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c
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fs>
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m) F (r ) 4
r=
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j`>
Bjdj fg bldpj f` fg bj`kubtjr sf l`ugl y gl blril q < fst»l lg bf`trj kf gl blvcklk, gl kf`scklk
supfrbclg f` R < sf kcstrcmuy
kcstrcmuyff bj` scdftr
scdftr»»ļl fso» rcbl y gl blril c`kubckl tjtlg fs q < . Xjr tl`tj,
ffrcbl ∝
`j sf if`fr
if`frll oufr
oufrzl
zl sjmrf gl blril f` gl bl
blvcklk
vcklk.. Xjr jtrl plrtf
plrtf,, fg bldpj fg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj f` gl blv
blvcklk
cklk
bjrrfspj`kf sjgldf`tf fg bldpj brflkj pjr q < , y pjr gj tl`tj `lkl elbf oufrzl sjmrf q < . Ls»ļ,ļ, gl
sjgubc»jj`
` bjrrfbtl fs>
O
O 4 8 @
Xrjmgfdl <.<2.
Bj`sckfrf `ufvldf`tf gl bj`iurlbc»jj` ` kfsbrctl f` fg Xrjmgfdl <.<=. [jdl`kj bjdj rfofrf`bcl fg pj-
tf`bclg f` c``ctj ciulg l bfrj, gl supfrbcf R < fst»l l pjtf`
pjtf`bclg
bclg fg»fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj ciulg l>
\ + q < + q =
+ q
l) _
_ 4
;ψζ 8 l
\ q < q =
m) _
_ 4 ;ψζ 8 l + ;ψζ 8 ]< + ;ψζ8 ]=
b) _
_ 4
\ ∝ q ∝ q
< =
;ψζ 8 l
<=
\
k) _
_ 4
;ψζ 8 l
\ + q < + q
+ q =
f) _
_ 4
∝ ∝
;ψζ 8 (l ]< ]= )
Rjgubc»
j`>
c`tfr`ls R < y R = sf kfpjsctl` q < y q = rfspfbtcvldf`tf. Rjmrf gl supfrbcf
Rjmrf gls supfrbcfs c`tfr`ls
fxtfr`l R sf
fxtfr`l blril \ + q < + q = bj` scdf
sf kfpjsctl f`tj`bfs u`l blril \ ∝ scdftr
tr»»ļl fso»ffrcbl.
∝ rcbl . Kfsk
Kfskff oufrl sf vf bj
bjdj
dj
u`l blril pu`tulg f` fg jrcif`, pjr gj tl`tj>
\ + q < + q
+ q + q =
_ 4
_
;ψζ 8l
Xrjmgfdl <.<;.
Kjs blsb
blsblrj
lrj`fs
`fs fso»ffrcbjs
rcb js bj`b»ff`trcbjs
`trc bjs fst»ll`
` l pjtf`
pjtf`bclgfs fbtrcbjs _ < y _ = (tjdldjs bjdj rfofrf`bcl
bclgfs fg»fbtrcbjs
quf fg pjtf`bclg f` c``ctj fs bfrj). Fg rlkcj kfg blsblr»jj` fs l y fg rlkcj kfg blsblr»jj`
` c`tfrcjr fs ` fxtfrcjr
fs =l. Ldmjs blsblrj`fs pjsff` u` irjsjr kfsprfbclmgf.
Gl blril f` fg blsblr»j`
j` c`tfrcjr fs>
k) \< 4 8 B
<2
Rjgubc»
j`>
F`tj`bfs r= 4=l
4=l < <
CC kr 4 \< ∝ 5 ψζ
\
ˏ <
_ = ∝ _ 4 ∝
< F ¹ ;ψζ8 r=
∝ r<
4
8 l
r< 4l
Xjr tl`tj,
\< 4 5ψζ 8 l(_ < ∝ _ ) =
Xrjmgfdl <.<6.
Bj`sckfrf gl sctulbc»jj`
` fxpufstl fg Xrjmgfdl <.<;. Gl blril f` fg blsblr»jj`
` fxtfrcjr fs>
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl <.<?.
@ufvldf`tf bj`sckfrf gl sctulbc»jj` ` fxpufstl f` fg Xrjmgfdl <.<;. Fg trlmlnj `fbfslrcj plrl ggfvlr u`l
blril q kfskf
blril q kfskf c``ctj elstl fg bf`trj kf gls fsofrls fs>
l) Y
Y 4 q (_ < + _
+ _ = )
<;
m) Y ∝ _ )
Y 4 q (_ = <
Y 4 ∝q (_ ∝ _ )
b) Y = <
Y 4 q_ <
k) Y
f) Y
Y 4 8 N
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fg blsblr»jj`
` c`tfrcjr fst»l l pjtf`bclg _ < . Xlrl r
pjtf`bclg _ Xlrl r 7 l `j ely jtrls blrils y pjr gj tl`tj fg pjtf`bclg
y _ 4 _ < plrl
`j bldmcl y _ r 7 l
plrl r l.. Bjdj fg trlmlnj fs ∝
Y 4 q (_ `lg _ c`cbclg
fs Y c`cbclg ), fg rfsugtlkj bjrrfbtj>
Y 4 q_
q _ <
Xrjmgfdl <.<9.
@ufvldf`tf bj`sckfrf gl sctulbc»jj` ` fxpufstl f` fg Xrjmgfdl <.<;. Fg trlmlnj `fbfslrcj plrl ggfvlr u`l
blril q
blril kfskf gl fsofrl c`tfr`l kf rlkcj
q kfskf rlkcj l elstl u`l pjscbc»j`
j` oufrl kf gls fsofrls
fsofrls r 4 2l fs>
q
l) Y
Y 4 (=_ (=_ = 2_ < )
2 ∝
q
Y 4 (_ = + =_
m) Y = _ < )
2
q
b) Y
Y 4 (= (=_ _ = _ < )
∝
?
q
k) Y
Y 4 ∝ (2
(2_ _ = =_ < )
∝
=
Y 4 ∝q ((2_
f) Y 2_ + _
+ _ )
= <
Rjgubc»
j`>
trlmlnj Y
Fg trlmlnj Y 4 q _ (2l
(2l) ∝ _ (
_ (l) Rlmfdjs _ (
. Rlmfdjs _ (l) 4 _ < . S loufrl fg pjtf`bclg fs fg kf u`l blril
vlgf _ = f` r
pu`tulg, y vlgf _ f` r 4
4 =l, kf djkj quf loufrl pjkfdjs fsbrcmcr>
=l
_ 4 _ = ,
_ r 0 =l
=l
r
Xrjmgfdl <.<5.
j` kf blril> u` pgl`j c``ctj bj` kf`scklk u`cojrdf ς umcblkj f`
Bj`sckfrf gl sciucf`tf kcstrcmubc»j`
pgl`j U S
fg pgl`j S y u` lgldmrf kfgilkj kf glrij c``ctj bj` kf`scklk u`cojrdf kf blril α pfrpf`kcbuglr
lg pgl`j (quf ltrlvcfsl fg pgl`j pjr u` jrcbcj kf tldl˗` fnf ^
`jj kfsprfbclmgf). Fgcnl fg fnf ^ kf djkj quf
bjc`bckl bj` fg lgldmrf. Fg trlmlnj `fbfslrcj plrl ggfvlr u`l blril q kfskf fg pu`tj (<,(<, 8, <) elstl fg
(=, 8, =) fs>
pu`tj (=,
<6
q
l) Y
Y 4 (α g`= + ψς
+ ψς))
=ψζ8
q
m) Y
Y 4 ∝ =ψζ8
(α g`= + ψς
+ ψς))
q
b) Y
Y 4
=ψζ8
∝
(α g` = ψς ψς))
q
k) Y
Y 4 (α g` = ψς
ψς))
∝ =ψζ8 ∝
q
f) Y
Y 4 (α g` = =ψς
∝ ψς))
ψζ 8
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fg bldpj fg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj fs gl sudl f`trf fg bldpj quf prjkubf fg lgld
lgldmrf
mrf y fg bldpj quf prjkubf fg
pgl`j>
4 α όˏ + ς a
F ˏ
=ψζ8 r =ζ8
Fg trlmlnj fs
(=
(=,,8,=)
Y 4 q (_ oo
Y _ c ) 4 q kr
F
∝ ∝ ˏ (<
(<,,8,<) ¹
[jdldjs fg sciucf`tf bldc`j>
Xrjmgfdl <.<3.
Bj`sckfrf gl bj`iurlbc»jj` ` kf blrils kf gl iurl. Blkl u`l kf gls blrils fst»ll` ` sfplrlkls pjr u`l
kcstl`bcl k kf gls jtrls. Fg trlmlnj `fbfslrcj plrl gjirlr fstl bj`iurlbc»jj`,
kcstl`bcl `, sc c`cbclgdf`tf gls blrils
fstlml` c``ctldf`tf sfplrlkls gls u`ls kf gls jtrls, fs>
<?
6q =
l) Y
Y 4
;ψζ8 k
6q =
m) Y
Y 4
=ψζ8 k
6q =
b) Y
Y 4
5ψζ8 k
6q =
k) Y
Y 4
<?
<?ψζ
ψζ 8 k
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Gl f`fri
f`fri»»ļl lgdlbf`lkl f` fstl bj`iurlbc» j`,
j`, quf fqucvlgf lg trlmlnj rflgczlkj plrl lrdlr kcbel
bj`iurlbc» jj`,
`, fs>
< q < q = q < q 2 q = q 2
Y 4
Y + +
;ψζ 8 r<= r<2 r=2
Xrjmgfdl <.=8.
Kjs l`cggj
l`cggjss ck»ff`tcbjs
`tcbjs ((duy
duy kfgil
kfgilkjs) rlkcjj l,
kjs) kf rlkc l, blrilkjs u`cojrdfdf`tf bj` blrils \
blrils \< y \
y \= , sf bjgjbl`
kcstl`bcl l kf sfplrlbc»j`,
bjlxclgdf`tf l u`l kcstl`bcl j`, bjdj sf dufstrl f` gl iurl. Blgbugf fg trlmlnj efbej
pjr u` lif`tf fxtfr`j plrl djvfr u`l blril q kfskf q kfskf fg bf`trj kfg l`cggj bj` \
bj` \ < lg bf`trj kfg l`cggj bj`
\= .
<9
q (\< + \
+ \= )
∝ ∞
< =
l)
;ψζ8 l
∞ =
∝
q (\< \= )
∝ ∞
< =
m)
;ψζ 8 l
∞ =
∝
q (\< \= )
∞
<+ =
b)
;ψζ 8 l
∞ =
+ \= )
q (\< + \
∞
<+
k)
;ψζ8 l
∞ = =
f) @j sf pufkf kftf
kftfrdc`lr
rdc`lr bj` fstjs
fstjs kltjs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rc pf`sldjs quf fg bf`trj kfg l`cggj bj` \< bjc`bckf bj` fg jrcif` kf gjs fnfs blrtfscl`js, f`tj`bfs
fg pjtf`bclg fg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj rflgczlkj pjr fstf l`cggj f` u` pu`tj X l
pu`tj X kcstl`bcl x f` fg fnf kf scd
l u`l kcstl`bcl x scdftr
ftr»»ļl
fs>
< \<
Ϗ\ (x) 4 <
;ψζ 8 x= + l= ∞
F` fg blsj kfg sfiu`kj l`cggj, fg pjtf`bclg f` fg dcsdj pu`tj X
X mlnj
mlnj gls dcsdls bj`kcbcj`fs fs>
< \<
Ϗ\ (x) 4
=
∝
;ψζ 8 (x l)= + l=
<5
<5
Xrjmgfdl <.=<.
Gl iurl dufstrl u` bulkrlkj kf glrij Gglrij G,, ojrdlkj pjr bc`bj blrils pjsctcvls ciulgfs kf dli`ctuk \
dli`ctuk \ f`
f`
u` pgl`j ejrczj`tlg (bultrj f` gjs v»ffrtcbfs
rtcbfs y u`l quc`tl f` fg bf`trj kfg bulkrlkj). V`l blril p pjsctcv
jsctcvl,
l,
dli`ctuk q y
kf dli`ctuk q
∞ dlsl d sf c`trjkubf l u`l lgturl e
y dlsl d lgturl e pjr
pjr f`bcdl kfg bf`trj kfg bulkrlkj. Rupj`il quf
G 4 ?e. ºBu»lg blril q fst»
lg kf gls sciucf`tfs rfglbcj`fs fs bjrrfbtl bul`kj gl blril q fst»l f` fqucgcmrcj: Bj`sckfrf
` kf gl irlvfklk scdpgfdf`tf bjdj i.
l gl lbfgfrlbc»jj` i .
=ψζ 8e= di
l) \ 4
2q
=
8
m) \ 4 ;ψζ e di
2q
?ψζ 8e= di
b) \ 4
2q
5ψζ 8e= di
k) \ 4
2q
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Gl
v» scdft
scdftr
ffrtcbfs
rtcbfs r»ļlbul
kfg kfgkrlkj
prjmg
prjmgfdl
bulkrlkj fdlllpu`tl`
sjgj `js c`kcb
c`kcbl
pu`tl` f`l gl
quf
kc gjs bldpjs
kcrfbbc»j` ˏ
rfbbc»
j` fg»
fg»ffbtrcbjs
a, pufs btrcbjs
gls jtrlsprjkubc
prjkubckjs
kjs pjrsfgls
bjdpj`f`tfs blril
blrils
l`ugl` s f` bj`
u`ls gjs
jtrls, bjdj c`kcbl gl iurl>
<3
Rfl μ fg »ll`iugj
Rfl `iugj c`kcblkj f` gl iurl, quf `js lyuklr»l l f`bj`trlr gl bjdpj`f`tf F z kfg bldpj
fg»fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj tjtlg. Rc kf`jtldj
kf`jtldjss p
pjr
jr K gl kcstl`bcl
K gl kcst l`bcl f`trf gls bl
blrils
rils f` gjs v»ffrtcbfs
rtcbfs y gl blri
blrill q , f`tj`bfs>
F z 4 ; ; ψζ
¹ < K \= bjs μ
8
Vsl`kj gls p
prjpcfklk
rjpcfklkfs
fs ifj
ifjd»
d»ftrcbls
ftrcbls kfg p
prjmgfdl,
rjmgfdl,
= G =
= = ?e= e e <
K 4 e + 4 e + 4 ;e= , bjs μ 4 4 4
= = K =e =
y pjr tl`tj>
\ <
F z 4
;ψζ8 =e=
F 4 F z +
< \
4
\
< <
+ =
4
\ 2
;ψζ 8 e= ;ψζ 8 =e = e ;ψζ 8 =e=
Ciulgl`kj oufrzls,
2\q 5ψζ8 e= di
di 4
di qF 4
4 qF ∝↝ \ 4
5ψζ 8 e= 2q
Xrjmgfdl <.==.
V`l blril pu`tulg pjsctcvl kf dli`ctuk q sf
sf f`buf`
f`buf`trl
trl f` fg v»ffrtcbf
rtcbf kf u`l sfbbc»
jj`
` fso»ffrcbl,
rcbl , bjdj sf
◯
dufstrl f` gl iurl. Gjs pgl`js vfrtcblgfs kf gl sfbbc»jj`
` fso»ffrcbl
rcbl ojrdl` u` »ll`iugj
`iugj kf ?8 . ºBu»llgg fs fg
unj fg»fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj quf ltrlvcfsl gl sfbbc»jj`
` fs
fso»
o»ffrcb
r cbl:
l:
=8
q
l)
;ζ8
q
m)
5ζ8
q
b)
<?ζ8
<?ζ
q
k)
2=ζ8
2=ζ
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl <.=2.
[rfs blsb
blsblrj
kf`scklkfs lrj`fs
`fsblril
kf fso»ffrcbjs
rcbj
+ςs, bj`b»
+ς ς, yff`trcbjs
∝ `trcb
+ς ,js L, M y B , kf fspfsjrfs
rfspfbtcvldf`tf, kfsprfbclmgfs,
bjdj dufstrl gl iurl.pjsff` rlkcjs l, m L
Rc gjs blsblrj`fs
blsblrj`fs y yb B
y
fst»ll`
` lg dcsdj pjtf`bclg, ºbu»llgg fs gl rfglbc»jj` ` f`trf
f`trf l l,, m y b:
b :
l) l 4 m
4 m + b
=<
m) l 4 m∝b
4 m
b) l 4 ∝m + b
+ b
k) l 4 ∝m ∝ b
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rlmfdjs, pjr gl gfy kf Iluss, quf fg bldpj fg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj kf u` blsblr»jj`
` fso»ffrcbj
rcb j kf rlk
rlkcj ] y
cj ] y kf`scklk
blril ς fs
supfrbclg kf blril
=
< ;ψ] = ς
F 4 ˏ
ό 4
ς
]
ˏ
ό ∈r 0 ]
;ψζ 8 r = ζ8 r
ς l=
ζ8 r = όˏ
l7r7m
tjtlg
F tjtlg 4
ς l= m= ∝
ˏ m7r7b
ζ8 r =
ό
ς l= ∝m =
+ b=
ˏ b7r
ό
ζ8 r=
Lejrl, blgbugldjs ldmjs pjtf`bclgfs tjdl`kj bjdj rfofrf`bcl fg c``ctj l pjtf`bclg `ugj>
ˏ b ˏ ∐
_
_ ((b) 4 ∝ ¹ kr 4
F kr
F ¹
∐ b
= = =
ς(l ∝ m + b )
ˏ ∐
kr
4
ζ8 b r=
=
m= + b= )
4
ς (l ∝
<
ζ8 b
ˏ l ˏ ∐
_
_ ((l) 4 ∝ kr 4
F ¹ ¹ kr
F
∐ l
= = =
ς (l= =
+ b= )
4
ςl
∝
< <
+
ς(l ∝ m ) < <
∝
+
ς( ∝m
<
ζ8 l m ζ m b 8 ζ8 b
==
Ciulgl`kj y scdpgcbl`kj,
l=
∝
< <
( l=
+ (l =
∝m )
∝
< <
4 8
l m m b
l = m =
l ∝m∝ + 4 8
b b
l= m=
∝l m 4 ∝ b
l + m
< 4
b
y, pjr tl`tj,
l + m 4
m 4 b
b
Xrjmgfdl <.=;.
Rf tcf`f u` dfkcj l`cggj kf rlkcj ] bj` kf`scklk gc`flg kf blril
blril α bj`stl`tf. Kftfrdc`f gl dli`ctuk
kfg bldp
bldpjj fg»fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj f` fg pu`tj J kf gl iurl>
pu`tj J
y
α
x
J
]
α
l) F 4
;ψζ 8 ]
α
m) F 4
5ψζ 8 ]
α
b) F 4
?ψζ 8 ]
α
k) F 4
=ψζ 8 ]
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
=2
Rjgubc»
j`>
ψ
F` fstf blsj, 8 y ]
blsj, r 4 4 ] ˏ
4 ] ό, bj`
=
≫ ε ≫ 2=ψ . Ls klkjj quf kq
Ls»»ļ, y klk kq 4 α] kε,
4 α] kε,
(r) 4 <
F
ˏ 2ψ/
ψ/==
∝ ] ) 4 ∝ α ˏ
kq ((r
kq 2ψ/=
ψ/=
ˏ kε
ό
;ψζ 8 ψ/
ψ/== r ∝ ] 2;ψζ ] 8 ψ/=
ψ/=
(r) 4 α 2ψ/
ˏ ψ/==
α
ˏ
2ψ/
ψ/== 2ψ/=
ˏ ψ/=
α
F ∝ ;ψζ 8 ]
ˏ kε 4
ό kε 4 ∝ ;ψζ8 ]
bjs ε kε ˏļ + sc` ε kε ˏ 4
=ψζ 8 ]
ˏ
ļ
ψ/
ψ/== ψ/
ψ/== ψ/=
ψ/=
Xrjmgfdl <.=6.
