qþ4
X Z αiþ1 ð6Þ
þ nx ðαiþ1 Þny ðαiþ1 Þ g ðα; θÞdα
−1

i¼q αi

Z π 3þθ
=
� �
þ nx αqþ6 ny αqþ6 g−1 ðα; θÞdα
αqþ5

where αi denotes the central angle of the ith slot, q is the

number of the first slot whose central angle is ahead θ and
nx(αi) and ny(αi) are the constant values of the turn functions
between the slots i‒1 and i. Figure 4 depicts different angles
introduced in equation (6). The first and the last integrals in
equation (6) are dependent on θ but the remaining integrals are
independent of θ and are solved as follows:
Z αiþ1
A B
g−1 ðα; θÞdα ¼ þ ð7Þ
αi g0 g0 þ hs

where, as indicated in Figure 1, A is the stator tooth angle and

F I G U R E 3 Turn function of (a) the stator phase ‘a’ winding and
(b) the rotor field winding at θ = 0.
To get equation (5), the reference for measuring θ is
assumed to be the preceding edge of a salient pole of the rotor
as shown in Figure 4. In equation (5), the first to fourth in-
tegrals are computed over the salient poles, whereas the fifth to
B is the stator slot angle.
Due to rotation of the rotor, one of the two cases may
occur when solving the first and the last integrals in equation
(6). As the arc of the salient poles and the arc of the slots
between the salient poles are integer multiples of the stator slot
pitch, the first case occurs when the pole edges are in front of
the stator slots. Two distinct situations may occur in this case:
the pole edges have not reached the slots centres or the pole
edges have passed through the slots centres. The first situation
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NASIRI AND OJAGHI
- 747

Z αqþ6
is characterised be inequality (αq‒θ) < B/2, while the second g−1 ðα; θÞdα
situation is characterised by the inequality (αq‒θ) ≥ B/2. Ex- θþπ 3
=
8
pressions (8) and (9) give solutions of the first and the last > αqþ6 − θ − π 3 = B
>
> ; αq − θ <
integrals, respectively, in the both situations of the first case: < g0 þ hs þ hr 2
¼
8α −θ
q B >
>
> A αqþ6 − ðθ þ π 3Þ − A = B
>
> ; αq − θ < : þ ; αq − θ ≥
Z αq >g þ h
< 2 g0 þ hr g0 þ hs 2
0 s
g−1 ðα; θÞdα ¼ ð8Þ
θ >
> A α −θ−A B ð14Þ
: þ q
> ; αq − θ ≥ Z
g0 g0 þ hs θþπ 2
=
2
g−1 ðα; θÞdα
Z αqþ8
θþπ 3
=
8
g−1 ðα; θÞdα > A θ þ π 2 − αqþ8 − A = B
>
> þ ; αq − θ <
αqþ5 < g0 þ hr g0 þ hs þ hr 2
8
> A θ þ π 3 − αqþ5 − A = B ¼
>
> þ ; αq − θ < ð9Þ >
>
> θ þ π 2 − αqþ8
= B
<g g þh s 2 : ; αq − θ ≥
g0 þ hs þ hr
0 0
¼ 2
>
> θ þ π 3 − αqþ5 = B
>
: ; αq − θ ≥ ð15Þ
g0 þ hs 2
In the second case, the pole edges are in front of the stator
The second case occurs when the pole edges are in front of teeth:
the stator teeth. Figure 4 shows such a case. In this case, ex-
Z
pressions (10) and (11) give solutions of the first and the last αqþ6
αqþ6 − ðθ þ π 3Þ − B = =
2 B2
=
g−1 ðα; θÞdα ¼ þ
integrals, respectively:
θþπ 3
= g0 þ hs g0 þ hs þ hr
Z ð16Þ
αq
αq − θ − B = 2 B2=
g−1 ðα; θÞdα ¼ þ ð10Þ
θ g0 g0 þ hs Z θþπ 2
B2 θ þ π 2 − αqþ8 − B
=
= = =
2
Z g−1 ðα; θÞdα ¼ þ
θþπ 3
B2 θþπ −B g0 þ hs þ hr g0 þ hs
=
= =3 − αqþ5 =
2 αqþ8
g−1 ðα; θÞdα ¼ þ ð11Þ
αqþ5 g0 þ hs g0 ð17Þ

