Second Language Acquisition (UU-LIN-3520)

Assignment 3:
The role of input and Interaction in second language acquisition from different
theoretical perspectives

Eneika Kerry Ann Elliott-Thomas

R2103D11926183
Teaching English to Young Learners (58682)
Sophia Varella
June 25, 2023

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Second Language Acquisition (UU-LIN-3520)

Q1. Explain the differences between Krashen’s (1985) theory of second language hypothesis
and the Interactive Hypothesis. State the strategies that each model considers important in
L2 learning. (20 points)

Answer (300 words):

Differences (10 points):

Krashen's (1985) theory of second language acquisition is distinguishable from the interac-
tive hypothesis as it focuses on the input hypothesis (Krashen, 1980, 1983, 1985). Krashen's
theory emphasizes the notion of language acquisition as hypothesis testing and the distinction
between development and acquisition. Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982) have proposed the inclu-
sion of intake processes to help distinguish between pro-stages and a comparative study of first
and second language acquisition. Beebe (1985) has also suggested that affective factors are im-
portant in language acquisition. Moreover, a priori comparisons of the two hypotheses revealed
no significant differences between the Spanish and ESL groups in the language formation task.
Furthermore, the statistics showed no significant difference between the two groups when 104
learners of English as a second language were compared. Thus, it is evident that the interactive
hypothesis is a more inclusive theory that accounts for the similarities and differences between
first and second language acquisition (White, n.d.) (Robinson, n.d.). While Krashen's input hy-
pothesis explains the acquisition of language, the interactive hypothesis is dependent on the dis-
tinction between acquisition and learning (Chaudron, n.d.) (Spolsky, n.d.) (Gass, n.d.) (Cook,
n.d.). It is known that comprehensible input, in Krashen's hypothesis, is necessary for acquisition,
while the interactive hypothesis requires participants to treat the platform as a social situation
(Lai, n.d.). Both theories thus provide valuable insight into the phenomenon of language acqui-
sition (Loschky, n.d.) (Long, n.d.).
-Factors (10 points):
The two theories of L2 learning need to be evaluated in terms of their evidence-based validity.
According to Levelt's speech production model, the learners need to pay attention to the input to
acquire redundant grammatical features (Schmidt, n.d.). This is because paying attention is
thought to be facilitative and may even be necessary for the learning process. Conversely, schol-

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arly evidence indicates that the act of noticing is both essential and satisfactory in terms of trans-
forming input into intake (Schmidt, n.d.). That is, the learners need to be conscious of the input
they are exposed to for successful language learning. Moreover, there is also evidence for the
implicit learning issue, as well as for a facilitative effect for conscious understanding (Schmidt,
n.d.). This implies that the learners need to be conscious of the input for successful language
learning. In this regard, consciousness-raising activities such as internal priming can create opti-
mal conditions for learning. Thus, the factors that need to be taken into consideration when eval-
uating the two theories include the evidence for implicit learning, evidence for facilitative effect
for conscious understanding, the necessity of paying attention to the input, and the necessity of
noticing the input for successful language learning. (Schmidt, n.d.).

Q2. Metalinguistic awareness is defined as the learner’s ‘ability to consider language not just
as a means of expressing ideas or communicating with others, but also as an object of
inquiry’(Gass et al., 2013: 359). What are the theories that took into consideration the
function of the metalinguistic awareness? How are these theories similar or different in their
view of metalinguistic awareness? Provide two characteristics of this function. Provide two
examples of the tasks that require this function. (30 points)

-The theories that took into consideration the function of the metalinguistic awareness (4
points)
Many theories have been developed to explain the role of metalinguistic awareness in lan-
guage acquisition (Mertz & Yovel, n.d.). They suggest that metalinguistic awareness is a prereq-
uisite for language learning (Doherty & Perner, n.d.) and is especially important for the develop-
ment of reading skills (Wenling et al., n.d.). To test this hypothesis, a suitable metalinguistic task
is required to place the language learners into appropriate proficiency levels (Butler, n.d.). Fur-
thermore, a dynamic systems theory (DST) offers a conceptual metaphor to assess multilingual
development (Jessner, n.d.). The onset of language learning implies that metalinguistic awareness
is acquired (Tunmer & Herriman, n.d.). This, in turn, is supported by theories which suggest that
metalinguistic understanding is critical for language acquisition (Chen & Myhill, n.d.). Moreover,
a systems-theoretic approach to multilingual proficiency suggests that metalinguistic awareness