V`l blril sf f`buf`trl f` u`l fsquc`l kf u` bumj kf lrcstl G,
G , bjdj c`kcbl gl iurl. ºBu»llgg fs fg unj
fg»fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj quf plsl pjr gl blrl ircs kf fstf bumj:
q
q
l) ίf 4 <?ζζ8
<?
q
m) ίf 4
5ζ8
q
b) ίf 4
;ζ8
q
k) ίf 4
2=ζζ8
2=
q
f) ίf 4
=;ζζ8
=;
Rjgubc»
j`>
F` vfz kf rflgczlr lgiu`l c`tfirlg, lmjrklrfdjs fstf prjmgfdl kfskf u`l pfrspfbtcvl bulgctltcvl
utcgczl`kj
utcgczl`kj lriud
lriudf`
f`tjs
tjs kf scdf
scdftr
tr»»ļl. Bj`s
Bj`sckfrf
ckfrfdjs
djs quf `uf
`ufstrl
strl blril sf f`bu
f`buf`t
f`trl
rl f` fg bf`
bf`trj
trj kf
=;
Xjr jtrl plrtf, jmsfrvf quf gl pjrbc»jj` ` kf unj quf vcf`f kf gl blril `j ltrlvcfsl gls blrls kfg bumj
quf tjbl` gl blril. Rjgj u` jbtlvj kfg unj tjtlg ltrlvcfsl gls blrls kf blkl u`j kf gjs bumjs kf
G.. F`tj`bfs, pjr blkl u`l kf gls trfs blrls jpufstls l gl blril ely u` tfrbcj kfg unj f` blkl
lrcstl G
lrcstl
bumj, pufstj quf gls jtrls trfs blrls (lkylbf(lkylbf`tfs
`tfs l gl blril) sj` plrlgfgls lg bldpj fg»ffbtrcbj,
btrcbj, y bj`
fggj `j ely unj l trlv
trlv»»fs
fs kf fggls. Fstf lriudf`tj tldmc»ff` ` `js ggfv
ggfvll l gl bj`bgusc»
jj`
` kf quf fg unj
q
l trlv»fs
fs kf gl blrl dlrblkl fs .
=;ζζ8
=;
Xrjmgfdl <.=?.
Bj`sckfrf
Bj`sckfrf gl sciuc
sciucf`
f`tf
tf kf`s
kf`scklk
cklk kf blril fxprfs
fxprfslkl
lkl f` bjjrkf`
bjjrkf`lkls
lkls blrtf
blrtfscl`ls
scl`ls>>
x= + y = + z =
ό(x,y,z ) 4 ό8
l=
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| | ∝ ∞ z + ] ) ∝ ] ∞ z + ]
k) _ (8,
(8, 8, z ) 4 +
=z = ( z = = = = =
?ζ8]=
ς8 = = = = = =
f) _ (8,
(8, 8, z ) 4 =
?ζ8 ] =z ( z +
∝ | | ∞ zz + ] ) + ]
+ ] ∞ zz + ]
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rfl`>
r 4
4 z a ]
z ˏ 4 r ˏ
4 r ό kq 4 ς
4 ς((r ) kL
kL 4 ς((r )r kr kε
4 ς
Bj` fggj,
=ψ ]
< kq
ˏ ˏ
_ (
_ (r) 4
;ψζ 8 8 8 r ]
∝
]
ς8 r 2 kr
4 t 4
(Rfl t
(Rfl r = )
4 r
8 = = =
ˏ
=ζ ] ˏ 8 ∞ r + z
]=
ς
4
;ζ8 ]=
8
∞ tt +kt z =
8
ς8 ∞
= =
]=
4 (t ∝ =z ) t + z
?ζ8 ]= 8
ς8 =
∞ = = = =
4 (] ∝ =z ) ] + z + =z =z |z |
?ζ8 ]=
ς8 =
∞ ∞
= = = =
4 =z (|z | ∝ ] + z ) + ]
+ ] ] + z =
?ζ8 ]=
Xrjmgfdl <.;8.
Bj`sckfrf u`l fsofrl bj`kubtjrl bj` blril \ y rlkcj rlkcj ]< , rjkflkl pjr u` blsblr»jj`` fso»ffrcbj
rcb j bj`k
bj`kubtj
ubtjrr
bj`b»
bj` b»ff`trcbj.
`trcb j. Kcbej blsb
blsblr»
lr»jj`
` fs `futrj y pjsff u` rlkcj c`tfr`j
c`tfr`j ] ]= y u` rlkcj fxtfr`j ]
fxtfr`j ]2 (]
(]< 7 ]= 7 ]2 ).
ºBu»lg
lg fs gl f`fri
f`fri»»ļl lgdlbf`lkl f` fg scstfdl:
\=
l)
∝ <
+
<
+
<
]< ]= ]2 ;ψζ 8
\=
m)
∝ < <
+
<
]< ]= ]2 5ψζ 8
< < < \=
b)
]< + ]= ∝ ]2
5ψζ 8
\=
k)
<
∝ <
+
<
]< ]= ]2 ;ψζ 8
29
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl <.;<.
Kjs bcgc`krj `trcbjs kf rlkcjs l y m (l 7 m) y glrij
bcgc`krjss bj`b»ff`trcbjs glrij G m fst»ll`
` blrilkjs bj` blrils
≡ ∝\ f` fg
+\ f` fg fxtfrcjr. ºBu»lg
bcgc`krj c`tfrcjr y +\ lg fs gl blplbctl`bcl kfg scstfdl:
l) ;ψζ8 G
m/l))
g`(m/l
g`(
m) ;ψζ 8 G g`(m/l))
g`(m/l
b) =ψζ 8 G g`(m/l))
g`(m/l
=ψζ8 G
k)
m/l))
g`(m/l
g`(
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xlrl jmtf
Xlrl jmtf`fr
`fr gl blplb
blplbcklk,
cklk, kfmfdjs prcdf
prcdfrj
rj jmtf
jmtf`fr
`fr fg bldpj fg» fg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj f` bulgq
bulgqucfr
ucfr plrtf f` gl
rfic»jj`
` f`trf ldmjs bj`kubtjrfs. Kfmckj l gl scdftr
scdftr»»ļl bcg»
bcg»ļ`krcbl kfg scstfdl, fgficdjs pjr supfrbcf
25
ilusscl`l u` bcgc
ilusscl`l bcgc`krj
`krj bjlxclg bj` gj`ict
gj`ictuk ℒ 7 G y rlkcj l
uk ℒ rlkcj l 7 r 7 m.
m. Vsl`kj gl gfy kf Iluss, bj` u`
bldpj rlkclg
rlkclg,, tf`f
tf`fdjs
djs
q ff`b
`b =ψlℒς lς
ίf 4 F ((r )=
4 F ψℒr 4
)=ψℒr 4
ζ8
4
ζ8
∝↝ F (r ) 4
ζ8 r
Xrjmgfdl <.;=.
V` bcgc
bcgc`krj
`krj bj`ku
bj`kubtjr
btjr euf
eufbj
bj fs bjgjblk
bjgjblkjj f`
f`trf
trf kjs irl`k
irl`kfs
fs pglbl
pglblss plrlgf
plrlgfgls
gls kf blril jpufstl. º\u
º\u»»f
iurl rfprfsf`
rfprfsf`tl
tl dfnjr gls g»ļ`fls fqucpjtf`bclgfs lrl fstl sctulbc»
jj`:
`:
Ociurl L
l) Ociurl
Ociurl M
m) Ociurl
Ociurl B
b) Ociurl
Ociurl K
k) Ociurl
Ociurl F
f) Ociurl
23
Xrjmgfdl <.;2.
Gl iurl dufstrl gls g»ļ`fls kf bldpj prjkubckls pjr ; blrils pu`tulgfs
pu`tulgfs.. Kftfrdc`f sc>
Xrjmgfdl <.;;.
Rf tcf`f u`l mlrrl kf gj`ictuk l f` gl pjscbc»j` j` quf sf dufstrl f` gl iurl lmlnj. Gl mlrrl tcf`f u`l
pjsctcvl \ u`cojrdfdf`tf
blril pjsctcvl \ u`cojrdfdf`tf kcstrcmuckl sjmrf fggl. V`l blril pu`tulg pjsctcvl q sf
sf f`buf`trl l u`l
kcstl`bcl l + r
kcstl`bcl + r kfg fnf U ,, bjdj dufstrl gl iurl. Gl oufrzl quf scf`tf gl blril
kfg jrcif` sjmrf fg fnf U q fs>
blril q
y
l r
x
\ q
q\ <
l) O
4
O ˏ
ļ
;ψζ 8 (r + l/=)=
+ l/=)
m) O
4
O ∝ ; q\
ψζ
<
8 (r + l/=)=
+ l/=)
ˏ
ļ
b) O
O
4 ∝ ; q\
ψζ (r ∝ <l/
8 =) ˏļ
l/=) =
q\ <
k) O
4
O ˏ
ļ
;ψζ 8 r(l + r
r))
;8
q\ <
f) O
4
O ˏ
ļ
;ψζ 8 r(l r ) ∝
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rfl`>
\
r 4 (l + r ļ ]
r)) ˏ 4 x ˏ
4 x ļ, x ∅ Q8,
Q8, lT kq 4
4 kx
l
Fg bldpj fg»fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj if`frlkj pjr
p jr gl mlrrl f` fg pu`tj f` quf sf umcbl gl blril pu`tulg fs>
(r ) 4 <
F
ˏ l
∝ ] ) 4 \ ˏ
kq (r l
kx
ˏ
ļ 4
\
l
ļ 4
ˏ
\ <
ˏ
ļ
;ψζ 8 8 r ∝ ] ;ψζ l
2 8 8 (l + r x)=
∝ ;ψζ 8 l (l + r)
r )r ;ψζ 8 (l + r)
r )r
Oc`lgdf`tf,
4 q F
4 q\ <
O
O 4 ˏ
ļ
;ψζ 8 (l + r
+ r))r
Xrjmgfdl <.;6.
Rf tcf`f` kjs blrils `filtcvls \ nls f` kjs v»ffrtcbfs
∝rtcbfs kf u` bulkrlkj kf glkj
glkj G G,, bjdj sf dufstrl f`
gl iurl. [ldmc» ff`
` sf tcf`f u`l blril pjsctcvl + +\\ quf sf pufkf djvfr sjmrf gl kclij`lg kfg bulkrlkj,
kcstl`bcl k kfg pu`tj
l u`l kcstl`bcl pu`tj X .
X . Kftfrdc`f fg vlgjr kf
kf k plrl quf fg bldpj fg»
ffbtrcbj pu`tj X
btrcbj f` fg pu`tj X sfl
bfrj>
∝\
G
X
k
G G
+\
G ∝\
l) k 4 G (=)</;
4 G(=)
m) k 4 G
4 G =
∞
G
b) k 4 ∞
=
</;
k) k 4 G
4 G
<=
=
f) k 4 G
4 G ∞ 2
;<
Rjgubc»
j`>
2 (X ) \
F X ) 4 ∝ bjs ε ˏ
ļ + sc` ε
ˏ
;ψζ 8 k=
kj`kf ε 4
kj`kf ε ψ//;. Fs o»llbcg
4 ψ bcg vfr quf, p
plrl
lrl u` bldpj fg»fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj tjtlg `ugj f` X ,, sf kfmf budpgcr gl sciucf`tf
f` X
rfglbc»
jj`>
`>
</;
\ < \ <
4 k 4 G
4 G
;ψζ G = =
8
∞
= ;ψζ k8 ∝↝ =
Xrjmgfdl <.;?.
V` blsblr»jj`
` bcg
bcg»»ļ`krcbj kf glrij c``ctj
c``ctj,, bj` kf`scklk vjgud»fftrcbl `fl ό,, rlkcj c`tfrcjr
trcbl kf blril ejdji»ff`fl ό
=l y rlkcj fxtfrcjr ;l ;l fs umcblkj f` fg jrcif` kfg pgl`j U
pgl`j U S bj`
S bj` su fnf l gj glrij kfg fnf ^
fnf ^ .. Lkfd»lls,s, pjr
(8, l, 8) plsl u` lgldmrf c``ctj pfrpf`kcbuglr lg pgl`j U S (plrlgfgj
fg pu`tj (8, S (plrlgfgj lg fnf
fnf ^ ) bj` kf`scklk
kf blril gc`flg α bjdj fs djstrlkj f` gl iurl. ºBu»llgg kfmcfsf sfr gl rfglbc»jj` f`trf α y ό plrl quf fg
` f`trf
bldpjj fg»fbtrcbj
bldp pu`tj X
fbtrcbj f` fg pu`tj X 4 (8
(8,, 2l, 8) sfl bfrj:
y
X
α
x
=l
;l
α
l)
ό
4 ∝ 6; ψl =
m) α 4 ∝ ;2 ψl =
ό
α
b) ψ l=
4 ψl
ό
;=
α
k) 4 <8ψl =
<8ψl
ό
f)
α
ό
4 ∝ <82 ψl =
Rjgubc»
j`>
Lpgcbl`kj
G, rlkcj r 4 2l (quf bjrrfspj`kf lg pu`tj
gl gfy kf Iluss sjmrf u` bcgc`krj kf rlkcj pu`tj X )
X ) y glrij
=ψόG 2l 6όψl= G 6lό
ˏ F
b (X )
=ψ(2
(2ll)G F b (X )
X ) 4 r kr
kr 4
4 ∝↝ X ) 4 ˏ
ζ8 =l ζ8 ?ζ8
Fg bldpj fg»fbtrcbj,
fbtrcbj, kfmckj lg lgldmrf c``ctj, f` fg pu`tj X fs>
pu`tj X
l (X ) α
F X ) 4 ˏ
=ψζ 8 (=l)
(=l
∝
pufstj quf gl kcstl`bcl f`trf fg pu`tj y fg lgldmrf fs 2 l l 4 =l. Gl dli`ctuk tjtlg kfg bldpj
f` X ,, pjr gj quf sf kfmf budpgcr gl sciucf`tf rfglbc»jj`>
kfmf sfr `ugj f` X `>
6lό + α 4 8 ∝↝ α 4 ∝ <82 ψl =
?ζ8 ;ψζ 8l ό
Xrjmgfdl <.;9.
blril \ pjsctcvl sf f`buf`trl kf`trj kf u`l fsofrl bjdj f` gl iurl. º\u»f sf pufkf kfbcr lbfrbl
V`l blril
kfg unj kfg bldpj fg»fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj f` gjs efdcsofrcjs `jrtf y sur: @j bj`sckfrf gls tlpls kf gjs efdcsofrcjs.
@jrtf
Xrjmgfdl <.;5.
V` bj`kubtjr fso» ffrcbj rlkcj ] tcf`f u`l blvcklk vlb
rcbj rfggf`j y `futrlg kf rlkcj rcbl kf rlkcj ]/
vlb»»ļl fso»ffrcbl ]/=.
=. Fg
bf`trj kf gl blvcklk fst»l kfspglzlkj kfg bf`trj kfg bj`kubtjr pjr ]/]/;; f` kcrfbbc»jj` ` pjsctcvl kfg fnf U ..
fnf U
Rf bjgjbl u`l blril \ f` fg bf`trj kfg bj`kubtjr, bjdj dufstrl gl iurl. ºBul`tj vlgf gl dli`ctuk
fbtrcbj l u`l kcstl`bcl =] f` kcrfbbc»jj`
kfg bldpj fg»fbtrcbj ` pjsctcvl kfg fnf U (pu`tj
fnf U (pu`tj X ):
X ):
\ =]
Ù X
]/=
]
(X \
l) F
X )) 4
ψζ 8 ]=
(X \
m) F
X )) 4
=ψζ8 ]=
(X \
b) F
X )) 4
;ψζ8 ]=
(X \
k) F
X )) 4
ψζ 8 ]=
<?ψζ
<?
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
]fbjrkfdjs quf bulgqucfr blril lg c`tfrcjr kf u`l blvcklk vlb vlb»»ļl f` u` bj`kubtjr sfr»l vcstl kfskf
oufrll bjdj u`l blril pu`
oufr pu`tulg
tulg gjblgcz
gjblgczlkl
lkl f` fg jrcif`
jrcif`.. Ls
Ls»»ļ, fg bldpj fg» fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj oufr
oufrll kf gl fsof
fsofrl
rl
bj`kubtjrl sfr»ll,, scdpgfdf`tf,
4 \ όˏ
F
;ψζ 8 r=
((=] \
F =]) 4 ˏ
ļ
<?ψζ 8 ]=
<?ψζ
Xrjmgfdl <.;3.
V` blsblr»jj` rcbj tcf`f u` rlkcj c`tfrcjr ]< 4 < d y u` rlkc
` fso»ffrcbj rlkcjj fxtfrcjrr ]= 4 2 d. Fg blsb
fxtfrcj blsblrj
lrj`
` fs u`
∝ 2 ∝
lcsgl`tf bj` u`l kf`scklk kf blril `ftl pjsctcvl ό 4 <85 <8 <8 B/d . Lprjxcdl`kj ζ
pjsctcvl ό 4 Ù Lprjxcdl`kj ζ8 4 3 <8 Ù <= B/_,
blgbugf gl dli`ctuk kfg bldpj fg»fbtrcbj pu`tj ]m 4 = d.
fbtrcbj f` fg pu`tj
(]m ) 4 8 _/d
l) F
;;
(]m ) 4 988
m) F 988 _/d
(] ) 4 <8
b) F m <8 _/d
(] ) 4 388
k) F m 388 _/d
(] ) 4 68
f) F m 68 _/d
Rjgubc»
j`>
F` fstf blsj,
]m
;ψό
¨ ˏ
q f`b
f`b 4 kℯ =
ό r kr
kr 4
4 ]m 2 ∝] <
2
4 ; 2? 9ψ¹ ¹ Ù <8 ∝<8
B
]< 2
]ffdpglzl`kj,
∝<8
F (]m ) 4 ; 2? 9ψ ∝<8
¹ ¹ Ù _ /d 4 988
_/ 988 _/d
(;ψ)(3 <8 <= )(;)
(;ψ Ù
Xrjmgfdl <.68.