As mentioned before, the salient poles and the slots be- The remaining integrals in equation (5) are solved by a
tween the poles have arcs equal to integer multiples of the similar manner.
stator slot pitch. Therefore, the second, third and fourth in- Considering the turn function of the rotor field winding as
tegrals in equation (5) are solved by the same way and under illustrated in Figure 3b, the mutual inductances between this
the same condition. winding and the stator phase windings are calculated by
The fifth integrals in equation (5) expands as follows: expanding equation (1) as follows:
0
Z π 2þθ
= Z π 3þθ =

nx ðαÞny ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdα Lxyrs ¼ μ0 rlNF @ nx ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdα

π 3þθ
=
θ
Z αqþ6
� � Z 5π 6þθ
¼ nx αqþ6 ny αqþ6 g−1 ðα; θÞdα
=

π 3þθ
= þ nx ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdα
π 2þθ
=
qþ7
X Z αiþ1
ð12Þ Z 4π 3þθ
=
þ nx ðαiþ1 Þny ðαiþ1 Þ g−1 ðα; θÞdα þ nx ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdα
i¼qþ6 αi
πþθ
Z 1
π 2þθ Z
=
� � 11π 6þθ
=
þ nx αqþ8 ny αqþ8 g ðα; θÞdα
−1
C
αqþ8 þ nx ðαÞg−1 ðα; θÞdαA ð18Þ
3 π 2þθ
=

Except for the first and the last integrals, the other integrals
in equation (12) are independent of θ and are solved as follows:
Z tegrals in equation (18) are solved like the similar ones in
αiþ1
g−1 ðα; θÞdα ¼
αi
The first and last integrals in equation (12) are depending
on θ and are solved in two cases. In the first case as before, the
poles edges are in front of the stator slots:
where NF is the rotor field winding turns per pole. The in-
A B equation (5).
þ ð13Þ
g0 þ hr g0 þ hs þ hr The self‐inductance of the rotor field winding is also
computed using equation (1). Since the turn function of the
field winding has a constant value across the poles faces and is
zero across the slots between the poles, equation (1) is solved
to reach the following expression:
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748
- NASIRI AND OJAGHI

0
Z π 3þθ
=
evident from the figure that by including the stator slots, the
Lxyrr ¼ μ0 rlN 2F @ g−1 ðα; θÞdθ absolute average values of the inductances as well as their
θ
oscillation amplitudes are significantly reduced. Additionally,
Z 5π 6þθ
= Z 4π 3þθ
= the stator slots cause wrinkles in the inductance variation
þ g−1 ðα; θÞdθ þ g−1 ðα; θÞdθ curves. Therefore, the stator slots have significant effect on
π 2þθ πþθ
=
various inductances of the SPSG; hence, they can significantly
1
Z affect the performance of the machine.
11π 6þθ
=
C
þ g−1 ðα; θÞdθA ð19Þ
3 π 2þθ
=

The integrals in (19) are also solved like the similar integrals
in (5).
This way, non‐integral expressions are attained for
computing all the self and mutual inductances of the SPSG at
every position of the rotor without any approximation to the
proposed air gap function. Figure 5 illustrates some calculated
inductances of the SPSG with and without the stator slots. It is
4 | INCLUDING ECCENTRICITY
EFFECT TO THE INDUCTANCE
COMPUTATION
The eccentricity fault disturbs normal distribution of the air
gap, thus, affects various inductances of the electrical ma-
chine. Therefore, the machine with eccentricity fault is
modelled by including the eccentricity fault effect to the
computed inductances. Ignoring the slotting effect, the air
gap function in a non‐salient pole machine is defined as
follows [24]:

gec ðα; αm ; θÞ ¼ g0 ½1 − ρ cosðα − αm Þ� ð20Þ

where g0 is the uniform air gap length under healthy condition,

ρ is the eccentricity degree, and αm is the angle of the mini-
mum air gap length position. The values of ρ and αm are
derived from the equations below:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ρ¼ ρ2s þ ρ2d þ 2ρs ρd cosðθ − αs Þ ð21Þ
� �
−1 ρd sinðα − αs Þ
αm ¼ αs þ tan ð22Þ
ρs þ ρd cosðθ − αs Þ