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plays a role in multilingualism (Jessner, n.d.). Studies have also found that preschoolers are capa-
ble of making metalinguistic judgments, and that higher-level metalinguistic understanding can
enable learners to elaborate, extend, and apply their grammatical knowledge.
-How are these theories similar or different in their view of metalinguistic awareness (10 points)
Theories of metalinguistic awareness have been the subject of much research and debate.
Metalinguistic awareness is the ability to compare linguistic systems and recognize the differences
and similarities between them. It is often seen as a collection of different kinds of knowledge about
language, including the ability to identify and reflect on the structure of language (Butler, n.d.).
Many have proposed different conceptualizations of metalinguistic awareness, such as Karmiloff-
Smith's stage theory (Kuo & Anderson, n.d.). This theory suggests that metalinguistic awareness
involves both the ability to reflect on one's output and the ability to compare linguistic systems.
According to this theory, metalinguistic awareness cannot be compared in both degree and quality
to the awareness of native speakers (Jessner, n.d.). Research has also been conducted to compare a
wide variety of beginning readers and teaching methods (Tunmer & Bowey, n.d.). These studies
found that bilingual performance can be directly compared to monolingual performance and that
Chicano children are not necessarily more field-dependent (Tunmer & Myhill, n.d.). Furthermore,
participants in the research project found that their participation had changed their viewpoints
(Jones et al., n.d.). In conclusion, the comparison of tasks, bilingual performance and the idea of a
holistic view are all important when considering the differences and similarities between linguistic
systems (Doherty & Perner, n.d.).
- two characteristics of this function (10 points):
In language development and literacy learning, two main characteristics of metalinguistic
awareness (MA) can be identified: phonological awareness (PA) and morphological awareness
(MA). PA is the ability to recognize and manipulate the phonological components of words (Wang
et al., n.d.). It is important for reading and spelling development, as well as for the development
of literacy skills in general (Wang et al., n.d.). Moreover, Morphological Awareness (MA) per-
tains to the comprehension of word structure and the capacity to utilize structural knowledge in
the analysis and creation of words. It is also linked to the advancement of reading skills in the
Chinese language. (Wang et al., n.d.). MA can include knowledge of morphemes and syllables,
and it is important for character processing in Chinese (Wang et al., n.d.). The significance of

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syllable awareness is also noteworthy for the development of Chinese language and literacy ac-
quisition, given the salient syllabic structure of the Chinese language (Wang et al., n.d.). Accord-
ing to Roehr (n.d.), metalinguistic awareness is defined by consistent and distinct Aristotelian
classifications that facilitate conscious, rule-governed processing, and involve explicit knowledge
representation. To sum up, it can be stated that metalinguistic awareness is primarily characterised
by two aspects, namely phonological awareness and morphological awareness, as suggested by
Wang et al. (n.d.).
-Example of the tasks that require this function (6 points)
1. Error correction tasks: In these tasks, learners are given sentences containing grammatical or
lexical errors and are asked to identify and correct the mistakes. This requires a conscious under-
standing of the language, its rules, and its structure, which is a demonstration of metalinguistic
awareness (Altman et al., 2018). According to Ranta and Lyster (2017), learners can enhance
their language proficiency and explicit knowledge of the target language by participating in error
correction tasks. 2. Tasks involving the comparison of languages: The learners are instructed to
undertake a comparative analysis of various elements of their mother tongue and the language
they are aiming to acquire. This task may entail scrutinizing resemblances and disparities in syn-
tax, lexicon, or phonology. Through a comparative analysis of languages, individuals can acquire
a more profound comprehension of the framework and regulations of the intended language, thus
exhibiting metalinguistic awareness (Nixon, 2013). This type of task also helps learners to de-
velop their explicit knowledge of the target language, which can contribute to their overall lan-
guage proficiency (Ranta & Lyster, 2017).