V` pgl`j c``ctj y lcsgl`tf fst»l blrilkj bj` kf`scklk kf blril ς 0 8. ºF`trf bu»llgfs
gfs pu`tjs fg vlgjr
lmsjgutj kfg vjgtlnf (kcofrf`bcl kf pjtf`bclg) fs d»llxcdj:
xcdj:
L< M<
L=
B <
M=
B =
F < F =
K< K=
F`trf L< y L =
l) F`trf
F`trf M< y M =
m) F`trf
;6
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rupj`ildjs
fsf blsj, F 4quf
4 F ļfg
F 8 ˏ pgl`j
plrl
plrl ylbf
x 0 8 y f`
F 4 fnfF 8S
fg ∝ S ,
ļ, plrl
ˏ y quf x fg
plrl x 7 8, U
U sf
fnfbj` F
bj` sf
F 8fxtcf`kf
4 ς//=ζ8 .kf
4 ς kfrfbel l czqucfrkl. F`
F`tj`bfs,
k_
∝
F 8 (x 0 8)
∝F 8 x (x 0 8)
kx
4 ∝↝ _
_ 4 4 ∝F |x|
8
F 8 (x 7 8) F 8 x (x 7 8)
y fg pjtf`bclg sjgj kfpf`kf kf gl bjdpj`f`tf U . Xjr tl`tj, gl kcofrf`bcl kf pjtf`bclg f`trf blkl
plr kf pu`tjs fs>
∏_ L 4 8
∏_ M 4 8
∏_ B 4 2F 8
∏_ K 4 8
F 4 6F 8
∏_ F
Xrjmgfdl <.6<.
V`l fsofrl dlbczl bj`kubtjrl kf rlkcj ] fst»l blrilkl bj` u`l blril q 0 8 B. Blgb Blgbugf
ugf fg pjtf
pjtf`bc
`bclglg
fg»
fg»ffbtr cbjj Ϗ l u`l kcstl`bcl kf
b trcb kf ]/
]/== kfg bf`t
bf`trj
rj kf fstl fsofrl lsudcf`kj quf fg pjtf`bclg fg»ffbtrcbj fs _ 8
btrcbj fs
f` fg c``ctj.
q
l) Ϗ 4
=ψζ 8 ]
q
m) Ϗ 4
;ψζ 8 ]
q
b) Ϗ 4 _ 8
+ _
+
;ψζ 8 ]
q
k) Ϗ 4 + _ 8
+ _
=ψζ 8 ]
f) Ϗ 4 8
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fg bldpj fg»fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj oufrl kf gl fsofrl bj`kubtjrl fs>
(r 0 ] q
F ])) 4 ό
ˏ
;ψζ 8 r=
;?
Xrjmgfdl <.6=.
blril q 8 4 <88 ¶ B sf f`buf`trl nl f` fg bf`trj kfg scstfdl kf bjjrkf`lkls blrtfscl`ls, dcf`trls
V`l blril
quf u`l sfiu`kl blril q ∝
q 4 < ¶ B plsl vjgl`kj. F` fg tcfdpj t< gl blril q q tcf`f gl pjscbc»j`
j` r< 4
∝ ;6, 8, 8) bd y rlpck
( ;6, rlpckfzfz v< . V` tcfdpj
tcfdpj t= d»llss tlrkf ((tt= 0 t< ) sf umcbl f`
∝< 3
f` r= 4 (8,
(8, =8
=8,, 8) bd bj` rlpck
rlpckfz fz
v= . ºBu»ll`tl
`tl f`fr
f`frii»ļl bc`»fftcbl
tcb l il` blrill q : Vslr (;ψζ
il`jj gl blri (;ψζ 8 ) ≅ Ù
3 <8 _ d/B.
l) ∏F bc`
bc` 4 =.6 N
m) ∏F bbc`
c` 4 =.8 N
b) ∏F bbc`
c` 4 <.6 N
k) ∏F bbc`
c` 4 <.8 N
f) ∏F bbc`
c` 4 8.6 N
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xjr bj`sfrv
bj`sfrvlbc»
lbc»jj`
` kf f`f
f`fri»
ri»ļļl,
l,
< =
dv< = qq 8F 4 F
dv= = qq 8
+ 4 +
= ;ψζ8 r< = ;ψζ8 r=
=
dv= dv < =
∻ ∏F bc`
bc` 4
=
∝ =
4
qq 8
< <
∝
;ψζ 8 r< r=
4
qq 8 r= r<
∝
;ψζ 8 r= r<
4 ( <8 ∝ ∝?
B)(<88 Ù <8∝?
B)(3 Ù 3
<8 _ d/B)
8.= d 8.;6 d ∝
(8.= d)
(8. (8..;6d)
d)(8
∝<
Ù )(8..=6)
4 (3 <88.83)(8 N
4 =.6 N
;9
Xrjmgfdl <.62.
blrils q < 4 q
Kjs blrils q q y q = 4 =q fst»
fst»ll`
` umcblkjs f` gls pjscbcj`fs
pjscbcj`fs ∝
r< 4 ( k, 8, 8) y r= 4 (k, 8, 8), rfspfbtcvl-
df`tf, f` u` scstfdl kf bj bjjrkf`lkls
jrkf`lkls blrtfscl`ls. V`l sup supfrbcf
frbcf fqucpjtf`bclg bj` p pjtf`bclg
jtf`bclg fg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj
Ϗ8 plsl pjr fg pu`tj (8, (8, y, 8). ºBu»llgfs
gfs sj` gjs vlgjrfs bjrrfbtjs plrl gl bjjrkf`lkl y , supj`cf`kj quf
∐
Ϗ( ) 4 8 _:
=
2q
l) y 4 k
;ψζ 8 Ϗ8
¼ ∝
∝ =
q
m) y 4 ¼ k=
=ψζ 8 Ϗ8
2q
=
b) y 4 ¼ + k=
;ψζ 8 Ϗ8
2q
∝ =
k) y 4 ¼ k=
;ψζ 8 Ϗ8
2q =
f) y 4 ;ψζ 8Ϗ8 ¼k
Rjgubc»
j`>
<
q =q
Ϗ(x,y,z ) 4 Ϗq + Ϗq 4
+ Ϗ < =
+ ∝
;ψζ 8 (x + k))= + y =
+ k (x k)= + y =
Kf gl bj`kcbc»jj`
` kf supfr
supfrbcf
bcf fquc
fqucpjtf`b
pjtf`bclg,
clg,
Ϗ8 4 Ϗ(8
(8,, y, 8)
4 2q
;ψζ 8 k= + y =
2q
k= + y = 4
;ψζ 8 Ϗ8
∝ =
2q
y= 4 k=
;ψζ 8 Ϗ8
2q
=
y 4 ¼ ∝ k=
;ψζ 8 Ϗ8
;5
Bj`kf`
Bj` kf`slk
slkjrfs,
jrfs, kcfg»
kcf g»
fbtrcb
fbt rcbjs
js y bjrrcf`
bjrrcf`tf
tf fg»
f
fbtrcb
bt rcbl
l
=
Fbulbcj`
Fbulbcj`fs
fs kf Dlx
Dlxwfgg
wfgg f` u`j kf gjs durj
durjs
s fxtf
fxtfrcjr
rcjrfs
fs kf gl V`cvfrsc
V`cvfrscklk
klk kf _lrsjvcl
lrsjvcl
;3
Xrjmgfdl =.<.
Bj`sckfrf fg scstfdl kf bj`kf`slkjrfs (B (B < , B = y B 2 ) bj`fbtlkjs pjr bj`kubtjrfs pfrofbtjs, tlg bjdj
sf dufstrl f` gl iurl. Gjs fxtrfdjs l y m fst»ll` ∝
` l u`l kcofrf`bcl kf pjtf`bclg _ 8 4 _ l _ m 0 8. Rc
lsudcdjs quf B < 4 B , B = 4 =B
B y B 2 4 2B , tf`fdjs quf gl sudl kf gl dli`ctuk kf gl blril quf
bj`kf`slkjrfs B < y B = (\ 4
tcf`f` gjs bj`kf`slkjrfs \ < +
4 \ + \ \= ) fst»l klkl pjr>
l
+
B =
_ 8 B <
B 2
∝
m
<<
l) \ 4 B _ 8
?
<<
m) \ 4 B _ 8
6
?
b) \ 4 B _ 8
6
6
k) \ 4 B _ 8
?
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
_ < 4 _ 8
4 _ ∩ _ = + _
+ _ 2 4 _
4 _ 8
Kf gl rfglbc»jj`
` f`trf fg vjgtlnf y gl blril kf u` bj`kf`slkjr,
\< 4 B < _ < 4
4 B B_
4 B _ 8
Oc`lgdf`tf,
<<
\ 4 \< +
4 \ \= 4
+ \ B _ 8
6
Xrjmgfdl =.=.
F` gl iurl sf dufstrl u` bj`kf`slkjr kf kjs bcgc`krjs bj`kubtjrfs bjlxclgfs kf rlkcjs l y b blrilkjs
68
∝
blrils \ 0 8 y \, rfspfbtcvldf`tf. Gjs bcgc`krjs tcf`f` u` glrij
bj` blrils ≡
glrij G 0 b. F` fg fsplbcj f`trf
gjs bcgc`krjs ely kjs dltfrclgfs kcfg»ffbtrcbjs. pfrdctcvcklk ζ< 4 (2/
btrcbjs. V`j kf fggjs fs kf pfrdctcvcklk (2/=)ζ
=)ζ8 y fst»l f` fg
fsplbcj r
fsplbcj ∅
r (l, m), scf`kj r
scf`kj r gl
gl kcstl`bcl lg fnf kf scdftr
scdftr»»ļl. Fg sfiu`kj sf f`buf`trl f` fg fsplbcj
fsplbcj r ∅
r (m, b)
pfrdctcvcklk ζ 8 4 (6
y tcf`f pfrdctcvcklk ζ (6//;)
;)ζζ8 . ºBu»llgg kf gls sciucf`tfs fxprfscj`fs fs bjrrfbtl plrl gl dli`ctuk kfg
bldp
bldpjj fg»fbtrcb ∅
fbt rcbjj F (r ) f` gl rfic»j` r
j` r (m, b):
l
ζ= ζ<
+\
∝\
l) F (r ) 4 2\
6ψζ8 rG
=\
m) F (r ) 4
6ψζ8 rG
\
b) F (r ) 4
2ψζ8 rG
=\
k) F (r ) 4
2ψζ8 rG
\
f) F (r ) 4
6ψζ8 rG
Rjgubc»
j`>
Ls»ļ,
8 sc 8 7 r 7 l
\
(r ) 4
K ˏ sc l 7 r 7 b
ό
=ψrG
ψr G
8 sc b 7 r
6<
8 sc 8 7 r 7 l
\
ˏ sc l 7 r 7 m
ό
(r)
K =ψζ < rG
F (r) 4 4
ζ
\ όˏ sc m 7 r 7 b
=ψζ = rG
8 sc b 7 r
Oc`lgdf`tf,
(m 7 r 7 b) =\
F b) 4 ό
ˏ
6ψζ 8 rG
Xrjmgfdl =.2.
Bj`sckfrf fg scstfdl kfg Xrjmgfdl =.=. Gl blril c`kubckl (j kf pjglrczlbc»j`) f` gl supfrbcf c`tfrcjr
kfg kc
kcfg»
fg»fbtrc bj ζ< (c.f.
fbt rcbj r 4
(c.f. r l)) fs>
4 l
l) ∝\/
\/;;
m) ∝\/
\/==
b) ∝\/
\/22
k) ∝=\/
\/22
f) ∝\
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fg vfbtjr kf pjglrczlbc»jj`
` sltcsolbf gl sciucf`tf rfglbc»jj`>
`>
4 K
X
X 4 (ζ
ζ8 F ∝ ∝ ζ )F
8
]ffdpglzl
]ffdpglzl`kj
`kj f` fg fsplb
fsplbcj r
cj r ∅ (l, m),
(l 7 r 7 m) (l 7 r 7 m)
ζ8 \ \
X (
X m) 4 (ζ ∝ ζ )F
< 8 m) 4 ˏ 4
ό ό
ˏ
= 2ψζ8 rG ?ψrG
ψr G
Xrjmgfdl =.;.
Bj`sckfrf fg scstfdl kfg Xrjmgfdl =.=. ºBu»llgg kf gls sciucf`tfs lrdlbcj`fs fs c`bjrrfbtl:
b) Gl dl
dli`ctuk
i`ctuk kfg bl
bldpj btrcbj F (r ) fs kcsbj`tc`uj f` r
dpj fg»ffbtrcbj f` r 4 m
4 m
k) Gl dli`ctuk kf gl blril c`kubckl (j kf pjglrczlbc»j`)
j`) f` gl
g l supfrbc
su pfrbcff fxtfrcjr
fxt frcjr kfg kcfg» fbtrcbj ζ= (c.f.
k cfg»fbtrcbj
r 4 b)) fs ciulg l
4 b l \
f) Fg vfb
vfbtjr
tjr kf pjglrczlb j` X (
pjglrczlbc»
c»j` (r ) fs kcsbj`tc`uj f`
X f` r 4 m
4 m
Rjgubc»
j`>
Lg lkcbcj`
lkcbcj`lr
lr u` kcfg»ffbtrcbj,
btrcbj, fg bldp
bldpjj fg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj kcsdc`uyf rfspfbtj l ssu u vlgjr f` vlb
vlb»»ļj, pjr gj quf gl
kcofrf`bcl kf pjtf`bclg tldmc
tldmc»»ff`
` gj elbf. Fstl kcsdc`ub
kcsdc`ubc»c»jj`
` kfpf`kf kf gl dli`ctuk kf gl pfrdctcvc-
klk kfg kcfg»ffbtrcbj.
btrcbj. Xjr tl`tj, gls lgtfr`ltcv
lgtfr`ltcvlsls (l) y (m) sj` bjrrfbtls. Kfg b»llgbugj
gbugj rflgczlkj f` gjs
prjmgfdls l`tfrcjrfs, `jtldjs quf fg bldpj fg»ffbtrcbj btrcbj `j fs bj`tc`uj, kfmckj l quf fxcstf u`l blril
supfrbclg c`kubckl. Kf gl dcsdl ojrdl, `jtldjs quf fg vfbtjr pjglrczlbc»jj` ` tldmc»ff`
` fs kcsb
kcsbj`tc`u
j`tc`uj.
j.
Bj` fggj, gls lgtfr`ltcvls (b
(b) y (f) sj` bjrrfbtls. Oc`lgdf`tf, yl sfl pjr b»llgbugj
gbugj kcrfbtj j kfmckj l
quf `j ely d»llss jpbcj`fs, kfsbumrcdjs quf gl blril c`kubckl f` r
f` r 4
4 b `j fs ciulg l \
b `j l \,, pjr gj quf gl
(k) fs c`bjrrfbtl.
lgtfr`ltcvl (k
Xrjmgfdl =.6.
Rf tcf`
tcf`ff u`l fsof
fsofrl
rl kf dltf
dltfrclg
rclg kcfg
kcfg»»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj kf pfrdct
pfrdctcvcklk ζ< 4 6ζ8 . Gl fsofrl fst»l rjkflkl kf u`
cvcklk
bj`kubtjr ckflg blrilkj bj` blril \, quf l su vfz fst»l rjkflkj pjr u` sfiu`kj dltfrclg kcfg»ffbtrcbj btrcbj
pfrdctcvcklk ζ= 4 <8
kf pfrdctcvcklk <8ζζ8 . Oc`lgdf`tf, f` gl »u gtcdl blpl, ely sfiu`kj u` bj`kubtjr bj` blril \
ugtcdl ∝
(bjdj c`kcbl gl iurl)
iurl).. Gjs rlkcjs kf blkl u`l kf gls blpls fso fso»»ffrcbls sj` ]< 4 ],
rcbls sj` ] , ]= 4 =], ]2 4 2]
y ]; 4 ;], rfspfbtcv
rfspfbtcvldf`tf.
ldf`tf.
Gl dli`ctu
dli`ctukkk
kff gj
gjss bl
bldpj btrcbjs, F < y F = f` gjs kcfg»ffbtrcbjs
dpjss fg»ffbtrcbjs, btrc bjs ζ< y ζ= sj`, rfspfbtcvldf`tf,
\
l) F < 4 y F = 4 8
=8 ψζ 8 r=
=8ψζ
62
\ \
m) F < 4 y F
= 4
=8 ψζ 8 r=
=8ψζ ;8 ψζ 8 r=
;8ψζ
\
b) F < 4 8 y F = 4
ψζ 8 r =
;8ψζ
;8
\ \
k) F < 4 y F
= 4
;8 ψζ 8 r=
;8ψζ =8 ψζ 8 r=
=8ψζ
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl =.?.
Bj`sckfrf fg scstfdl kfg Xrjmgfdl =.6. Gl blplbctl`bcl kfg scstfdl fs>
;58ζ8 ψ]
l) ;58ζ
<=8ζ8 ψ]
m) <=8ζ
<;8ζ8 ψ]
b) <;8ζ
=;8ζζ8 ψ]
k) =;8
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
f`trf ]2 4 2] y ]= 4 =] fs
Gl kcofrf`bcl kf pjtf`bclg f`trf
| |
∏_ 4
\
<
∝ <
4
\
;8 ψζ 8
;8ψζ ]2 ]= ψζ 8 ]
=;8ψζ
=;8
Xrjmgfdl =.9.
Bj`sckfrf fg scstfdl kfg Xrjmgfdl =.6. ºBu»llgg fs gl blril c`kubckl f` gl supfrbcf kfg kcfg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj c`tfr`j
ζ< :
l) ∝ =83 \
m) 8 B
b) ∝ ;6 \
k) ∝ =6 \
f) ∝ <83 \
Rjgubc»
j`>
Bjdj K
4 `, F
8 f` fsl rfic»jj`, 4 8 y pjr gj tl`tj X
4 4
X 8. Ls
Ls»»ļ, gl blril c`kubckl fs>
\c`k ,ζ
,ζ 4 8 B
<
Xrjmgfdl =.5.
Bj`sckfrf fg scstfdl kfg Xrjmgfdl =.6. ºBu»lg
lg fs gl blril c`kubckl f` gl supfrbcf fxtfr`l kfg kcfg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj
ζ= :
3
l) \
=8
m) 8B
b) ;6 \
=
k) \
6
3
f) \
<8
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fg bldp
bldpjj fg»fbtrcbj
fbtrc bj f` fg kcfg»ffbtrcbj
btrc bj fs>
4 \ όˏ
F
;ψζ = r=
y gl pjglrczlbc»jj`
` fs>
4 (ζ=
X
X ∝ ζ )F
8
66
f` r 4
Gl kf`scklk kf blril supfrbclg f` r ]2 fs>
4 ]
ς 4 X (
(]2 ) όˏ 4
X ¹ ∝
(ζ= ζ8 )\
;ψζ = ]2 =
=
,ζ 4 ;ψ] 2 ς 4
\c`k ,ζ=
3 \
<8
Xrjmgfdl =.3.