where ρs and ρd are the static and dynamic components of the

F I G U R E 5 Variation of some inductances of the salient pole
synchronous generator vs. the rotor position in a healthy state with/without
the stator slotting effect: (a) self‐inductance of the stator phase ‘a’,
(b) mutual‐inductance between the stator phases ‘a’ and ‘b’, (c) mutual‐
inductance between the rotor field winding and the stator phase ‘a’, (d) self‐
inductance of the rotor field winding
eccentricity and αs is the angle of the static component [6]. The
last three equations are applicable to all three types of the
eccentricity fault: ρd should be replaced by zero in the static
eccentricity, ρs should be replaced by zero in the DE and both
the parameters are non‐zero in the ME. To include the ec-
centricity effect to the air gap function along with that of the
rotor salient poles and the stator slotting, it is sufficient to use
the air gap function expressed by equation (20) instead of g0 in
equations (2)–(4). Figure 6 illustrates the inverse of the resul-
tant air gap function for ρs = 0.1, ρd = 0.7 and αs = 0 at four
different positions of the rotor.
Due to incorporating rather large number of slots in the
stator, the stator slot pitch is so small and equation (20) gives
small change to the air gap length over any stator slot pitch.
Therefore, by approximation, it is assumed that gec has a
constant value in every slot pitch that is computed at the centre
of the slot pitch as follows:
� ��
gec;i ¼ g0 1 − ρ cos αt;i − αm ð23Þ
where gec,i is the proposed constant value for the ith slot pitch
(αi ≤ α ≤ αi+1) and αt,i is the central angle of the tooth inside

NASIRI AND OJAGHI
F I G U R E 6 Inverse of the air gap function at different positions of the
rotor for the eccentric salient pole synchronous generator with ρs = 0.1,
ρd = 0.7 and αs = 0 by including the stator slotting at (a) θ = 0, (b) θ = 90°,
(c) θ = 180°, and (d) θ = 270o.
the slot pitch (ith tooth). The definite integrals solved in
Section 3 are within a slot pitch or a portion of a slot pitch.
Therefore, in every case, g0 is replaced by a corresponding
value computed using equation (23) to obtain corresponding
result with the eccentricity fault effect. For instance, expression
(7) is modified as follows to include the eccentricity fault effect:
Z the SPSG. To start the synchronous motor, an induction motor
αiþ1
A B
g−1 ðα; θÞdα ¼ þ ð24Þ
αi gec;i gec;i þ hs
Figure 7 illustrates some inductances of the SPSG in the
healthy and the defective states with different types of the
eccentricity. By comparing the inductance curves in the cor-
responding healthy and eccentricity fault conditions, it is seen
that the static and dynamic eccentricities increase the average
values of the inductances. The ME causes variable oscillation
to the stator phase inductance (Figure 7a) and the stator and
rotor mutual inductance (Figure 7b). In addition, the self‐
inductance of the rotor field winding is subjected to a
considerable oscillation due to the ME (Figure 7c).
5 | LABORATORY TEST EQUIPMENT
To provide corresponding experimental results for verifying
the modelling and simulation results, a SPSG with the same
technical specifications as listed in Table 1 is tested in labo-
ratory in the healthy and in the eccentricity conditions, where
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- 749
F I G U R E 7 Variation of the salient pole synchronous generator
inductances vs. the rotor position angle under different eccentricity faults
with ρs = 0.3 and ρd = 0.5: (a) self‐inductance of the stator phase ‘a’,
(b) mutual‐inductance between the stator phase ‘a’ and the rotor field
winding, and (c) self‐inductance of the rotor field winding.
the stator voltage and current signals are sampled and recor-
ded. To run the SPSG at constant speed regardless of the load
level, a similar synchronous motor is mechanically coupled to
is coupled to the synchronous machines via belts. Figure 8
shows a photograph of the three coupled machines.
To create eccentricity fault, the bearings on both ends of
the rotor shaft are removed. Then, two other bearings with
larger inner diameter and smaller outer diameter are selected
and prepared. To compensate for the larger inner diameter and
the smaller outer diameter, appropriate rings are prepared and
installed inside and outside the new bearings to match their
final dimensions with that of the original bearings. By creating
eccentricity in the outer rings, inner rings or both the outer and
inner rings, static, dynamic and mixed eccentricities are created
in the SPSG, respectively. Figure 9 shows a photograph of the
original bearing and the new bearing with the installed inner
and outer rings.
The stator terminals are connected to a three‐phase vari-
able resistance bank in order to facilitate variable loading of the
SPSG. A data acquisition card type PCI 1716 along with cur-
rent sensors type LTS6‐NP and voltage sensors type LV25‐P
are used for sampling and recording the stator line currents
and voltages as well as the rotor excitation current. PCI 1716
enables sampling and recording by up to 250,000 samples/s;
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750
- NASIRI AND OJAGHI