Q3. The socio-cultural approach to second language acquisition claimed that L2 learners
need to use certain strategies to avoid misunderstanding. Provide an example of a situation
based on your experience as a second language learner of English through your interaction
with other non-native speakers or native speakers. Provide a transcript of a dialogue in this
regard. Indicate the strategies used in this dialogue by you, the other native speaker and/or
the non-native speaker. (20 points)
Answer (500 words):

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I was in a park with a native-speaker friend, and I wanted to play a game. However, I was not
sure how to explain the rules and I was afraid of being unclear or confusing. Here is a transcript
of the dialogue and the strategies used:
Non-native English Speaker (NNES): Me: Do you want to play a game with me? [Using
question and invitation]
Native English Speaker (NES): Friend: Sure, what kind of game? [Using agreement and
question]
NNES: It’s a word game. It’s very fun and easy. [Using description and evaluation]
NES: Okay, how do you play it? [Using agreement and question]
NNES: Well, you have to guess the word that I’m thinking of. I will give you some clues, like
the first letter, the number of letters, or the category. For example, if I say ‘A, three letters,
animal’, you have to guess ‘ant’. [Using explanation, demonstration and example]
NES: I see. That sounds interesting. [Using expression and evaluation]
NNES: Do you want to try? [Using question and offer]
NES: Yes, please. [Using agreement and politeness marker]
NNES: Okay, let me think of a word. Hmm… B, six letters, fruit. [Using expression and clue]
NES: B, six letters, fruit. Is it banana? [Using repetition and guess]
NNES: Yes, that’s right. You’re very good at this. [Using confirmation and compliment]
NES: Thank you. Your clue was very clear. [Using politeness marker and compliment]
NNES: You’re welcome. Do you want to give me a word now? [Using politeness marker and
question]
NES: Sure, let me think. Okay… C, nine letters, sport. [Using agreement, expression and clue]
NNES: C, nine letters, sport. Is it… baseball? [Using repetition and guess]
NES: No, that’s not it. Baseball has eight letters. [Using negation and hint]
NNES: Hmm… can you give me another clue? [Using expression and request]
NES: Sure. It’s a sport that you play with a racket and a ball. [Using agreement and clue]
NNES: Oh, I know. Is it tennis? [Using expression and guess]
NES: No, tennis has only six letters. Try again. [Using negation and encouragement]
NNES: Oh, right. Sorry. Is it… badminton? [Using expression and guess]
NES: Yes, that’s it. Well done. [Using confirmation and praise]

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NNES: Thank you. That was a good word. [Using politeness marker and compliment]
NES: Thank you. You’re very smart. [Using politeness marker and compliment]
The strategies used in this dialogue are:
• Using questions and invitations to initiate and maintain the interaction
• Using agreement and evaluation to show interest and appreciation
• Using explanation, demonstration and example to clarify the rules and objectives
• Using repetition and guessing to participate in the game and check to understand
• Using confirmation, negation and hints to give feedback and guidance
• Using expression and evaluation to convey emotions and opinions
• Using compliments and praise to encourage and motivate
• Using request and offer to seek or provide help
• Using politeness markers to show respect and courtesy
Q5. Second language acquisition was discussed from different perspectives, namely, the
behaviourist perspective, mentalist perspective, cognitive perspective, generativist
perspective and socio-cultural perspective. Judge which of the theories seems more
prevalent to you as a second language learner. (30 points)

Answer (600-800 words):

Second language acquisition is a complex process that has been studied from various perspec-
tives, including the behaviourist, mentalist, cognitive, generativist, and socio-cultural perspec-
tives. Each of these perspectives offers a unique understanding of how second language acquisi-
tion occurs, and each has its strengths and weaknesses. In this research paper, we will explore
these perspectives in depth, examining the underlying theories and concepts that inform them.
Additionally, we will evaluate which of these perspectives seems more prevalent to second-lan-
guage learners, based on their experiences and observations. By doing so, we hope to contribute
to the ongoing dialogue surrounding second language acquisition and provide valuable insights
for language learners and educators alike.
The behaviourist, mentalist, cognitive, generativist, and socio-cultural perspectives on second
language acquisition (SLA) are all closely interrelated. Behavioural learning theory holds that
learning is a response to stimuli (Lavadenz, n.d.), while a mentalist view posits that language is