Rf tcf`f u` lgldmrf
lgldmrf kf u` dltfrclg kfsb
kfsbj`jbckj
j`jbckj kf = d kf glrij y bj` u`l sfbbsfbbc»
c»jj`
` trl`svfrslg kf < dd= .
trl`svfrslg
Gjs fxtrfd
fxtrfdjs
js kfg lgld
lgldmrf
mrf sf sjd
sjdftf
ftf`
` l u`l kcof
kcofrf
rf`bc
`bcll kf pjtf`b
pjtf`bclg
clg kf 2 _ y sf dckf u`l bjrr bjrrcf`
cf`tf
tf
bcrbugl`
bcrbugl`tf
tf kf = L. F`tj`b
F`tj`bfs,
fs, gl bj`ku
bj`kubtcv cklk ς kfg dltfrclg fs>
btcvcklk
2 ∝?
l) Ù <8 ℯ∝< d∝<
=
2 ∝?
m) Ù <8 ℯ∝< d∝<
;
= ?
b) Ù <8 ℯ∝< d∝<
2
; ?
k) Ù <8 ℯ∝< d∝<
2
< ?
f) Ù <8 ℯ∝< d∝<
2
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl =.<8.
rfls L y
Rf tcf`f` kjs pglbls pgl`ls bj`kubtjrls bj` »llrfls L l k,, bjdj f` gl iurl.
y kcstl`bcl f`trf fggls ciulg l k
F` blsj (L), gls pglbls fst»ll` ¼
` blrilkls bj` blrils \1 f` fg blsj (M), gls pglbls fst»ll` ` bj`fbtlkls bj`
vjgtlnf V .
u`l pcgl kf vjgtlnf
(L) (M)
=k +\ =k
k k V
∝\
Rc u` lif`tf fxtfr`j kupgcbl gl kcstl`bcl f`trf gls pglbls kf k l =k, gls f`fri
f`fri»»ļls lgdlbf`lkls f` gjs
bj`kf`slkjrfs>
f) @j bldmcl f` `c`i»u
u`` blsj
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl =.<<.
rfls L y
F`trf kjs pglbls pgl`ls bj`kubtjrls bj` »llrfls L kcstl`bcl k sf
y kcstl`bcl k sf c`sfrtl
c `sfrtl u` k
kcfg»
cfg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj bj` p
pfrdctcvckl
frdctcvcklk
k
4 bjdj sf c`kcbl f` gl iurl.
ζ ζ r ζ8
69
L/= L/=
ζr
k
k/=
l) B 4
ζr + ;
B 8
;
ζr
m) B 4 B 8
;
b) B 4
2
B 8
ζr
ζr <
k) B 4 ζr + < + = B 8
f) B 4
ζr + < <
+ B 8
ζr =
Rjgubc»
j`>
Gl ojrdl d»ls
ls scdpgf kf lmjrklr fg prjmgfdl fs bj`sckfrlr gl bj`iurlbc»jj`
` kfg f`u`bclkj bjdj trfs
bj`kf`slkjrfs, kjs f` sfrcf f` plrlgfgj bj` fg tfrbfrj>
ζ r
B <
B 2
B =
ζ8 L
]fbjrkl`kj quf gl blplbctl`bcl tjtlg sc` kcfg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj fs B 8 4
fs B , tf`fdjs quf>
k
ζr ζ8 (L/
L/=)
=) ζr ζ8 L
B < 4 4
(k/=)
k/=) k
ζ8 (L/
L/=)=) ζ8 L
B = 4 4
(k/=)
k/=) k
ζ8 (L/
L/=)=) ζ8 L
B 2 4 k 4 =k
65
rfl L/=,
yl quf tjkjs tcf`f` »llrfl L/ B < y B = pjsff` sfplrlbc»j` k/
=, B j` k/== y B 2 tcf`f sfplrlbc»j` k
j` k.. Gl blplbcklk
fqucvlgf`tf kf fstl bjdmc`lbc»jj` ` fs>
∝<
< < ζ8 L ζr
B sfrcf
sfrcf 4 + 4
B < B = k ζr + <
ζr
4 B 8
ζr + <
∻ B 4 B 2 + B sfrcf
+ B sfrcf
4
ζr
+
<
B 8
ζr + < =
Xrjmgfdl =.<=.
Xlrl gl bj`iurlbc»jj` ` kfg prjmgfdl =.<<, supj`cf`kj blrils c`cbclgfs \ f` gls pglbls y u`l f`fri f`fri»»ļl
¼
c`cbclg F 8 , ºbu»lg
pjtf`bclg c`cbclg lg fs fg trlmlnj quf u` lif`tf fxtfr`j elbf plrl c`sfrtlr fg kcfg»ffbtrcbj:
btrcbj:
ζr
l) Y
Y 4 ∝ ; F 8
∝ ζr <
m) Y
Y 4 ∝ F 8
2ζr + <
ζr
b) Y
Y 4 ∝ F 8
ζr + <
k) Y
Y 4 ∝ ζ +
ζ
<
r
F
r
8
Y 4 ∝F
f) Y 8
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl =.<2.
rfls L 4
Kjs pglbls pgl`ls bj`kubtjrfs bj` »llrfls L lm y
4 lm y bj` blrils ¼\ fst»ll`` umcblkls bjdj c`kcbl gl iurl.
Gl pglbl kf lmlnj pufkf djvfrsf ejrczj`tlgdf`tf.
m/= m/=
k
m/=
m/= l
ºBu»lg
lg fs gl dli`ctuk kf gl oufrzl ejrczj`tlg quf fnfrbf gl pglbf kf lrrcml sjmrf gl pglbl kf lmlnj:
=\=
l) O
O 4
ζ8 m=
\=
m) O
O 4
;ψζ 8 k=
\= m
b) O
O 4
ζ8 kl=
=\= k
k) O
O 4 ζ8 lm=
f) O
O 4 8 @
Rjgubc»
j`>
J x m x+m
=\= k
O
O 4
ζ8 lm=
Xrjmgfdl =.<;.
Rjmrf gl blplbcklk fg»fbtrcbl,
fbtrcbl, fs bjrrfbtj lrdlr quf>
l) Kfp
Kfpf`kf
f`kf kf gl ifjdftr
ifj dftr»»ļl kf gjs bj`kubtjrfs
bj `kubtjrfs
m) Kfpf`k
Kfpf`kff kfg vjgtlnf lpgcb
lpgcblkj
lkj
k) Fs kcofrf`
kcofrf`tf
tf kf bfrj sjgldf`tf bj` kcfg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj
Xrjmgfdl =.<6.
V` Olrlk fqucvlgf l>
l) < O 4 < _ L
Xrjmgfdl =.<?.
V`l pcfzl kf bjmrf (bj` scdftr
scdftr»»ļl bcg
bcg»»ļ`krcbl) tcf`f gl ojrdl kf quf sf dufstr
dufstrll f` gl iurl. Gjs fxtrfdjs
fst»ll`
` bj`fbtlkjs l u`l mltfr
mltfr»»ļl kf djkj quf f` gl pcfzl uyf bjrrcf`tf. ºF` qu»f rfic»j` j` L, M j B
B fs
dlyjr gl kf`scklk kf bjrrcf`tf:
L M B
j` L
l) ]fic»j` L
j` M
m) ]fic»j` M
?<
j` B
b) ]fic»j` B
k) Fs ciulg f` tjkls gls rficj`fs
f) Kfpf`k
Kfpf`kff kf gl kcofrf
kcofrf`bcl
`bcl kf pjtf`bclg quf sf lpgcquf
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rc bcrbugl u`l bjrrcf`tf bj`stl`tf, l df`jr supfrbcf sf jmtcf`f u`l dlyjr kf`scklk kf bjrrcf`tf.
Xrjmgfdl =.<9.
F` fg Xr
Xrjmgfdl
jmgfdl =.<?, ºf` qu»f rfic»jj`
` fs dlyjr fg bldp
bldpjj fg»fbtrcbj:
fbtrcbj:
j` L
l) ]fic»j` L
m) ]fic»j` M
j` M
j` B
b) ]fic»j` B
k) Fs ciulg f` tjkls gls rficj`fs
f) Kfpf`k
Kfpf`kff kf gl kcofrf
kcofrf`bcl
`bcl kf pjtf`bclg quf sf lpgcquf
Rjgubc»
j`>
L bj`kubtcvcklk bj`stl`tf, dlyjr kf`scklk kf bjrrcf`tf cdpgcbl dlyjr bldpj, kf lbufrkj l gl gfy
kf Jed dcbrjsb»jjpcbl.
pcbl.
Xrjmgfdl =.<5.
F` fg Xrjmgfdl =.<?, gl rlz»jj`
` f`trf gjs kc»lldftrjs fs L > M > B 4
dftrjs fs B 4 2 > < > 6. F`tj`bfs, gl vfgjbcklk kf
kfrcvl kf gjs fgfbtrj`fs>
j` M quf f` gl rfic»j` B
l) [cf`f gl dcsdl dli`ctuk f` gl rfic»j` M j` B
m) Fs bc`bj v
vfbfs
fbfs dl
dlyjr j` M quf f` gl rfic»j` B
yjr f` gl rfic»
j` M j` B
j` M quf f` gl rfic»j` B
b) Fs vfc`tcbc`bj vfbfs dlyjr f` gl rfic»j` M j` B
k) Fs bc`bj vfbfs df`jr f` gl rfic»j` M
j` M quf f` gl rfic»jj` B
` B
f) @j tf`fdjs subc
subcf`
f`tfs
tfs kltjs plrl kfbckcr
Rjgubc»
j`>
fs N 4 C /L
Gl kf`scklk kf bjrrcf`tf f` fstf blsj fs N /L,, f` kj`kf L
kj`kf L fs fs fg »llrfl
rfl kf blkl sfidf`tj bj`kubtjr.
Xjr jtrl plrtf, pjr trltlrsf kfg dcsdj dltfrclg, gl kf`scklk kf pjrtlkjrfs kf bjrrcf`tf ό bjrrcf`tf ό fs
fs bj`stl`tf.
fs vk 4
Xjr tl`tj, gl vfgjbcklk kf kfrcvl fs v 4 N
N/ό/ό </L
≅ /L.. Fg »llrfl
rfl fs prjpjrbcj`lg lg kc»lldftrj
dftrj lg bulkrlkj,
pjr gj quf plrl gls rlzj`fs f`trf kc»lldftrjs
dftrjs klkls sf f`buf`trl fg rfsugtlkj c`kcblkj.
?=
Xrjmgfdl =.<3.
Bj`sckfrf u` bj`ku
Bj`sckfrf bj`kubtjr
btjr buyl ojrdl ifjd» fftrcbl
trcbl fs sfdf
sfdfnl`
nl`tftf l gl kfg Xrjmg Xrjmgfdl
fdl =.<? pfrj efb efbej
ej kf
dltfrclgfs kf kcstc`tl bj`kubtcvcklk. Gl bj`kubtcvcklkfs ς kf gjs trldjs trldjs L, M y B
B fst»ll`
` f` gl rlz»j`
j`
ςL > ςM > ςB 4 = > < > 6, y gl rlz»jj`
` f`trf gjs kc»lldftrjs fs L > M > B 4
dftrjs fs B 4 = > < > 2. F`tj`bfs, u`l vfz
fstlmgfbckj
fstlmgfbc kj fg r»fficdf`
icdf` fstlbcj`l rcj ( N
fstlbcj`lrcj ∉¹ 4
4 8), pjkfdjs lrdlr quf gl kf`scklk kf bjrrcf`tf fs df`jr
f`>
j` L
l) ]fic»j` L
j` M
m) ]fic»j` M
j` B
b) ]fic»j` B
f) Kfpf`k
Kfpf`kff kf gl kcofrf
kcofrf`bcl
`bcl kf pjtf`bclg quf sf lpgcquf
Rjgubc»
j`>
j` B c`kfpf`kcf`tfdf`tf
Fs df`jr f` gl rfic»j` B c`kfpf`kcf`tfdf`tf kf gls bj`kubtcvcklkfs, pufstj quf u`l vfz fstlmgfbckj
fg r»fficdf`
icdf` fstlbcj`l
fstlbcj`lrcj
rcj gl bj
bjrrcf`tf
rrcf`tf fs bj`stl`tf.
Xrjmgfdl =.=8.
Fg fsplbcj f`trf kjs pglbls bj`kubtjrls kf »llrfls rfls L, sfplrlkls u`l kcstl`bcl k, fst»l ggf`j f` plrtfs
bj`kubtcvcklkfs> ς< 4 =ς8 y ς= 4 ς8 (vfr iurl). Gls pglbls fst»l`
ciulgfs bj` dltfrclgfs kf kcstc`tls bj`kubtcvcklkfs> l`
bj`fbtlkls l u`l mltfr
mltfr»»ļl quf prjv
prjvff bj`stl`tf _ 8 . F`tj`bfs, gl blril quf
ff u`l kcofrf`bcl kf pjtf`bclg bj`stl`tf
plsl pjr u` »llrfl
rfl L/
L/;; f` gl rfic»jj`
` bj` ς < , f` u` c`tfrvlgj kf 5 sfiu`kjs, fs>
bj` ς
5ς8 _ 8 L
l) \ 4 B
k
=ς8 _ 8 L
m) \ 4 B
k
;ς8 _ 8 L
b) \ 4 B
k
k) \ 4 ς8 _ 8 L B
k
ς8 _ 8 L
f) \ 4 B
=k
?2
Rjgubc»
j`>
rfl L/
Xjr fg »llrfl ¹
C 4 N < (L/
L/;; plsl u`l bjrrcf`tf C L/;),
;), y gl blril tjtlg quf ltrlvcfsl kcbel »llrfl
rfl f` u`
c`tfrvlgj ∏t∏t fs
fs \ 4 C
4 C ∏
∏t. ]ffdpglzl`kj gjs vlgjrfs klkjs kf ςkf ς < y ∏t 4 5 s rfsu
rfsugtl
gtl>>
;ς8 _ 8 L
\ 4 B
k
Xrjmgfdl =.=<.
rlkcj l y glrij
V` bcgc`krj kf rlkcj vlrclmgf ς(z ) 4 ς 8 (z =G)= , kj`kf fg fnf
glrij G tcf`f u`l bj`kubtcvcklk vlrclmgf ∝ fnf ^
fst»l kcrcickj l gj glrij kfg fnf kf scdftrscdftr»»ļl kfg bcgc`krj. F`tj`bf
F`tj`bfs,
s, sc supj`fdjs quf gl bjrrcf`tf bcrbugl
j` a
f` gl kcrfbbc»j` ˏ , gl rfscstf`bcl kfg bcgc`krj fs>
<
l) ] 4
ψl= Gς8
G
m) ] 4
=ψl= ς8
<
b) ] 4
=ψl= Gς8
=G
k) ] 4
ψl= ς8
f) ] 4 ψl
==Gς8
Rjgubc»
j`>
kz
k] 4
k] 4
ς(z ) L
Bj`sckfrl`kj quf blkl u`j kf fggjs fst»l f` sfrcf, gl rfscstf`bcl tjtlg bjrrfspj`kf l gl sudl kf
kf blkl
?;
Xrjmgfdl =.==.
Rf blril u` bj`kf`slkjr kf ; ¶ O bj` u`l ouf` ouf`tf
tf kf =88 _. Kfspu
Kfspu»»fs
fs kf blrilr
blrilrgj
gj bjdpg
bjdpgftldf
ftldf`tf
`tf,, sf
kfsbj`fbtl fg bj`kf`slkjr y sf bj`fbtl f` plrlgfgj l jtrj bj`kf`slkjr, kf = ¶ O c`cbclgdf`tf kfsblrilkj.
ºBul`tl
ºBul `tl f`fr
f`frii»ļl fgfbt
fgfbtrjst
rjst»»lltcbl
tcbl sf gcmfrl lg ldmcf`tf f` fg prjbfsj:
∝=
l) 5.88 Ù <8 N
∝=
m) 6.22 Ù <8 N
∝=
b) =.?9 Ù <8 N
∝;
k) <.88 Ù <8 N
∝;
f) ?.=6 Ù <8 N
Rjgubc»
j`>
Bjdj c`cbclg
c`cbclgdf`tf
df`tf fg scstfdl sf f`bu
f`buf`trl
f`trl bj`
bj`fbtlkj
fbtlkj l u`l mltfr
mltfr»»ļl, ggll f`fr
f`frii»ļl p
pjtf`bclg
jtf`bclg fgfbtrjst»lltcbl
tcbl
Xjstfrcjrdf`tf, fg scstfdl sf djkcbl elstl tf`fr kjs bj`kf`slkjrfs f` plrlgfgj, bj` u`l blplbc-
fqucvlgf`tf B oo 4 ; ¶ O + = ¶ O 4 ? ¶ O.
tl`bcl fqucvlgf`tf B O. F` fstf blsj, gl blril sf el rfpl
rfplrtckj,
rtckj, pfrj gl dli`ctuk
tjtlg \ pfrdl`fbf c`tlbtl pufs fg scstfdl fst»l lcsglkj. Xjr tl`tj, gl f`fri
tjtlg \ f`fri»»ļl `lg kfg scstfdl fs>
= ∝5
V oo 4 \ 4 ?; <8 ∝? N 4 <?