dω
Ti þ Te ¼ J ð27Þ
dt
where [Vsl], [Isl] and [λsl] are the vectors of the stator line to
line voltages, line currents and flux linkages, [Rsl] is the stator
resistance matrix, Vf, If, λf and Rf are the voltage, current, flux
linkage and resistance of the rotor field winding, Ti is the
applied torque, Te is the electromagnetic torques, ω is the rotor
speed and J is the inertia moment. The vectors/matrices
related to the stator windings are defined as follows:

½Vsl � ¼ ½vab vbc �T ð28Þ

½Isl � ¼ ½ia ib �T ð29Þ

F I G U R E 8 A photograph of the coupled synchronous generator, ½λsl � ¼ ½λa − λb λb − λc �T ð30Þ

synchronous motor and induction motor.
� �
Rs −Rs
½Rsl � ¼ ð31Þ
Rs 2Rs

where vab and vbc are the stator line to line voltages, λa, λb and
λc are the stator windings flux linkages and Rs is the stator
winding resistance per phase. Considering three‐phase load
resistance connected to the stator terminals, the stator line
voltages should also satisfy the following equation:
� � � �� �
vab R −RL ia
¼− L ð32Þ
vbc RL 2RL ib

F I G U R E 9 Photograph of the original bearing (left) and the new where RL is the per‐phase load resistance.
bearing with installed rings (right). Assuming linear magnetic system, the flux linkages are
related to the stator and rotor currents as well as the machine
however, a sampling rate of 4000 samples/s is sufficient in this inductances as follows:
study. The sampling and recording task is performed at
½λsl � ¼ ½Lssl �½Isl � þ ½Lsrl �If ð33Þ
different load levels.
λf ¼ ½Lrsl �½Isl � þ Lf f If ð34Þ
6 | SIMULATION RESULTS
where [Lssl], [Lsrl] and [Lrsl] are different inductance matrices
Dynamic equations governing performance of the SPSG and Lff is the self‐inductance of the rotor field winding.
include three dynamic voltage equations for the stator wind- Considering Lij = Lji and including the windings leakage
ings, a dynamic voltage equation for the rotor field winding inductances:
and a dynamic mechanical equation for the rotating part. In the � �
Lls þ Laa þ Lbc − Lac − Lab Lab þ Lbc − Lls − Lac − Lbb
Y‐connected stator windings, it is better to rewrite the stator ½Lssl � ¼
equations versus the line‐to‐line voltages. Then, by applying Lls þ Lcc þ Lab − Lac − Lbc 2Lls þ Lbb þ Lcc − 2Lbc
the constraint ia + ib + ic = 0 (ia, ib and ic are the stator phase ð35Þ
currents), resultant dynamic equations are written as follows: � �
Laf − Lbf
½Lsrl � ¼ ð36Þ
d Lbf − Lcf
½Vsl � ¼ ½Rsl �½Isl � þ ½λsl � ð25Þ
dt � �
½Lrsl � ¼ Laf − Lcf Lbf − Lcf ð37Þ
dλf
Vf ¼ Rf If þ ð26Þ Lf f ¼ Lxyrr þ Llr ð38Þ
dt
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NASIRI AND OJAGHI
- 751

where Lls is the leakage inductance per‐phase of the stator
windings and Llr is the leakage inductance of the rotor field
winding. When iterative numerical solve of the dynamic equa-
tions, ic is calculated at every iteration after calculation of ia and ib
(vector [Isl]) by using the constraint ia + ib + ic = 0. Then, the
electromagnetic torque is calculated using the following
equation:
the rotor excitation voltage is set such that nominal voltages be
induced in the stator windings. Then, in the second stage, the
stator terminals are loaded by connecting a three‐phase resis-
tance bank. This causes a voltage drop in the stator terminals,
which is compensated by proper increase of the excitation
voltage in the third stage. Figure 10 illustrates the simulation
process for the healthy SPSG, where the three stages are

1 ∂½Lss � ∂½Lsr � 1 ∂Lf f

Te ¼ ½Is �T ½Is � þ ½Is �T I þ I2 ð39Þ
2 ∂θ ∂θ f 2 f ∂θ

where θ is the rotor position angle and the new vectors/

matrices are defined as follows:

½Is � ¼ ½ia ib ic �T ð40Þ

2 3
Laa Lab Lac
½Lss � ¼ 4 Lab Lbb Lbc 5 ð41Þ
Lac Lbc Lcc
2 3
Laf
½Lsr � ¼ 4 Lbf 5 ð42Þ
Lcf

All the self‐/mutual‐inductances presented in (35)–(38)

and in (41) and (42) are calculated using expressions extracted
in the previous sections.
The proposed SPSG is simulated by simultaneous solve of
the dynamic equations. The simulation process includes three F I G U R E 1 1 Simulation process results for the salient pole
stages: at the first stage, where the stator terminals are open, synchronous generator (SPSG) under mixed eccentricity (ME) fault:
the rotor speed is set to the nominal synchronous speed and (a) rotor field current, (b) stator line current, and (c) stator line‐to‐line
voltage.

F I G U R E 1 2 Rotor field current normalised spectra attained through

F I G U R E 1 0 Simulation process results for the healthy SPSG: (a) rotor simulation for the salient pole synchronous generator under (a) healthy
field current, (b) stator line current, and (c) stator line‐to‐line voltage. state and (b) mixed eccentricity (ME) with ρs = 0.25 and ρd = 0.25.

752
- NASIRI
evident on the waveforms. Figure 11 illustrates corresponding
simulation results for the SPSG but under the ME fault, where
the static and dynamic components of the eccentricity are set
to 0.3 and 0.4, respectively. As seen, the eccentricity fault
introduced significant oscillation to the rotor field current. The
main frequency of the oscillation is 25 Hz, which is equal to the
rotor speed frequency. The oscillation is produced due to
similar oscillation in the self‐inductance of the rotor field
winding under the ME as illustrated in Figure 7c. Figure 12
illustrates the rotor field current spectra under the healthy state
and the ME fault, which are determined using the fast Fourier
transform under steady state loading condition (third stage).
Creating some integer multiples of the rotor speed frequency,
including 25, 50, 75, 125, 150 and 175 Hz, due to the eccen-
tricity fault is evident in the figure. Figure 13 illustrates
F I G U R E 1 3 Rotor field current normalised spectra attained through
experiments for the salient pole synchronous generator under (a) healthy
state and (b) mixed eccentricity (ME) with ρs = 0.25 and ρd = 0.25.
F I G U R E 1 4 Stator current normalised spectra in the healthy state:
(a) simulation result and (b) experimental result.
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AND OJAGHI
corresponding experimental test results. As seen, some of the
mentioned frequencies, that is 25, 50 and 150 Hz, are also
presenting in the healthy state; this may be due to inherent
eccentricity of the SPSG or its other asymmetries; however, the
eccentricity fault magnifies them considerably.
Every harmonic in the rotor field current, whose frequency
is not zero, produces a fluctuating magnetic field fixed on the
rotor. This magnetic field is decomposed into two counter‐
rotating fields that are rotating with respect to the rotor with
a speed equal to the frequency of the field current harmonic
divided by the pole pairs. Considering the rotor speed, one can
compute the speeds of the rotating fields with respect to the
stator. Every rotating magnetic field induces a voltage (and
current) component in the stator windings whose frequency
equals the speed frequency of the field with respect to the
stator multiplied by the pole pairs. Simple calculations show
that the voltage and current harmonics induced this way in the
stator windings will include frequencies that are integer mul-
tiples of the rotor speed, too. Figure 14 depicts the stator
current frequency spectra in the healthy state, as determined by
simulation and experiment. In addition to the fundamental
harmonic, some odd harmonics (3rd, 5th, …) are evident in the
both spectra. Figure 15 depicts similar spectra but under a ME
fault condition. As predicted before, new harmonics whose
frequencies are integer multiples of the rotor speed are evident
in both simulation and experimental result. Table 2 gives the
frequencies and amplitudes of the harmonics in the healthy
and defective conditions attained through simulation and ex-
periments. The harmonic amplitudes attained through simu-
lation are usually larger than the corresponding ones attained
through experiments. This is due to ignoring the rotor and the
stator core reluctances and restricting the reluctance to that of
the air gap in the MWFM. This intensifies the non‐uniformity
introduced by the eccentricity fault to the reluctance distribu-
tion, and then, intensifies the harmonics amplitudes [6].
F I G U R E 1 5 Stator current normalised spectra under mixed
eccentricity (ME) conditions with ρs = 0.25 and ρd = 0.25: (a) simulation
result and (b) experimental result.
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NASIRI AND OJAGHI
- 753