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acquired through the internal mental processes of the learner (Whong, n.d.). Cognitive models and
generative approaches have been proposed as an alternative to behaviourist and mentalist views
of language acquisition (Smith, n.d.). Monitor Theory, developed by Stephen Krashen, suggests
that learners are equipped with a language acquisition device (LAD) that is creative and generative
(Carter, n.d.). Generative Approaches focus on the mentalist over the behaviourist dimension of
SLA (Obi, n.d.), and suggest that language is acquired through the internal mental operations and
representations of the learner (Khatib & Sabah, n.d.). In contrast, socio-cultural theories, such as
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory, focus on external factors such as social status, environment, and
other sociopolitical factors which may influence the language learning process (Johnson, n.d.).
Ultimately, the different perspectives on SLA may work together to further our understanding of
how language is acquired.
For instance, the English Language Learner (ELL) has a unique set of strengths and weak-
nesses when it comes to language learning (Solano-Flores, n.d.). But the student learning English
as a foreign language is not always given the right approach in the testing of ELL students (Solano-
Flores, n.d.). To help in this area, this book offers a comprehensive overview of the strengths and
limitations of the different perspectives (Mitchell et al., n.d.). It examines the individual perspec-
tives and provides a summary of their strengths and weaknesses (Larsen-Freeman, n.d.). For ex-
ample, the book looks at how best to involve native speakers in the English language teaching
process (Bayyurt, n.d.), and evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of game-based learning (Chen
et al., n.d.). It also examines the strengths and weaknesses of the second approach of identifying
individuals' learning types (Skehan, n.d.). This approach has its limitations, such as not consider-
ing individual learners' backgrounds (Levy, n.d.). At the same time, the second language acquisi-
tion literature does not approach the problem from the same perspective, making it difficult to
assess an individual's language strengths and weaknesses (Valdés, n.d.).
Although there is no specific information in the text that could point out which perspectives
seem more prevalent to a second language learner (Cao, n.d.), it is possible to assume that the
approach that is more likely to identify the individual strengths and weaknesses of each learner is
the more preferable one. This second approach utilizes interviews that are not completely struc-
tured, and although this method has its limitations, it is still more likely to consider each learner's
characteristics and thus be more suitable for them. This is a more personalized approach which

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looks at the individual's motivations, interests, and learning styles and is based on the teacher
recognizing the students’ needs to create a learning environment that is suitable for them. There-
fore, it is likely that this approach is more prevalent for second language learners, as it is tailored
to their individual needs and can help them progress in their learning more quickly.
The topic of second language acquisition has been approached from various perspectives,
including the behaviourist, mentalist, cognitive, generativist, and socio-cultural perspectives.
Each of these approaches has its strengths and weaknesses when it comes to understanding how
individuals acquire a second language. Cognitive models and generative approaches have been
proposed as alternatives to the traditional behaviourist and mentalist views of language acquisi-
tion. This is because these approaches focus on the internal mental processes of the learner, rather
than the external stimuli or environmental factors. However, the socio-cultural perspective, which
emphasizes the role of social status, environment, and other sociopolitical factors in language
learning, may be more suitable for second language learners. This approach considers individual
characteristics, such as motivations, interests, and learning styles, and creates a personalized learn-
ing environment that is tailored to the needs of each learner. Although the research paper does not
provide specific information on which perspective is more prevalent for second language learners,
the approach that identifies individual strengths and weaknesses likely is the preferable one. This
discussion highlights the importance of considering multiple perspectives when studying second
language acquisition and suggests that a personalized approach may be more effective for learners
in the long run. Further experiment and investigation may be needed to explore the effectiveness
of each approach in different learning contexts and with different groups of learner.

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