Ù Ù <8 ∝=
N
¹ Ù
=B o o = ? <8 2
?6
Ls»ļ,
ļ, gl vlrc
vlrclb
lbc»
c»jj`
`kkff f`fri»ļļll fs scdpgfdf`tf gl rrfstl>
fstl>
∝ V 4 ∝ 52 Ù <8
∏V 4 V o o c
∝=
N4 ∝=.?9 Ù <8 ∝=
N
Xrjmgfdl =.=2.
pglbl X < kf u` bj`kf`slkjr kf pglbls pgl`ls y plrlgfgls, ggf`j kf lcrf y kf »llrfl
Gl pglbl rfl L, fst»l bj`fbtlkl
l u` rfsjrtf quf tcf`f bj`stl`tf fg»llstcbl stcbl a , dcf`trls quf gl sfiu`kl pglbl X = fst»l nl. Fg lplrltj fst»l
sjmrf u`l dfsl sc` orcbbc»jj`, `, bjdj sf dufstrl f` gl iurl. Rc u`l blril + q sf
+q pglbl X < y
sf bjgjbl f` gl pglbl
u`l blril q f` ∝ pglbl X = , ºbu»ll`tj
f` gl pglbl X `tj fs gl d»llxcdl
xcdl fxpl`sc»jj`
` kfg rfsjrtf:
X< X=
a
q =
l)
=ζ8 La
q =
m)
;ζ8 La
q = a
b)
;ζ8 L
q = a
k)
=ζ8 L
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rfl x gl
Rfl x pglbl X < , rfspfbtj kf su pjscbc»jj`
gl kcstl`bcl quf sf dufvf gl pglbl X ` c`cbclg. Fstl bl`tcklk bjc`bckf bj`
gj quf sf lglril fg rfsjrtf, dfkckj pjsctcvldf`tf kfskf fg gl pglbl X pglbl X < elbcl gl pglbl X
pglbl X = . Rc fg rfsjrtf
lglril x u`cklkfs
sf lglril x lbfrbl x u`cklkfs
u`cklkfs kf glrij, fg bj`kf`slkjr sf lbfrbl x u`cklkfs rfspfbtj kf gj sfplrlbc»jj` ` jrcic`lg,
k. Rjmrf gl pglbl pglbl X < lbt»
u
ul`
l` kjs oufrzls> gl oufrzl fg»llstcbl
stcbl O fglst
fglst 4
∝ ax ˏļ y gl oufrzl fgfbtrjst» lltcbl
tcbl
fgfbt
O fgfbt . Fstl u » gtcdl, klkj quf fg scstfdl sf f`buf`trl lcsglkj, gl blgbugldjs bjdj O
ugtcdl, fgfbt
fgfbt 4
∝∉ V >
ζ8 L
B (x) 4
k x
∝
q = q = (k x)
V (x) 4 =B (x) 4 =ζ8 L
∝
q =
O fgfbt
fgfbt 4
∝∉ V (x) 4 ˏ
ļ
=ζ8 L
??
q =
dẍ
x 4
¨ 4 ∝ ax , 4 x‽ (8) 4 8
x(8) 4 x
=ζ8 L
Gl fbulbc»jj`
` kcofrf`bclg l`tfrcjr tcf`f pjr sjgubc»jj`>
`>
q =
x(t) 4 <
∝ bjs
a
t
=ζ8 La d
q =
xdlx 4
=ζ8La
Xrjmgfdl =.=;.
bcgc`krjs B < , B = y B 2 »jjedcbjs
Rf tcf`f` trfs bcgc`krjs rfscstcvcklkfs ό n , glrijs
edcbjs bj` rfscstcvcklkfs glrijs G n y »llrfls trl`svfrslgfs L n ,
rfls trl`svfrslgfs
bj` n 4 <, =, 2 rfspfbtcvldf`tf. Rupj`il quf
bj` quf ό< 4 ό2 4 ό y ό= 4 =ό, G< 4 G2 4 G y G= 4 G/
G/== y gls
sj` L < 4 L
»lrfls sj` L
lrfls 4 L 2 4 L
4 L y L = 4 L/=.
4 L/ =. F`tj`bfs, gl rfscstf`bcl kfg scstfdl f`trf gls tlpls tlpls l y m fs>
B< B = B2
l
ό< ό = ό2 m
=όG
l)
L
;όG
m)
L
όG
b)
=L
όG
k)
;L
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
l y m,
F`trf l
F`trf m , gjs trfs bcgc`krjs fst»l`
l` f` sfrcf, pjr gj quf gl rfscstf`bcl tjtlg fs>
ό< G< ό = G= ό 2 G2
] 4 + +
L< L= L2
?9
]ffdpglzl`kj,
όG =ό
= ό(G/ =) όG ;όG
G/=)
] 4 + + 4
L L/==
L/ L L
Xrjmgfdl =.=6.
bj`kubtjrls, R l y R m , bj`b»
Rf tcf`f` kjs fsofrls bj`kubtjrls, R bj `b»ff`trcbls
`trcb ls kf rlkc
rlkcjs l y m
js l y m bj` l 7 mm.. F`trf gls fsofrls ely
bj` l
u` dltfrclg »jjedcbj rfscstcvcklk ό 4
edcbj quf tcf`f u`l rfscstcvcklk ό((r), kfpf`kcf`tf kf gl kcstl`bcl lg bf`trj kf ldmls
4 ό
fsofrls, quf sf pufkf bj`trjglr l vjgu`tlk. Lsudl quf uyf u`l bjrrcf`tf fstlbcj`lrcl C , rlkclg, kfskf
l elstl m.. ºBj` bu»lg
elstl m lg kf gls sciucf`tf
sciucf`tfss rfscstcvcklkfs rfsugtl u` bldpj fg»ffbtrcbj btrcbj F c`kfpf`kcf`tf kf r::
c`kfpf`kcf`tf kf r
r=
l) ό(r) 4 ό8 =
l
r
m) ό(r) 4 ό8
l
r
b) ό(r) 4 ό8
m
k) ό(r) 4 ό8 g`( l/r))
g`(l/r ∝ g`(m/r))
g`(m/r
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
[jdfdjs u` blsblr»jj`
` fso»ffrcbj
rcbj kf fsp fsjr kr
fspfsjr kr,, fg bulg pjsff u`l rfscstf`bcl ciulg l>
ό(r) kr ό(r) kr
k] 4
k] 4 4
L ;ψr =
quf k_
Kf gl gfy kf Jed, sf slmf quf k_ 4 C k].
k]. Xjr jtrl plrtf, sf slmf quf
quf k_
k_ 4 F kr.
kr . Ciulgl
Ciulgl`kj,
`kj,
F
C k] 4
k] 4 F
F kr ∝↝ k]
k] 4
4 kr
C
Xrjmgfdl =.=?.
Rf tcf`f u` bcgc`krj DVS gl glrij
rij kf dltfrclg kcfg»ffbtrcbj rfgltcvll ǡr 4 <8. F` fg fnf kfg
btrcbj bj` pfrdctcvcklk rfgltcv
bcgc`krj sf f`buf`trl u` blmgf bj` u`l kf`scklk kf blril gc`flg kf blril α bj`stl`tf. Rupj`il quf quf r
fs gl kcstl`bcl lg fnf kfg bcgc`krj. F`tj`bfs, fg d»jkugj
jkugj kfg bldp btrcbj, F (r), kf`trj kfg dltfrclg
bldpjj fg»ffbtrcbj,
kc
kcfg
fgfbt
fbtrcb
rcbjj fs>
?5
α
l) F (r ) 4
=ψζ8 r
α
m) F (r ) 4
<8
<8ψζ
ψζ 8 r
α
b) F (r ) 4
=8ψζ
=8 ψζ 8 r
α
k) F (r ) 4
ψζ 8 r
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xjr gl scdftr
scdftr»»ļl kfg prjmgfdl, prjpj`fdjs quf fg kfspglzldcf`
kfspglzldcf`tj btrcbj pjsff gl ojrdl K
tj fg»ffbtrcbj 4
K(r ) fr
fr.. Xjr gj tl`tj, kf gl gfy kf Iluss plrl fg kfspglzldcf`tj fg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj lpgcblkl l u` bcgc`krj kf
e y rlkcj r
lgturl e
lgturl rlkcj r,,
α
¨ ¨
K `
ˏ kR 4
¹ K(r ) kR
kR 4
4 =ψreK
ψreK((r) 4 q
4 q gcmrf
gcmrf 4 α e ∝↝ K (r ) 4
=ψr
Ls»ļ,ļ, f` fg kcfg»
kc fg»ffbtr
btrcb
cbj,
j,
K (r ) α
F (r) 4 4
ζr ζ8 =8 ψζ 8 r
=8ψζ
Xrjmgfdl =.=9.
glrij ℒ y
V` lgldmrf u`cojrdf kf glrij ℒ y sfbbc»jj`
` trl`svf
trl`svfrslg L tcf`f
rslg L tcf`f u`l rfscstf`bc
rfscstf`bcll kf <? ℯ. Rf bjrtl fg lgldmr
lgldmrff
f` bultrj pfklzjs ciulgfs kf sfbbc»jj` trl`svfrslg L. Gufij, blkl u`j kf gjs bultrj lgldmrfs sf fstcrl,
` trl`svfrslg
dl`tf`cf`kj
dl`tf`cf` kj su kf`scklk vjgud
vjgud»»fftrcbl, glrij ℒ blkl u`j. Rc gjs bultrj lgldmrfs sf
trcbl, elstl lgbl`zlr u` glrij
bj`fbtl`
bj`fbtl` f` plrlgf
plrlgfgj,
gj, ºbu»
llgg fs gl rfscstf`bcl fqucvlgf`tf kf fstl bjdmc`lbc»j`: j`:
l) ?;ℯ
m) ;ℯ
b) <? ℯ
k) <ℯ
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
‽
] gl
Rfl ]
Rfl y ] gl rfscstf`bcl kf blkl u`j kf gjs bultrj sfidf`tjs. Rc gl rfscstcvcklk
gl rfscstf`bcl jrcic`lg y ]
fs ό,, f`tj`bfs>
kfg dltfrclg fs ό
όℒ
]‽ 4 ‽
L
?3
@jtlr quf utcgczldjs fg dcsdj glrij c`cbclg, pfrj kfmfdjs kftfrdc`lr gl `ufvl sfbbc»j` trl`svfrslg
pufstj quf fg dltfrclg sf fstcr»jj.. Rc d fs gl dlsl c`cbclg kfg lgldmrf, y gl kf`scklk sf dl`tcf`f,
f`tj`bfs>
d d‽ d/
d/;; L
4 ‽ ‽ 4 ‽ L‽ 4 ∝↝
Lℒ L ℒ Lℒ ;
Fs kfbcr, fg »llrfl
rfl sf rfkubf l gl bulrtl plrtf kf gl jrcic`lg. Xjr gj tl`tj, gl rfscstf`bcl kf blkl u`j
kf gjs sfidf`tjs fs>
όℒ όℒ
]‽ 4 4 ; 4 ; ]
L/;;
L/ L
Xrjmgfdl =.=5.
V` bj`kf`slkjr
bj`kf`
blrilkj, sfslkjr kf kjs pglbls
kfsbj`fbtl pgl`lskf
kf gl ouf`tf y vjgtlnf
plrlgf
plrlgfgls
gls
y sf
sf blril
kjmgl lglu`l kcofr
kcofrf`bc
f`bcl
kcstl`bcl l kf gls
f`trf pjtf`bc
pjtf`bclg
lg kf =8Fs
kjs pglbls. _.bjrrfbtj
V`l vfz
lrdlr quf gl kcofrf`bcl kf pjtf`bclg j gl blril bldmcl` f` gl sciucf`tf dl`frl>
Rjgubc»
j`>
V`l vfz quf fg bj`kf`slkjr fst»l blrilkj, su blril c`cbclg fs>
\c 4 B c _ c
4 B
Bjdj fg scstfdl (gufij kf rftcrlr gl ouf`tf kf vjgtlnf) fst»l lcsglkj, gl blril sf bj`sfrvl y \ c 4 \
y \ 4 \o .
Bj` fggj, gl `ufvl kcofrf`bcl kf pjtf`bclg fs>
\o \c B c _ c
_ oo 4 4 4 = 4 = _ c 4 ;8
;8 _
B oo B c /= B c
98
Xrjmgfdl =.=3.
Bj`sckfrf kjs blsblrj`
blsblrj`fs
fs fso»ffrcbjs
rcbjs dft»llgcbjs `trcbjs kf rlkcjs l y m, ldmjs bj` u` fspfsjr kfs-
gcbjs bj`b»ff`trcbjs
prfbclmgf. Fg fsplbcj f`trf gjs kjs blsblrj`fs (l (l 7 r 7 m)m) sf ggf`l bj` liul kf dlr kf bj`kubtcvcklk
∝< ∝<
ς 4 ;.5 ℯ d y pfrdc pfrdctcvcklk btrcbl ζ 4 5.6 <8∝<8 L s _∝< d∝< . Bj` u`l ouf`tf kf pjkfr sf
tcvcklk kcfg»ffbtrcbl Ù
bj`stl`tf \ 4
dl`tcf`f u`l blril bj`stl`tf \ 4 <83 B f` fg blsblrj` c`tfr`j y \ f` fg blsblrj` fxtfr`j. F`tj`bfs,
∝
gl bjrrcf`
bjrrcf`tf
tf fg»ffbtrcbl
btrcbl quf bcrbugl f`trf gjs blsblrj`fs fs>
l) C 4 <<
<<..= L
m) C 4 ;.5 L
b) C 4
4 6?
6? L
k) C 4 8.;5 L
f) C 4 6.? L
Rjgubc»
j`>
ς\ ;.5
C 4 ;ψr = N 4 4 Ù <8L 4 6.6.? L
ζ 5.6
Xrjmgfdl =.28.
rfl L y sfplrlkls pjr u`l kcstl`bcl k
Bj`sckfrf kjs pglbls plrlgfgls kf »llrfl ≮ ∞
L. Fg fsplbcj f`trf gls
pglbls fst»l ggf`j bj` u` dltfrclg kf bj`kubtcvcklk ς. Blgbugf gl rfscstf`bcl kfg scstfdl, ci`jrl`kj gjs
fofbtjs kf mjrkf.
=k
l) ] 4
ςL
k
m) ] 4
ςL
k
b) ] 4
;ςL
k
k) ]
=ςL
9<
k
f) ] 4
?ςL
Rjgubc»
j`>
Jed
Kf gl dcbrjsb» N 4 ςF
jjpcbl, N
pcbl,dlbrjsb»
gfy kf Jed ς F jjpcbl,
4 ς_/k
ς_/k.. Bjdj gl kf`scklk kf bjrrcf`tf fs bj`stl`tf, C
pcbl, C 4 N L 4 ς_
4 ς_ L/
L/k
k.
_ _ k
] 4 4 4
C ς_ L/k ςL
Xrjmgfdl =.2<.
Bj`sckfrf u`l fsofrl bj`kubtjrl pfrofbtl kf rlkcj ] 4 8.= d, c`c c`cbcl
bclgdf
gdf`t
`tff bj` blril \8 4 <8B y
blril
bjdpgftldf`tf rjkflkl pjr u` dfkcj u`cojrdf kf bj`kubtcvcklk Ù ∝<< ∝<
bj`kubtcvcklk ς 4 = <8 ℯ d∝< y bj`stl`tf
kcfg»
kc fg»fbtr cbll ξ 4
fbtrcb ξ 4 ζ/ζ
ζ/ζ 8 4 68 (fg vlgjr kf gl pfrdct
pfrdctcvcklk
cvcklk kfg vlb fs ζ 8 3 <8∝<= B= @∝< d∝= ). Xlrl quf
vlb»»ļj fs ζ ≂ Ù
gl blril c`cbclg sf rfkuzbl pjr u` olbtjr kf f ∝< 8.29, fs `fbfslrcj fspfrlr u` tcfdpj kf>
≂
===.6 s
l) ===.
m) 8.< s
==..6 s
b) ==
<<=.; s
k) <<=.
<<.= s
f) <<.
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rfl \ 4
Rfl \ \((t) gl blril sjmrf gl supfrbcf kf gl fsofrl bj`kubtjrl. Fg bldpj fg»ffbtrcbj
4 \ btrcbj l u`l kcstl`bcl
r dlyjr quf fg rlkcj kf gl fsofrl fs>
\
F 4 ;ψξζ8 r= όˏ
4
4 ς\ όˏ
4 ς F
N
;ψξζ8 r=
∙
ξζ8 68 3 <8∝<=
¹ Ù
t 4 ϋ
ϋ 4 4 ==.6 s
s 4 ==.
ς = <8∝<<Ù
Xrjmgfdl =.2=.
rlkcj ] 4
V`l fsofrl kf rlkcj ] 4 8.= d bj` bblril
lril gcmgcmrf
rf \ ∝
\gcm 4 =8 B fs
fst»
t»
l sud
sudfrickl
frickl f` u` dfkcj kcfg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj gc`flg
ejdji»
ejd ji»ff`fj
`fj kf bj`s
bj`stl`tf btrc bl ξ 4 2.6 y kf fxtf`sc»jj`
tl`tf kcfg»ffbtrcbl ` c``ctl. Fg vlgjr lmsjgutj kf gl kf`scklk
supfrbclg kf blril kf pjglrczlbc»jj` ` f` gl fsofrl sf lprjxcdl dfnjr l>
l) 36Bd∝=
m) <;=Bd∝=
<95 Bd∝=
b) <95
k) 8Bd∝=
f) =5Bd∝=
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fg bldpj fg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj oufrl kf gl fsof
fsofrl
rl fs fg kf u`l blril pu`pu`tulg
tulg f` fg jrcif` f` prfs
prfsf`bc
f`bcll kf u`
kcfg»
kc fg»fbtr
fbtrcb
cbj>
j>
4 \gcm
F 4 ό
ˏ
;ψξζ8 r=
Fg vfbtjr pjglrczlbc»jj`
` vcf`f klkj pjr>
4 (ζ
X
X ∝ ζ )F 4 (ξ ;∝ψξr
8
<)\
<)\
=
gcm
ˏ
ό
Oc`lgdf`tf,
ςpj ˏ
pjg g 4 X `
¹¹ 4 ∝ (ξ;∝ψξ]
<)\
<)\
≅ ; ¹ 2.<;=.6¹ 2¹ .=86 ¹ 8.8; B d ≅ = 5 B d
=
gcm ∝= ∝=
r4]
Xrjmgfdl =.22.
rlkcj ] efbel
Rf tcf`f u`l fsofrl dlbczl sc` blril gcmrf kf rlkcj ] efbel kf u`
u ` dltfrc
dltfrclg
lg kc
kcfg»
fg»fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj `j gc`
gc`flg.
flg. Gl fsofrl
fst»l pjglrczlkl, y fg bldp
bldpjj fg»fbtrcbj 4 ar όˏ. Gl blril tjtlg kf pjglrczlbc»jj`
fbtrcbj f` su c`tfrcjr fs F ` f` gl
supfrbcf kf gl fsofrl fs> ζ8 ∝
a] =
l) \ p 4
=
92
a] =
m) \ p 4
=
2
b) \ p 4 ∝;ψ] a
k) \ p 4 ;ψ] 2 a
f) \ p 4 8
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl =.2;.
Rf tcf`f u` blsblr»jj`
` fso»frcbj
frc bj dft
dft»»llgcbj
gcbj kf rlkcj ] bj`
rlkcj ] pjsctcvl \,, rjkflkj
bj` blril pjsctcvl \ rj kflkj pjr u` dl
dltfrclg
tfrclg kcfg»fftrcbj
trcbj
bj` pfrdctcvcklk rfgltcvll ξ
p frdctcvcklk rfgltcv ξ elstl
elstl r r 4
4 2]/
]/=.
=. [jkj gj l`tfrcjr sf rjkfl bj` jtrj blsblr»jj`
` fso»frcbj
frc bj dft
dft»»llgcbj
gcbj
rlkcj r 4 =] y blril \, qufkl`kj fg fsplbcj 2]/
kf rlkcj r ∝ 2]/== 7 r 7 =]
=] vlb
vlb»»ļj. Gl blplbctl
blplbctl`bcl
`bcl f`trf gjs kjs
bj`kubtjrfs kf fstf scstfdl fs>
k) B 4 ;ψζ 8 ]
?ξ
+ ξ
= + ξ
f) B 4 ;ψζ 8 ]
+ ξ
? + ξ
2ξ
Rjgubc»
j`>
B = bjrrfspj`kf lg bj`kf`slkjr quf sf fxtcf`kf f`trf 2]/ 2 ]/== 7 r 7 =] sc` kcfg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj f` su
c`tfrcjr>
;ψζ 8 (2]= )
(2]
B = 4 4 =; ψζ 8 ]
=;ψζ
]/==
]/
Xjr tl`tj,
<
4
<
=
+ < 4
<
+ ξ
= + ξ
∝↝ B 4 =;ψζ 8 ]
=;ψζ
ξ
B =; ψζ 8]
=;ψζ ξ =; ψζ 8 ]
=;ψζ ξ + ξ
= + ξ
Xrjmgfdl =.26.