T A B L E 2 Frequencies and normalised

Normalised amplitude (db)
amplitudes of the fault‐related harmonics in
Figures 14–15. Simulation Experimental
Frequency (Hz) Healthy Mixed eccentricity Healthy Mixed eccentricity
25 – −55.5 – −63.95

75 – −42.34 – −56.29

100 – −52.02 – −69.82

125 – −58.65 – −68.61

150 −22.15 −22.32 −36.93 −35.53

175 – −58.59 – −74.58

200 – −67.41 – −80.2

225 – −66.28 – −63.79

250 −38.77 −39.32 −39.63 −37.65

275 – −64.91 – −69.52

300 – −68.9 – −79.75

T A B L E 3 Amplitude variation of fault

Eccentricity degrees
related harmonics by increasing the fault
intensity. Frequency (Hz) ρs = 0.2, ρd = 0.3 ρs = 0.3, ρd = 0.4 ρs = 0.5, ρd = 0.3 ρs = 0.7, ρd = 0.2
25 −65.59 −57.34 −51.28 −44.32

75 −52.44 −43.25 −39.87 −36.34

100 −62.45 −51.76 −46.02 −41.49

125 −67.96 −57.87 −46.14 −37.58

150 −32.37 −32.24 −32.13 −31.81

To investigate the effect of the eccentricity fault intensity

F I G U R E 1 6 Variation of the normalised amplitudes of the fault‐
related harmonics in the stator current vs. the load level and the mixed
eccentricity (ME) fault severity: (a) 25 Hz harmonic, (b) 175 Hz harmonic.
on the amplitude of the harmonics produced in the stator
line current, the proposed SPSG is simulated for various
values of ρs and ρd. Table 3 gives the amplitudes attained for
some of the harmonics. As seen, the amplitudes are
increasing by the increase of the eccentricity net severity
(ρs+ρd) except for the third harmonic (150 Hz) that shows
rather constant amplitude irrespective of the fault severity.
The simulations are also performed under different load
levels to investigate the effect of the load level changes on
the amplitudes of the fault related harmonics. The results
show that some lower order harmonies (25, 75 and 100 Hz)
are intensified by increasing the load level but the other
harmonics are weakened due to the load increase. Figure 16
shows variations of normalised amplitudes of two harmonics
versus the load level and the fault severity changes: the 25 Hz
harmonic whose amplitude increases by increasing both the
load level and the fault severity and the 175 Hz harmonic
whose amplitude decreases by increasing the load level but
increases by increasing the fault severity.
At the end, it is reasonable to refer to a limitation of the
proposed modelling technique. It cannot take into account real

754
- NASIRI
magnetic core effects (core loss, saturation etc.); this is because
it applies MWFM, in which such effects have been ignored.
7 | CONCLUSION
By including the stator slotting effect, non‐uniform distribu-
tion of the air gap length in a SPSG is divided into two parts
and simple functions offered for describing each part. The
total air gap function is attained by simply summing the two
functions. The attained air gap function applied in its exact
form to extract non‐integral expressions for computing the
generator inductances in the healthy condition. The expres-
sions are then modified to include all types of the eccentricity
fault with variable degrees. The SPSG was simulated using the
MWFM along with the extracted inductance expressions.
Comparing the simulation results in the healthy and the ME
states indicated that the proposed fault produces new har-
monic components in the rotor field winding as well as the
stator line current whose frequencies are integer multiples of
the rotor speed frequency. Corresponding laboratory test re-
sults confirmed the simulation results. The amplitudes of the
fault‐related harmonics were increasing by increase of the ec-
centricity fault severity. Load level change caused different
variations on the harmonics amplitudes.
AUT HO R C O NT R I B UT I O N
Samaneh Nasiri: Data curation, Investigation, Methodology,
Software, Validation, Visualisation, Writing—original draft.
Mansour Ojaghi: Conceptualisation, Formal analysis, Project
administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing—review &
editing.
CO NFL ICT OF I N T ER E ST STAT E M E N T
We declare that we have no conflict of interest.
DATA AVA ILA B I LI T Y STA T EM E NT
The data that support the findings of this study are available
from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
OR CID
Mansour Ojaghi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9870-5038
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