Rf tcf`f u` blplbctjr kf pglbls plrlgfgls bj` sfplrlbc»jj` ` f`trf gls pglbls duy pfquf˗` `ll bjdplrlkl l
sus kcdf`scj`fs. Fstf blplbctjr sf blril bj` u`l mltfr
mltfr»»ļl elstl quf su blril y vjgtlnf c`cbclgfs sj` \ 8
sj` \
y _ 8 , rfspfbtcv
rfspfbtcvldf`tf.
ldf`tf. Gufij, sf kfsbj`fbtl fg blplbctjr kf gl mltfr
mltfr»»ļl, dcf`trls quf gl kcstl`bcl f`trf
gls pglbls sf c`brfdf`tl u` olbtjr kf ;. Lg dcsdj tcfdpj, sf c`trjkubf u` kcfg»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj bj` pfrdctcvcklk
rfgltcvl ξ 4 2 f` tjkj fg fsplbcj f`trf gls pglbls. Gjs `ufvjs vlgjrfs kf gl blril y fg vjgtlnf f` fg
blplbctjr sj`>
2
l) \8 , _ 8
;
2
m) 2\8 , _ 8
;
;
b) \8 , 2_ 8
2
2 ;
k) \8 , _ 8
; 2
;
f) \8 , _ 8
2
Rjgubc»
j`>
@jtfdjs quf
@jtfdjs quf,, gufij kf rftc
rftcrlr
rlr gl mltfr
mltfr»»ļl, fg prjbfs
prjbfsjj sf rflg
rflgczl
czl l blril bj`stl`
bj`stl`tf,tf, pufs gls pglbl
pglblss
`j pufkf` c`tfrbldmclr blril f`trf fggls `c bj` fg dfkcj fxtfr`j. Ls Ls»»ļ, \o 4 \8 . Xjr jtrl plrtf,
sciucf`kj gl dcsdl `jdf`bglturl plrl gl blplbctl`bcl, sf slmf quf>
ζ8 L ξζ8 L 2
B 8 4 ∝↝ B oo 4 4 B 8
k ;k ;
96
Ls»ļ,
\o \8 ;
_ o o 4 4 4 _ 8
B oo 2B 8 /; 2
Xrjmgfdl =.2?.
V` blplbctjr kf pglbls bulkrlkls pgl`ls y plrlgfgls tcf`f glkj G y sfplrlbc»jj` pglbls k. Fg
` f`trf gls pglbls
fsplbcj f`trf gls pglbls fst»l c`cbc
c`cbclgdf`
lgdf`tf tf vlb»lb»ļj. Fg blplb
blplbctjr
ctjr fstl bj`f
bj`fbtlk
btlkjj l u`l ouf`
ouf`tf
tf kf vjg
vjgtlnf
tlnf
vjgtlnf _ 8 y u` ldp
ckflg bj` vjgtlnf ldpfr
fr»»ļdftrj quf pufkf dfkcr bjrrcf`tfbjrrcf`tf,, bjdj c`kcbl gl iurl. Lg c`trjkubcr
u` kcfg»ffbtrcbj rfgltcvll ξ f` fg blplb
btrcbj kf pfrdctcvcklk rfgltcv blplbctjr,
ctjr, sf pufk
pufkff if`f
if`frlr
rlr u`l bjrr
bjrrcf`
cf`tf.
tf. ºBj` qu qu»»f
vfgjbcklk v ely quf c`trjkubcr fg kcfg»ffbtrcbj
vfgjbcklk btrcbj plrl quf gl bjrrcf`
bjrrcf`tf
tf if`frlkl tf`il dli`ctuk C ::
dli`ctuk C
ξ k
v
_ 8
Ck
l) v 4
_ 8 G(ξ <)
∝<)ζζ8
C k=
m) v 4
_ 8 G= (ξ <)
<)ζζ8
∝
Ck
b) v 4
=_ 8 G(ξ <)
∝<)ζζ8
=C k
k) v 4
∝
_ 8 G(ξ <)
<)ζζ8
=C k=
f) v 4
_ 8 G= (ξ <)
∝
<)ζζ8
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rfl x gl kcstl
Rfl kcstl`bcl,
`bcl, dfkckl kfsk kfskff fg mjrkf kf gl pglbl, kf kcfg
kcfg»»ffbtrcbj
btrcbj quf sf el c`t
c`trjkubck
rjkubckjj f` fg
bj`kf`slkjr.
bj`kf`sl kjr. Ls
Ls»»ļ, gl bl
blplbctl`bc
plbctl`bcll fqucvlgf`tf vf`kr»l klkl pjr>
B (x) 4
ξζ8 Gx ζ 8 G(G
+
∝ x) 4 ζ G
8
(ξ ∝ <)x
<)x + G
+ G
k k k
9?
Xjr tl`tj,
Oc`lgdf`tf,
kx Ck
v 4 kt 4 _ 8 Gζ8 (ξ ∝ <)
Xrjmgfdl =.29.
[rfs blsb
blsblrj
lrj`fs
`fs bj`k
bj`kubtj
ubtjrfs
rfs bcg»ļļ`krcbjs
`kr cbjs bj`b»ff`trcbjs
`trcb js kf gl rij G, bj` blrils ( \, +\, 8) y rlkcjs (],
glrij ∝ (], =], 2])
ojrdl` trfs fsplbcjs sfplrlkjs, ckf`tcblkjs bj` gls gftrls (l,m,b ( l,m,b).
). F` blkl fsplbcj sf pufkf pj`fr u`
kcfg»ffbtrcbj
btrc bj gc
gc`flg
`flg y ejdj
ejdji»i»ff`fj
`fj bbj`
j` bj
bj`stl
`stl`tfs
`tfs kc
kcfg»
fg»ffbtrcbls
btrc bls rrfglt
fgltcvls
cvls (p
(pfrdc
frdctcvc
tcvcklk
klkfs
fs rfg
rfgltc
ltcvls) ξl , ξm , ξb ).
vls) ((ξ
ºBu»lglg kf gls sciucf`tf
sciucf`tfss bj`iurlbcj`fs tcf`f gl dly dlyjr jr bl`tcklk kf f`fri f`fri»»ļl lgdlbf`lkl:
l) ξl 4 <,
<, ξm 4 <, ξ b 4 ;
<, ξ
m) ξl 4 <,
<, ξm 4 ;, ξ b 4 <
;, ξ
b) ξl 4 =,
=, ξm 4 =, ξ b 4 <
=, ξ
k) ξl 4 <,
<, ξm 4 =, ξ b 4 =
=, ξ
f) ξl 4 2,
2, ξm 4 2, ξ b 4 2
2, ξ
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl =.25.
bj`kubtcvcklk ς ? <89 ℯ∝< d∝< l tfdpfrlturl ldmcf`tf. F` gjs dftlgfs, gjs
Fg Bjmrf tcf`f u`l bj`kubtcvcklk ≅ Ù
( f <.? <8∝<3 B, df 3 <8∝2< ai) quf sf dufv
pjrtlkjrfs kf blril sj` gjs fgfbtrj`fs (f ≅ Ù dufvf`
≅ Ù f` l tfdp
tfdpfrlturl
frlturl
?
ldmcf`tf bj` u`l vfgjbcklk kf kfrcvl
kfrcvl v <8 d/s. Fg Bjmrf tcf`f u`l kf`scklk kf fgfbtrj`fs gcmrfs
Ù =5 ∝2
` 4 3 <8 d . ºBu»llgg fs fg tcfdpj prjdfkcj ϋ f`trf
ϋ f`trf kjs bjgcscj`fs bj`sfbutcvls kf fgfbtrj`fs f` fg
≅
Bjmrf:
l) ϋ
≅ =;ps
≅
99
m) ϋ ≅≅ <5`s
b) ϋ ≅
≅ =;os
k) ϋ ≅
≅ <.5 ps
f) ϋ ≅
≅ 8.=;ps
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fg djkfgj kf Krukf plrl gl bj`kubtcvcklk f` gjs dftlgfs `js pfrdctf rfglbcj`lr gl bj`kubtcvcklk
bj` fg tcfdpj dfkcj f`trf bjgcscj`fs>
`q = ϋ
ς 4
df
ςdf
ϋ 4
`q =
(? <89 )(3 <8∝2< )
Ù Ù
≅ (3 <8=5 )(=
Ù )(=..6? <8∝25 )
s
Ù
?
≅ Ù<8∝<; s
=.6?
≅ =.; <8∝<; s 4 = ; o s
Ù
Xrjmgfdl =.23.
Kjs bj`kubtjrfs bj` bj`kubtcvcklkfs ς< y ς= 4 =ς< fst»ll`
` bj`fbtlkjs. L trlv
trlv»»fs
fs kf fggjs bcrbugl u`l
C prjkubtj
bjrrcf`tf C
bjrrcf`tf pjtf`bclg _ 8 , bjdj dufstrl gl iurl. º\u»f vjgtlnf
prjkubtj kf u`l kcofrf`bcl kf pjtf`bclg _ _ < dlrbl
vjgtlnf _
fg vjg
vjgtt»ļdft rj _ :
ļdftrj :
G/
G/== G/
G/==
ς< ς=
C
_
_ 8
<
l) _ < 4 _ 8
2
=
m) _ < 4 _ 8
2
<
b) _ < 4 _ 8
=
95
2
k) _ < 4 _ 8
;
<
f) _ < 4 _ 8
;
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rupj`ildjs
kf quffggjs
blkl u`j kf gjs bj`kubtjrfs
fs> pjsff` u`l sfbbc»jj` bj`stl`tf L.. F`tj`bfs, gl rfscstf`bcl
` trl`svfrslg bj`stl`tf L
L L ]<
]< 4 ]= 4
∩ 4
ς< G/
G/== ς= G/
G/== =
Ls»»ļ, gl kcofrf`bcl kf pjtf`bclg f`trf gjs fxtrfdjs kfg bj`kubtjr < fs>
Ls
=
_ < 4 ] < C 4 2 _ 8
4 ]
93
Bcrb
Bc rbuc
uctj
tjss fg»
fbtr
fb trcb2
cbjs
js
Fbulbcj`
Fbulbcj`fs
fs kf Dlx
Dlxwfgg
wfgg f` u`j kf gjs durj
durjs
s fxtf
fxtfrcjr
rcjrfs
fs kf gl V`cvfrsc
V`cvfrscklk
klk kf _lrsjvcl
lrsjvcl
58
Xrjmgfdl 2.<.
Rf tcf`f` kjs bj`kf`slkjrfs B < y B = bj` blrils c`cbclgfs \< (8) 4 8 y \= (8) 4 4 \8 rfspfbtcvldf`tf.
bj`kf`slkjr B = fst»l c`cbclgdf`tf bj`fbtlkj l u`l rfscstf`bcl ]. F` fg c`stl`tf
Fg bj`kf`slkjr c`stl`tf t 4 8 sf bj`fbtl fg
bj`kf`slkjr B < lg lrrfigj ojrdlkj pjr gl rfscstf`bcl y fg sfiu`kj bj`kf`slkjr, bjdj sf lprfbcl f` gl
bj`kf`slkjr
iurl. Gl c`tf`sck
c`tf`scklk lk kf gl bjrrcf`t
bjrrcf`tff fg»ffbtrcbl j` t 0 8 fs prjpjrbcj`lg l>
btrcbl plrl gl sctulbc»
j`
B<
+ -
B=
l) fxp
∝
</B < + </B
< /B =
t
=]
m) fxp
∝
</B < + </B
< /B =
t
]
b) fxp
∝ ∝
</B < </B =
t
]
k) fxp
∝
t
]B <
f) fxp
∝ t
](B < + B
+ B = )
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rlmfdjs quf gl bjrrcf`tf kurl`tf fg prjbfsj kf kfsblril fs>
] </B < + </B
< /B =
ϋ 4 </B < + </B C (t) 4 C 8 fxp
< /B = ∝↝ ∝ ]
t
5<
Xrjmgfdl 2.=.
F` fg sciucf`tf bcrbuctj, fg c`tfrruptjr el fstlkj bfrrlkj pjr u` glrij tcfdpj. F` t 4 8, fstf sf lmrf.
ºBu»llgg kfmcfsf sfr fg vlgjr kf gl rfscstf`bcl ], f` t»ffrdc`js
rdc `js kf B
B y [
[ plrl quf f` t 4 [
[ gl
g l bl»ļkl
ļkl kf
sfl _ /=:
vjgtlnf f` gl rfscstf`bcl sfl _
]
+
∝
_
[
l) ] 4
=B
=[
m) ] 4
B
b) ] 4 [
B g`(=)
g`(=)
[ g`(=)
g`(=)
k) ] 4
=B
f) @j sf pufkf kftf
kftfrdc`lr
rdc`lr
Rjgubc»
j`>
Kfspfnl`kj,
[
] 4
B g`(=)
g`(=)
Xrjmgfdl 2.2.
Bj`sckfrf fg bcrbuctj kf gl iurl. Gl bjrrcf`tf C < fst»l klkl pjr>
5=
<5 ℯ
?ℯ
3_ C= 2ℯ
+
∝
+
∝
C< C2
2_
l) C < 4 8.= L
m) C < 4 8.2 L
b) C < 4 8.6 L
k) C < 4 8.? L
f) C < 4 8.; L
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rfl` c < f c = gls bjrrcf`tfs quf bcrbugl` pjr gls dlggls, sfi»u
Rfl` c u`
` dufstrl gl sciucf`tf iurl>
<5 ℯ
?ℯ
3_ 2ℯ
+ c<
∝ c=
+
∝
2_
Lpgcbl`kj
Lpgcbl` kj fg d»ftjkj
ftjkj kf dlggls
dlggls,,
<5c + ?(c
∝3 + <5c < ?( c ∝ c ) + 2 4 8 ∩
< = ?(c=
?(c ∝ c ) + 2c2c ∝ 2 4 8
< =
]fsjgvcf`kj,
c< 4 8.; L ∩ c= 4 8.? L
C < 4 8.; L
Xrjmgfdl 2.;.
Bj`sckfrf fg scstfdl kfg Xrjmgfdl 2.2. Gl bjrrcf`tf C = fst»l klkl pjr>
l) C = 4 8.= L
=
52
m) C = 4 8.2 L
b) C = 4 8.6 L
k) C = 4 8.? L
f) C = 4 8.; L
Rjgubc»
j`>
bjrrcf`tf C = sf rfglbcj`l bj` `ufstrls bjrrcf`tfs
@jtfdjs quf gl bjrrcf`tf C bjrrcf`tfs c< f c = dfkcl`tf gl rfglbc»jj`>
`>
C = 4 c=
4 c ∝ c 4 8.= L
<
Xrjmgfdl 2.6.
Kftfrdc`f fg vlgjr kf gl bjrrcf`tf C kfg bcrbuctj kf gl iurl>
C kfg
C 28 _
+ ∝
+ ∝
?ℯ 28 ℯ
?8 ℯ
28 ℯ ;6 ℯ
== ℯ
l) C 4 ; L
m) C 4 ∝2 L
b) C 4 = L
k) C 4 < L
f) C 4 8.6 L
Rjgubc»
j`>
@jtfdjs quf gls rfscstf`bcls vfrtcblgfs fst»ll` ` f` plrlgfgj, pufstj quf sf f`buf`trl` l gl dcsdl
kcofrf`bcl kf p
pjtf`bclg.
jtf`bclg. Ls
Ls»»ļ, sc ggldld
ggldldjs ] < l gl rfscstf`bcl fqucvlgf`tf, tf`krfdjs quf>
js ]
∝<
]< 4
<
+
<
4 <5
<5 ℯ
28 ℯ ;6 ℯ
] 4 ] + ==
4 ] == ℯ 4 ;;88 ℯ
= <
5;
]; 4 ? ℯ + ]2 4 28
28 ℯ
Xrjmgfdl 2.?.
F` fg bcrbuctj kf gl iurl, C < 4 ; L. F`tj
F`tj`bfs
`bfs>>
=5_
=5 _
6ℯ
C<
x ?ℯ
ζ
C=
2ℯ
l) Gl bjrr
bjrrcf`
cf`tf
tf quf bcr
bcrbug
bugll p
pjr
jr gl rfscs
rfscstf`
tf`bcl
bcl kf 6 ℯ fs kf = L elbcl gl kfrf
kfrfbe
bell
m) Gl bjrrc
bjrrcf`tf C = f
f`tf fss 6 L
b) ζ v
vlgf
lgf ;= _
k) Rc fg bcrbuctj sf c`tf
c`tfrrud
rrudpf
pf (lmrf
(lmrf)) f` fg pu`tj x,, gl bjrr
pu`tj x bjrrcf`
cf`tf
tf quf bcrbugl pjr gl rfsc
rfscstf`
stf`bcl
bcl kf 6 ℯ fs
? L elbcl gl kfr
kfrfb
fbel
el
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
56
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rfl` c< f c= gls bjrrcf`tfs quf bcrbugl` pjr gls dlggl supfrcjr f c`ofrcjr, f` fg sf`tckj l`tc-ejrlrcj,
Rfl`
rfspfbtcvldf`tf. Gl rfglbc»j` bj` C < f C = vcf`f klkl pjr>
j` bj`
C < 4
4 c
c = ∝c ∩
< C = 4 c
4 c=
∝ ∝
?( c= c< ) ζ 4 8
2c= + ?(c
6c< ∝ + ζ +
=5 + ζ ∝
?( c< c= ) 4 8
+ ?(c
∝c= c< 4 ;
]fsjgvcf`kj,
c< 4 = L ∩ c= 4 ? L ∩ ζ 4 ;=
;= _
L< L=
<=_
L2
<=_
l) 2? Y
m) 6;Y
b) <85Y
k) <=Y
f) =;Y
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rfl` c< f c= gls bjrrcf`tfs quf bcrbugl` pjr gl dlggl bj` u`l y kjs ldpjggftls, rfspfbtcvldf`tf, f`
Rfl`
sf`tckj l`tc-ejrl
l`tc-ejrlrcj. rcj. Ls»ļļ,, lp
lpgcbl`kj
gcbl`kj gls ggfyfs
fyfs bcrbuctl
bcrbuctlgfs>
gfs>
;(c<
<= + ;(c ∝c )= 4 8
;c= + ;(c
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f) ψ] = ¶8 N s /G
Rjgubc»
j`>
Bjdj ]
Bjdj ≮
G, fg bldpj loufr
loufrll sf pufk
pufkff bj`sc
bj`sckfrlr
kfrlr `ugj. Lpgcbldjs gl gfy kf Ldp
Ldphhffrf
rf sjmrf u`
bcrbuctj rfbtl`iuglr, bj` u` glkj lkf`trj (f` fg fnf, kj`kf qufrfdjs blgbuglr fg bldpj) y fg jtrj
pu`tj r 0 ]
glkj loufrl (f` u` pu`tj ])) kj`kf fg bldpj fs bfrj. Fg lgtj kfg bcrbuctj rfbtl`iuglr fs e.
e . Ls»ļ,
ˑ
¹
M kr 4 M(8)
4 M (8)ee ∝ M(r)e 4 ¶ C
4 ¶ f`bfrrlkj 4 ¶ 8 N s e
8 f`bfrrlkj
<82
Xrjmgfdl ;.;.
[rfs lgldmrfs rfbtjs fst»ll`
` kcspufstjs f` ojrdl plrlgfgl bjdj sf dufstrl f` gl iurl. Gjs lgldmrfs
fst»ll` kcstl`bcl k u`j kf jtrj, y pjr gjs trfs bcrbugl gl dcsdl bjrrcf`tf
` sfplrlkjs u`l kcstl`bcl bjrrcf`tf C . Gjs lgldmrfs
fst»ll`
` gcdctlkjs l djvfrsf f` fg pgl`j. Fg kfg bf`trj sf f`buf`trl f` fqucgcmrcj fstlmgf sc gls bjrrcf`tfs
tcf`f` fg sciucf`tf sf`tckj>
(L)
l) Blsj (L
(M )
m) Blsj (M
(B )
b) Blsj (B
(K)
k) Blsj (K
f) @u`b
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f`buf`
f`trl
trl f` fquc
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f`buf`trl` jmgcilkjs l djvfrsf f` fg pgl`j, ely u`l pjscbc»jj` ` kf fqucgcmrcj fstlmgf plrl fg lgldmrf
kfg dfkcj. Rf f`buf`trl f` fqucgcmrcj sc lg kfspglzlrsf elbcl u` glkj gl oufrzl `ftl gj elbf vjgvfr l
su pjscbc»jj`
` jrcic`lg. Gl sctulbc»jj` (B ),
` kf fqucgcmrcj fstlmgf fs fg Blsj (B ), pufstj quf ldmjs lgldmrfs
rfpfgf` lg kfg dfkcj1 sc sf lbfrbl l u` blmgf, fstf gj rfpfgf bj` d»ls c`tf`scklk quf fg quf fst»l d»ls ls
gfnjs y gj kfvufgvf l su pjscbc»jj`.
`.
Xrjmgfdl ;.6.
Bj`sckfrf u` bj`ku
Bj`sckfrf bj`kubtjr
btjr pgl`j, kf fspfsj
fspfsjrr kfspr
kfsprfbcl
fbclmgf,
mgf, umcblkj f` fg pgl`j U S .
pgl`j U S . Xjr fstf pgl`j bcrbugl
u`l kf`scklk kf bjrrcf`tf gc`flg N 8 ˏ
ļ bjdj sf duf
dufstrl
strl f` gl iurl
iurl.. Fg bldpj dli`
dli`»»fftcbj
tcbj f` gl rfic»
j`
j`
z 0 8 fs>
l) ∝(¶ N /=) ˏ
8 8
+(¶ N /=) ˏ
m) +(¶
8 8
b) ∝¶ N ˏļ
8 8
<8;
k) +¶8 N 8 ˏ
ļ
f) ∝=¶ N ˏ
8 8
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fgficdjs
Fgficdjs lpgcb
lpgcblr
lr gl gfy kf Ldp
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rf lg bcrb
bcrbuctj
uctj rfbt
rfbtl`iuglr
l`iuglr bj` u` mjrkf oufrl, fg jtrj lkf`tr
lkf`trjj y
kcdf`scj`fs G, e rfbjrrckj l`tc-ejrlrcj. Xjr scdftr
kcdf`scj`fs scdftr»»ļl, fg bldp
bldpjj fs ci
ciulg
ulg f` d»jjkugj
kugj f` gjs kjs glkjs
plrlgfgjs quf sf f`buf`trl` fquckcstl`tfs kfg pgl`j. F`tj`bf
F`tj`bfs,s, bjdj fg bldpj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj lpu`tl f`
gl dcsdl kcrfbbc»jj` ` quf ldmjs sfidf`tjs plrlgfgjs, `js qufkl>
=MG
MG 4 ¶ 8 N 8 G
4 ¶
Xrjmgfdl ;.?.
Bj`sckfrf u` bcgc`krj s»jgckj, rlkcj l y
jgckj, kf rlkcj l y DVS glrij, pjr fg bulg bcrbugl u`l kf`scklk kf bjrrcf`tf bj`
scdf
sc dftr»
tr»ļl
ļl bcg
bc g»ļ`
ļ`kr
krcb
cbll N (r) 4 (< r /l )N 8 ˏ
∝ = =
fnf ^ . Fg d»jjkugj
a plrlgfgl lg fnf kugj kfg bldp
bldpjj dli`»fftcbj f` r 0 l
tcbj f`
fs>
¶8 l= N 8
l)
=r
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m)
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b ) 8[
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k)
=
¶8 r = N 8
f)
;l
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl ;.9.
F` gl dcsdl sctulbc»jj`
` kfg Xrjmgfdl ;;.?,
.?, fg bldpj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj f` r 7 l tcf`f dli`ctuk>
f` r
r=
l)
¶8 N 8 r
∝
<
= l=
¶8 N 8 r
m)
=
r=
b)
¶8 N 8 r
<+ =
= l
¶8 N 8 r r=
k) <+
= =l=
¶8 N 8 r
r=
f) <∝
= =l=
Rjgubc»
j`>
Ls»ļ,
¶8 N 8 r r=
M (r 7 l
l)) 4 = =l=
∝ <
<8?
Xrjmgfdl ;.5.
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bldpjj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj u`cojrdf,
bjdj dufstrl gl iurl.
º\u»
º\ u»f prjt
pr jt»»jj`
` fs fg d»llss vfgjz:
Rjgubc»
j`>
dv = |q |rM
q vM
|| vM 4
4 ∝↝ v 4
r d
Xrjmgfdl ;.3.
F` fg fxpfrcdf`
fxpfrcdf`tj tj kf Xrjmgfdl ;.5, sc ldmjs prjtj`fs f`trl` l gl zj`l bj` bldpj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj lg dcsdj
tcfdpj, ºbu»llgg vl l slgcr kf fstl zj`l prcdfrj:
l) L slgf prcdfrj
m) M slgf prcdfrj
@c L `c M slgf` pjrquf elbf` vufgtls bcrbuglrfs
b) @c L
<89
f) @j sf pufkf kfbckcr
Rjgubc»
j`>
sltcsolbf v 4
Bjdj gl rlpckfz l`iuglr sltcsolbf v σrr, f`tj`bfs>
4 σ
σ 4
|q |M
d
Xrjmgfdl ;.<8.
V` pjrtlkjr
bj` kf(kcofrf`bcl
u` vjgtlnf blril fst»l scf`kj lbfgfrlkj
lbfgfrlk
kf pjtf`bclg)
pjtf`bclg) V j. kfsk
kfskf
f fgffs,
Kfspu» s,rfpjsj,
f`trl lf`u`l
gl pjscbc»` J,,bldpj
zj`lj` J
jbj` pjr
p jr kjsdli`»
fgfbtrjkjs F < y F
fgfbtrjkjs F
fftcbj y F f=
tcbj u`cojrd
u`cojrdf
(vfr iurl).
M i url). Ely kj
kjss llpfrtu
pfrturls trcbls L y M .
rls scd»fftrcbls
(L)
F < F = l
(M )
l) F < `filtcvj,
`filtcvj, F = pjsctcvj, slgckl pjr lpfrturl M
lpfrturl M
m) F < pjsctcvj,
pjsctcvj, F = `filtcvj, slgckl pjr lpfrturl M
lpfrturl M
b) F < pjsctcvj,
pjsctcvj, F = `filtcvj, slgckl pjr lpfrturl L
lpfrturl L
<85
k) F < `filtcvj,
`filtcvj, F = pjsctcvj, slgckl pjr lpfrturl L
lpfrturl L
f) @j pufkf slgcr
Rjgubc»
j`>
pgl`j U S ,
Fgcnldjs fg scstfdl kf bjjrkf`lkls kf djkj quf fg pgl`j kfg plpfg bjc`bckl bj` fg pgl`j U S , bj`
ˏ
u` ^ slgcf`kj
fg fnf ^
fnf
blril slgcf`kj
`filtcvlkfg plpfg.
scf`tf u`lGloufrzl
vfgjbcklk c`cbclg
kcrcickl fs v 8 ˏ
fs v
jfg
` bldpj
f` kcrfbbc»j` ļ y
ˏ y sfdli`»
fftcbj
burvl
∝ tcbj M a. Xjr
fs lmlnj,
elbcl ∝ gj tl`tj,
slgcf`kj pjr
M . Xjr jtrj glkj gjs fgfbtrjkjs F < y F = tcf`f` quf lbfgfrlr gl blril. Bjdj sf trltl kf u`l blril
`filtcvl, quf sf dufvf kf pjtf`bclg mlnj elbcl pjtf`bclg lgtj, F lgtj, F = tcf`f quf sfr fg fgfbtrjkj pjsctcvj.
Xrjmgfdl ;.<<.
Bj`sckfrl`kj gl bj`iurlbc»jj` ` kfg Xrjmgfdl ;.<8, sc fg pjrtlkjr kf blril fs u` prjt»jj`,
`, ºf` qu»f rl`
rl`ij
ij
vjgtlnf V fg
kf vjgtlnf V ` plsl pjr u`l kf gls lpfrturls, L j M :
fg prjt»jj`
M = qm= M = ql=
l) 7V 7
5d 5d
= =
M = q G= M = q G=
m)
7V 7
=d =l =d =m
= =
M = q m= + G= M = q l= + G=
b)
7V 7
=d =G =d =G
= =
M = q l= + G= M = q m= + G=
k)
7V 7
=d =l =d =m
= =
M = q lm + G= M = q lm G=
f)
lm + G
7V 7
lm +
+ G
=d =l =d =m
Rjgubc»
j`>
F` gl sciucf`tf iurl kcmunldjs gl trlyfbtjrcl bcrbuglr kf u`l blril quf slgf pjr gl plrtf c`ofrcjr
lpfrturl L.. Fstl fs gl trlyfbtjrcl d»llss vfgjz quf slgf pjr
kf gl lpfrturl L L,, yl quf sc vl d»llss r»llpckj,
pjr L pckj, sf burvl
df`js y bejbl bj` gl plrfk>
<83
]
l
]
m
dv=
4 qvM
q vM
]
y su f`fri
f`fri»»ļl bc`»fftcbl
tcbl fs prjk
prjkubtj
ubtj kf gl lbfgfrlbc»jj` vjgtlnf V , fs kfbcr>
` quf gf kl fg vjgtlnf
dv =
4 qV
=
qM =
V 4
]=
=d
Kf gl iurl sf vf quf>
]= 4 G = + (]
(] ∝ m) ∝↝ =
] 4 G= + m=
=m
]ffdpglzl`kj fstf rlkcj f` gl o»jrdugl
jrdugl l`tfrcjr, sf jmtcf`f quf>
=
qM = G= + m=
V 4
=d =m
Fstl fs gl trlyfbtjrcl kf d»llxcdl xcdl vfgjbcklk, y pjr gj tl`tj bjrrfspj`kf lg vjgtlnf d»llxcdj.xcdj. Gl
trlyfbtjrcl quf slgf pjr fg fxtrfdj supfrcjr kf gl lpfrturl L fs gl quf slgf l df`jr vfgjbcklk, y fg
kfslrrjggj
kfslrrj ggj lgifmrl
lgifmrlcbj
cbj fs cck»f`tcbj, c`tfrbldmcl`kj l
k»f`tcbj, m. Ls
Ls»»ļ, gl lgtfr`l
lgtfr`ltcvl
↛ tcvl bjr
bjrrfbtl
rfbtl fs>
= = = = = = = =
=dq l =+l G
M
=dq m +
7 V 7 M =m G
<<8
Xrjmgfdl ;.<=.
V` fgfbtr»jj` ∝ tcbj u`cojrdf M
(blril q 4 f) plsl kf`trj kf u`l zj`l bj` bldpj dli`»fftcbj
` (blril , kfsbrcmcf`kj
u`l trlyfbtjrcl f` ojrdl kf lrbj y bj` kcstl`bcl rfbjrrckl G.
G . ºBu»ll`tj
`tj lud
ludf`tl
f`tl su f`fri»ļl
ļl bc`»fftcbl:
tcbl :
l) 8 N
m) +fMG
b) ∝fMG
k) +fMG/
fMG/==
f) ∝ fMG
∞ =
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl ;.<2.
V` pjrtlkjr kf blril q
q y dlsl d f`trl
f`trl l u`l zj`l bj` bldpj dli`»fftcbj tcbj M y bldp fbtrc bj F
bldpjj fg»fbtrcbj
plrlgfgjs f u`cojrdfs, y kfspu» ffss slgf kf fggl (vfr iurl). Gl vfgjbcklk c`cbclg fs jrtjij`lg l gjs bldp
bldpjs. js.
ºBu»ll`tj
`tj bldmc
bldmcll gl f`fr
f`frii»ļl bc`»fftcbl
tcbl kfg fgfbt
fgfbtr»
r»jj`
` f` fstf rfbjrrckj:
v8
F
M
l) 8N
=
d F
m) ∝ =
ψ
M
=
b) + d ψ F
= M
=
F
+=d ψ
k) +=d
M
<<<
=
F
f) =d ψ
∝ M
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fgcnldjs fg scstfdl kf bjjrkf`lkls kf djkj quf fg pgl`j kfg plpfg sfl fg pgl`j U S S bj` fg fnf
fnf ^
slgcf`kj kfg plpfg. Lg f`trlr l gl rfic»jj`
` bj` bldpjs `j `ugjs, gl plrt
plrt»»ļbugl vl l icrlr f` fg pgl`j U ^
pgl`j U
j` ˏ. Gl bjdpj`f`tf vfrtcblg kf gl vfgjbcklk sfr»ll,, f`tj`bfs,
y lbfgfrlr f` gl kcrfbbc»j`
qF
vy (t) 4 t
d
y=
Gl f`f
f`fri»
ri»ļ l bc`»fftcbl
tc bl lu df`tll dv , pjr gj quf gl rfspuf
ludf`t rfspufstl
stl bjrrfbtl
bjrrfbtl fs>
=
=
d F
+ ψ
= M
Xrjmgfdl ;.<;.
Fg Rjkcj,
Rj kcj, f` plrtcbuglr, fs u` bj`kubtjr kj`kf gl tfjr
tfjr»»ļl bg»llscbl
scbl kfg fofbtj Elgg `js kl rfsugtlkjs lprj-
xcdlkldf`tf bjrrfbtjs. Bj`sckfrf u` sfidf`tj bj`kubtjr kf sjkcj kf fspfsjr m 4 < dd y l`b l`beurl
url
l 4 = dd, bjdj sf dufst
dufstrl
rl f` gl iurl. Fg bj`kubt
bj`kubtjrjr pjrtl u`l bjrrcf
bjrrcf`tf
`tf bj`s
bj`stl`
tl`tf
tf kf C 4 < L y ffst
kf C st»»l
bjgjblkj f` u` bldpj dli`»fftcbjtcbj u`cojrdf kf M 4 < [ pfrpf`
pfrpf`kcbkcbugl
uglrr lg pgl`j ∝ ∝
pgl`j l b. F` bj`sfbuf`bcl,
sf prjkubf u` vjgtlnf Elgg kf 8.=6 ¶ _.
∝ _. Kftfrdc`f gl bj`bf`trlbc»jj` ` kf gjs fgfbtrj`fs gcmrfs f` fg sjkcj,
∝<3
quf f 4
rfbjrkl`kj quf f 4 <.? <8 B.
∝ Ù
M
b
m
l
C
=5
l) ` 4 =.88 Ù <8 d∝2
<<=
∝=5
m) ` 4 =.88 Ù <8 d∝2
=5
b) ` 4 <.=6 Ù <8 d∝2
=5
k) ` 4 =.68 Ù <8 d∝2
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Ciulgl`kj
Ciulg l`kj gls oufrzls fg»ffbtrcbl
btrcbl y dli`»fftcbl
tcbl quf lbt»u
ul`
l` sjmrf gjs p
pjrtlkj
jrtlkjrfs
rfs kf blril, f`bj`
f`bj`trldjs
trldjs>>
qF 4
qF qvM
4 qv M ∝↝ F 4 v
vMM
_
_ 4 lvM
Oc`lgdf`tf, gl bjrrcf`tf `js lyukl l kftfrdc`lr gl vfgjbcklk kf gls blrils, pufstj quf C
C 4 f`vlm
f`vlm..
Ls»ļ,
MC MC < <
¹
_
_ 4 ∝↝ ` 4 4 d ∝2 4 =.68 Ù <8 =5
d∝2
f`m f_ m <.? Ù <8∝<3 8.=6 <8∝? <
¹ Ù ¹ Ù <8 ∝2
Xrjmgfdl ;.<6.
bjrrcf`tf C bj`
Xjr u` blmgf bjlxclg DVS glrij bcrbugl u`l bjrrcf`tf C bj` kf`scklk bj`stl`tf f` blkl bj`kubtjr. Gl
bjrrcf`tf f`trl pjr fg bj`kubtjr c`tfr`j y rfirfsl pjr fg fxtfr`j. Ldmjs blmgfs fst»ll` ` sfplrlkjs pjr u`
pfrdflmcgcklk ¶8 . Kftfrdc`f fg bldpj dli`»fftcbj
dltfrclg lcsgl`tf kf pfrdflmcgcklk tcbj f` u` pu`tj m 7 r 7 b kfg
pu`tj m b kfg fnf όˏ
sfi»
u
u`` c`kcbl gl iurl.
l m b r
r = =
l)
¶8 C
∝
<+ =
∝m
=ψr b ∝m =
m) 8[
¶8 C
b)
=ψr
r = + m=
k)
¶8 C
∝ <+ =
=ψr b + m=
<<2
¶8 C (m l)
∝
f)
=ψr
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fgficdjs u` scstfdl bjjrkf`lkj f` fg quf fg pgl`j kfg plpfg bjc`bckf bj` fg pgl`j U S , S , bj` fg fnf
^ slgcf`kj
slgcf`kj kf gl ejnl. Kf gl gfy kf Ldphffrf,
rf, prjpj `fdjs quf M
prjpj`fdjs 4 M
4 M((r ) ˏ
ε y bj` fggj>
M (r) 4 ¶ C
8 f`b
f`b
=ψr M (r ) 4 ¶8 C f`b
f`b ∝↝ =ψr
Bjdj kfsf
kfsfldjs
ldjs blgbu
blgbuglr
glr fg bldpj dli`
dli`»»fftcbj
tcbj f` u` pu` tj m 7 r 7 b,
pu`tj b, `jtldjs quf f` l`cggj
ldpfrcl`j f`bcfrrl bjdpgftldf`tf l gl bjrrcf`tf c`tfrcjr y sjgj plrtf kf gl bjrrcf`tf kfg bj`kubtjr
fxtfrcjr. Xjr tl`tj,
C f`b
f`b 4 ∝+ N (ψr = ψm= )
C + N ∝
` klkjs pjr gl rfigl kf gl dl`j kfrfbel y N fs
kj`kf gjs sci`js kf gls bjrrcf`tfs fst»ll` N fs gl kf`scklk kf
bjrrcf`tf f` fg bj`kubtjr fxtfr`j, quf lg sfr bj`stl`tf pjr f`u`bclkj, budpgf quf>
C
N 4 = =
ψb ∝ ψm
]ffdpglzl`kj,
r = =
M (r ) 4
¶8 C
∝ <+ =
∝m
=ψr b =
∝m
Xrjmgfdl ;.<?.
V`l fspcrl bcrbuglr kf rlkcj ] 4 8.6 bd fs bjg
bjgjblk
jblkll bf
bfrbl
rbl l u` lgld lgldmrfmrf rfb
rfbtj
tj y DV
DVSS glr
glrij,
ij, sfi»u`
u`
c`kcbl gl iurl. V`l bjrrcf`tf fstlbcj`lrcl C
C 4
4 = L vl kf czq
czqucf
ucfrklrkl l kfrkfrfb
fbel
el pjr fg lgld
lgldmrf
mrf rfb
rfbtj.
tj. Rc
f` gl fspcrl bcrbuglr tldmc»ff`
` ely u`l bjrrcf`t fstlbcj`lrcl C ffsp
bjrrcf`tff fstlbcj`lrcl sp , ºbu»
llgg kfmf sfr su dli`ctuk plrl quf
fg bldpj
bldp j dli
dli`»
`»fftcbj
tcbj `ftj sfl bfrj f` fg bf`trj kf gl fspcrl:
]/
]/==
C
l) 8.;= L
m) 8.<6 L
b) =.88 L
k) =.6; L
<<;
f) 8.2< L
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rc tjdldjs u` scstfdl bjjrkf`lkj tlg quf ldmls iurls fst»ff` ` umcblkls f` fg pgl`j U S ,
pgl`j U S , bj` fg fnf
^ slgcf`kj
slgcf`kj kfg plpfg y fg lgldmrf rfbtj bjc`bckcf`kj bj` fg fnf U
U .. F` fstf scstfdl kf bjjrkf`lkls,
gl fg bldp
bldpjj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj quf if`frl fg lgldmrf f` fg jjrcif`
rcif` fs>
fsp (z ) 4 ¶8
ˏ C k] Ù (r ∝ ] )
fsp
fsp
M
;ψ r ∝ ]
2
¶ C
8 fsp
fsp
ˏ ] kε ˏε Ù (z ˏa ∝ ] ˏό)
=ψ
4
;ψ 8 (]= + z = )2/=
=
4 ¶=8 C (]= + ˏ
] z = )2/= a
Xrjmgfdl ;.<9.
rlkcj ] fst»
V`l fsofrl kf rlkcj ] fst»l blrilkl u`cojrdfdf`
u`cojrdfdf`tf
tf bj` u`l kf`scklk vjgud
vjgud»»fftrcbl
trcbl kf blril ό bj`stl`tf.
blril ό bj`stl`tf.
Gl fsofrl rjtl f` tjr`j l u`j kf sus kc»lldftrjs
dftrjs bj` vfgjbcklk bj`stl`tf 4 σ ˏ
bj`stl`tf σ a. F`buf`trf fg bldpj
dli`»fftcbj
tcbj f` fg bf`trj k
kff ggll fsofrl.
¶8 ό]=
l) M
(8) 4 ∝
σ
2
=
m) M
(8) 4 ∝ =¶ 2ό] σ
8
¶8 ό]=
b) M
(8) 4
σ
2
=¶8 ό]=
k) M (8) 4 σ
2
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`tfrc
l`tfrcjrfs
jrfs
<<6
Rjgubc»
j`>
Bj`sckfrlrfdjs quf gl fsofrl fst»l bjdpufstl pjr kcsbjs c``ctfscdlgfs. L su vfz, blkl u`l kf fsjs
kcsbjs fst»l bjdpufstj pjr l`cggjs c``ctfscdlgfs. Blkl l`cggj lpjrtl bj` u` kcofrf`bclg kf bldpj
dli`
dl i`»»fftcb
t cbj>
j>
¶8 kC l= ˏ
kM 4 a
= (l= + z = )2/=
¶8 σό ψ ]
r= sc`= ε =
ˏ ˏ
M (B ) 4 ˏ
r sc` ε kr kε a
= r 2
8 8
¶8 σό ψ ]
ˏ ˏ ˏ
4 r sc`2 ε kr kε a
= 8 8
=
¶8 σό] ˏ
4 a
2
Xrjmgfdl ;.<5.
V` blmgf rfbtj DVS glrij, bjgjblkj l gj glrij kfg fnf ^ fnf ^ ,, ggfvl u`l bjrrcf`tf
bjrrcf`tf C f`
C f` gl kcrfbbc»jj`
` pjsctcvl
kf z . Rf bjgjbl u` kcpjgj dli`»fftcbj
kf tcbj d
4 d 8 ˏ fnf U , l u`l kcstl`bcl
f` fg fnf kcstl`bcl x p kfg lgldmrf. Fg tjrquf
sjmrf d fs>
ϋ 4
l) ϋ 8
d8 C ˏ
m) ϋϋ 4 a
=ψx p
d8 C
b) ϋϋ 4 ˏ
ļ
=ψx p
d8 C
k) ϋϋ 4 ˏ
=ψx
p
f) ϋϋ 4 ∝ d C ˏļ
8
=ψx p
<<?
Rjgubc»
j`>
4 ¶8 C εˏ
M
=ψr
F` bjjrkf`lkls blrtfscl`ls,
r 4
x= + y = , εˏ 4
x ˏ y ˏ
ļ
x= + y =
∝
Bjdj kfsfldjs fg bldpj dli`»fftcbj x p , 8),
tcbj f` fg pu`tj ((x
Ls»ļ,
ϋϋ 4 d
Ù M kcpjgj 4
8
Xrjmgfdl ;.<3.
bjrrcf`tf C < , f` fg sf`tckj kfg fnf ^
V` lgldmrf c``ctj bj` bjrrcf`tf C fnf ^ , bjc`bckf bj` kcbej fnf. Jtrj lgldmrf c``ctj,
bjrrcf`tf C = , sf f`buf`trl f` fg pgl`j U S
bj` bjrrcf`tf S l u`l kcstl`bcl
kcstl`bcl k bj`stl`tf kfg fnf S ,
S , bjdj c`kcbl gl
iurl. F`tj`bfs, gl oufrzl pjr u`cklk kf glrij kf C < sjmrf sjmrf C = fs>
C =
z
C < x
¶8 C < C = y
kO
l) 4 ˏ
a
ky ;ψ k= + y =
¶8 C < C = k
kO
m) 4 ˏ
a
ky ;ψ k + y = =
<<9
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
kO
O M
4 C = ky ˏ
Ù (k, y ) 4 C
4 C = ky ˏ
Ù =ψ (k¶ C + y ) (∝y ˏļ + k ˏ) 4 =¶ψ(C kC +y yky) aˏ
8 <
= =
8 < =
= =
Xrjmgfdl ;.=8.
Rf tcf`f u` blsblr»j`
j` sfdc-fso
sfdc-fso»»ffrcbj rlkcj ] l trlv»fs
rcbj (sc` tlpl) kf rlkcj fs kfg bulg uyf u` bldpj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj
<
M 4 M 8 ˏ
4 M ļ + = ˏ
. F`tj`bfs, fg unj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj l trlv»fs
fs kfg blsblr»jj`
` fs>
=ψ] =
l) ίM 4 M8
2
m) ίM 4 =ψ] = M8
b) ίM 4 8
ψ] =
k) ίM 4 M8
=
f) @c`iu`l kf gls l`tfrcjrfs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rfl R gl
Rfl R gl supfrbcf kfsbrctl f` fg f`u`bclkj, y K gl tlpl kf djkj tlg quf R + K
+ K fs
fs u`l supfrbcf
vjgudf` _ .
bfrrlkl quf f`bcfrrl u` vjgudf` _ . Ls
Ls»»ļ, pjr fg tfjrfdl kf gl kcvfrif
kcvfrif`bcl,
`bcl,
¨ ˞
M `
ˏ kR 4
¹ 4 ∉ ¹ M k_
k_ 4 8
R +K _
bj` gls `jrdlgfs lpu`tl`kj elbcl loufrl. Gl tlpl sf pufkf plrldftrczlr bjdj>
[
[ > (r, ε) (8,, r bjs ε, r sc` ε)
↝ (8
<<5
Ls»ļ,
ψ ]= M8
ίM 4 ψ]
Xrjmgfdl ;.=<.
Rf rflgczl
rflg czl u` fxpfrcd
fxpfrcdf`tj
f`tj bj` rlyjs kf pl
plrt
rt»»ļbugls blrilkl
blrilklss quf c`bckf` f` u` bldp
bldpjj dli
dli`» `»fftcbj
tcbj u
u`cojrdf
`cojrdf
kf dli`ctuk M 4 8.6 [ (v(vfr
fr iu
iurl)
rl).. Rf slmf quf gls plr plrtt»ļbu
ļbugls
gls c`b
c`bckf
ckf`
` bj` u`l vfgjb
fgjbcklcklkk kf
kf v 4
? ∝<
8.6 <8 d s . Rupj`il quf, llgg f`trlr l gl zj`l kf bldpj dli`»fftcbj tcbj `j `ugj, gls plrt
plrt»»ļbugls kfsbrcmf`
u`l »jjrmctl
Ù rmctl sfdc-bcrbuglr kf rlkcj ] 4
rlkcj ] 4 <.6 d. Kfsprf
Kfsprfbcl`k
bcl`kjj fofb
fofbtjs
tjs kf gl irlv
irlvfklk,
fklk, pjkfdjs kfkubcr quf
gl rlz»jj`
` blril/dlsl fs>
=]
? ∝<
l) q/d
q/d 4
4 =/2 Ù <8 B ai
? ∝<
m) q/d
q/d 4
4 2/; Ù <8 B ai
? ∝<
b) q/d 4 ∝=/2 Ù <8 B ai
q/d 4
? ∝<
k) q/d
q/d 4
4 ∝2/; Ù <8 B ai
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrcdfrj
Xrcdfrj quf tjkj, `jtf
`jtfdjs
djs quf gl rfig
rfigll kf gl dl`j kfrfb
kfrfbel
el `js c`kcbl quf gls plrt
plrt»»ļbugl
ļbuglss kfmf`
<<3
tf`fr blril `filtcvl plrl quf gl trlyfbtjrcl sfl bjdj gl kfsbrctl f` gl iurl. Lejrl mcf`, rfspfbtj
l gl dli`ctuk kf gl blril, tf`fdjs quf>
dv= ?
||
q vM
vM 4
4
]
∝↝ |dq | 4 M]
v
4
8.6 Ù <8
8.6 ¹ <.6
=
4 Ù <8
2
?
B ai∝<
Xrjmgfdl ;.==.
rlkcj ] y blril
V` l`cggj kf rlkcj blril \ fst»l rjtl`kj bj` vfgjbcklk l`iuglr
l`iuglr σ f` tjr`j lg fnf ^ . Gl dli`ctuk
kfg bldpj dli`»fftcbj fnf ^ , f` u` pu`tj DVS gfnl`j kfg l`cggj (z
tcbj f` fg fnf ( z ]), ≮
≮
] ), pufkf sfr lprjxcdlkj
pjr>
¶8 \σ] =
l)
;ψz 2
¶8 \σ]
m)
;ψz =
=
b) ¶ \σ]
8
5ψz 2
¶8 \σ]
k)
5ψz =
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
bj` [ fg
bj` [ fg pfrcjkj kf rjtlbc»jj`.
`. Lejrl mcf`, fg bldpj dli`»fftcbjtcbj prjkubckj pjr u`l fspcrl kf rlkcj ]
rlkcj ]
bjrrcf`tf C f`
pjr gl quf bcrbugl u`l bjrrcf`tf C f` su fn
fnff kf scdftr
scdftr»»ļl tcf`f dli`ct
dli`ctuk>
uk>
¶8 C ]=
M (z ) 4
= (z = + ]= )2/=
Rc z
Rc z
≡ ], f`tj`bfs pjkfdjs lprjxcdlr gl fxprfsc»jj`` l`tfrcjr elstl jmtf`fr>
≡
¶8 C ]=
M (z ≡ ]) ∷
≡ = z 2
]ffdpglzl`kj>
¶8 \σ] =
M (z
≡ ]) ∷
≡
;ψz 2
<=8
Xrjmgfdl ;.=2.
plrt»»ļbugl kf blril q 0 8 y dlsl d c`irfsl bj` vfgjbcklk
V`l plrt vfgjbcklk v 4 v ˏļ l u`l rfic»jj`
` bj` u` bldpj
t cbjj M
dlii`»fftcb
dl bj`stl`tf, bjdj c`kcbl gl iurl. ºL qu»f kcstl`bcl
kcstl`bcl k, kfg pgl`j kf f`trlkl, fs kftfbtlkl
gl pl
plrt»
rt»ļļbugl
bu gl::
v
M
k
y
l) k 4
dvG
qM
dvG
m) k 4 G=
qM ∝
dv
b) k 4
qM
k) k 4
=dvG
∝G =
qM
f) k 4 G
4 G
Rjgubc»
j`>
dv= dv
qv M 4
qvM ∝↝ ] 4
] qM
G
k
] ∝ G
]
<=<
Xjr Xct»llijrls,
ijrls, ∞
=
(] ∝ G) + k= 4 ] = ∝↝ k 4 =]G =
∝G
]ffdpglzl`kj,
=dvG =
k 4 ∝G
qM
Xrjmgfdl ;.=;.
blril \ 0 8 f`trl bj` pjscbc»jj`
V`l blril c`cbclg r(8) 4
` c`cbclg vfgjbcklk v (8) 4
8 y vfgjbcklk 4 v8 ˏļ f` u` fsplbcj f`trf kjs
kcstl`bcl k,, sjdftckls l u`l kcofrf`bcl kf pjtf`bclg
pglbls plrlgfgls (blplbctjr), quf sf f`buf`trl` l u`l kcstl`bcl k
V .
V . Lkfd»lls,
s, f` fg fsplbcj f`trf gls pglbls ely u` bldpj dli`»fftcbj tcbj M
4 M ļ + My
4 M x ˏ ˏ. Lsudcf`kj quf fg
bldpjj fg»fbtrcbj
bldp blplbctjrr fs bj`stl`tf, ºbj` qu»f vfgjbcklk v8 tcf`f quf f`trlr gl plrt
fbtrcbj f` fg blplbctj plrt»»ļbugl plrl
quf slgil f` gg»»ļ`fl rfbtl p
pjr
jr gl lmfrturl c`kcblkl f` fg glkj kfrfbej kf gl iurl:
z
y
x
\
M k
v
V
V
l) v8 4 Mx k
V
m) v8 4 Mx = + My = k
V
b) v8 4
My k
V
k) v8 4 Mx = ∝M y
=
k
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubcj`>
<==
Bjdj gl oufrzl sjgj lpu`tl f` fg fnf ^ fnf ^ ,, lg sfr fstl `ugl gl vfgjbcklk kf gl plrt
plrt»»ļbugl sfr»l bj`stl`tf,
c.f. v
c.f. 4 v 8 . Xlrl quf gl oufrzl sfl `ugl, sf kfmf budpgcr quf>
v((t) 4 v
V
v8 4
My k
Xrjmgfdl ;.=6.
Gl oufrzl tjtlg sjmrf gl fspcrl kf gl iurl fs>
l) O
4 =ψrCM sc` ε a
O ˏ
m) O
4 =ψrCM bjs ε ˏ
O ό
b) O
4
O ∝=ψrCM sc` ε ˏό
4 ∝=ψrCM sc` ε a
k) O
O ˏ
f) O
O 4 ψrCM sc` ε a
<=2
Rjgubc»
j`>
4
M ˏ
M sc` ε όˏ + M bjs ε a
4 M
Xjr tl`tj,
k
ℒ M
4
Ù ˏ + bjs ε ϖ
rM kϖ sc` ε a
4 rM ˏ
Xrjmgfdl ;.=?.
Gl iurl dufstrl gl vfgjbcklk kf u`l blril pu`tulg `filtcvl y gl g l oufrzl dli`»fftcbl
tcbl quf lbt»u
ull sjmrf
fstl. Gl kcrfbbc»jj`
` kfg bldpj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj f` gls kcstc`tls sctulbcj`fs fs>
M
O M
O
M
O v
v v
(c) (cc) (ccc )
Xrjmgfdl ;.=9.
plrt»»ļbugl kf blril q 4
V`l plrt dlssl D
4 = B y dl D 4
4 < ai sf duf
dufvf pgl`jj U S .
vf f` fg pgl` S . F`
F` t 4 8, gl plrt
plrt»»ļbugl sf
pu`tj r8 4 ( <, 8, 8) d y su vf
f`buf`trl f` fg pu`tj ∝ vfgjbc
gjbcklk fs v8 4 (8.
klk fs (8.6, 8, 8) d/s. F` gl rficj`
rficj` x x 0 8 ely u`
tcbj u`cojrdf M
bldpjj dli`»fftcbj
bldp 4 (8
(8,, 8, M ), kj`kf
kj`kf M 4 8.6(@s)
6(@s)//(B d), bjd bjdjj sf duf
dufstr
strll gl iurl
iurl.. ºF`
qu»f c`stl`tf, lprjxcdlkl
lprjxcdlkldf`tf,
df`tf, gl plrt
plrt»»ļbugl slgf kf gl rfic»jj` ` kj`kf ely bldpj dli`»fftcbj:tcbj:
<=;
M
x
v8
l) ?.2 s
m) <.8 s
b) 9.< s
k) 5.2 s
f) 6.< s
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fg tcfd
tcfdpj
pj rfq
rfqufrck
ufrckjj bjrr
bjrrfspj`kf
fspj`kf l gl sudl kfg tcfdtcfdpj
pj quf gl plrt
plrt»»ļbug
ļbugll kfdjr
kfdjrll f` c`irfslr l gl
rfic»jj`
` bj` bldp tcbj (t< ) y fg tcfdpj quf kfdjrl f` klr dfkcl vufgtl plrl slgcr kfg bldpj
bldpjj dli`»fftcbj
(t= ). Klkj quf gl plrt
plrt»»ļbugl sf dufv f` x 7 8,
dufvff bj` vfgjbcklk bj`stl`tf f`
k <d
t< 4 4 4 = s
v8 8.6 d/s
t= 4 [ 4 <
≅
=ψd 2.<; < s
¹ ≅ 2.<; s
= = qM = 8.6
¹
Xjr tl`tj,
∏t 4 t< +
4 t t=
+ t ≅ 6.<; s
Xrjmgfdl ;.=5.
Blgbugf
Blgbugf gl dli`ct
dli`ctuk
uk kfg bldpj dli`dli`»»fftcbj
tcbj brfl
brflkj
kj pjr fg bcgc`
bcgc`krj
krj c``ctj kf gl iurl, sc fstf pjrtl u`l
]
kf`scklk kf bjrrcf`tf N
4 N 8 aˏ f` bjj
bjjrkf`lkls
rkf`lkls bcg
bcg»»ļ`krcbls
ļ`krcbls..
r
<=6
]
N
¶8 N 8 ]=
l) M (r 7 ])
] ) 4 ¶8 N 8 ] y M (r 0 ])
]) 4
r
¶8 N 8 r=
m) M (r 7 ]
])) 4 ¶8 N 8 r y M (r 0 ]
])) 4
]
¶8 N 8 ]=
b) M (r 7 ]
])) 4 y M (r 0 ]) 4 ¶8 N 8 ]
r
=ψ¶ 8 N 8 ]=
k) M (r 7 ]
])) 4 =ψ¶8 N 8 ] y M (r 0 ]
])) 4
r
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
r 7 ]
Xlrl r
Xlrl ],,
r
r ‽ kr ‽
8 r ‽ 4 =ψN 8 ]r
C f`b 4
¨ N ¹¹ `ˏ kR 4 =ψN ] ˏ 8
R
bj` gj quf>
M (r 7 ]) 4 ¶8 N 8 ]
r 0 ]
Xlrl r
Xlrl ],, ˏ ]
C f`b
f`b 4 =ψN 8 ] kr ‽ 4 =ψN 8 ]=
8
y, pjr tl`tj,
¶8 N 8 ]=
M (r 0 ]) 4
r
Xrjmgfdl ;.=3.
kcstl`bcl k y
Bj`sckfrf u` plr kf ecgjs `j bj`kubtjrfs plrlgfgjs, sfplrlkjs l u`l kcstl`bcl k (G
y DVS glrijs (G ≡ k).
<=?
Ldmjs pjsff` u`l blril kcstrcmuckl u`cojrdfdf`tf bj` kf`scklk α. ºBu»llgg kfmf sfr gl vfgjbcklk v
(dfkckl f` u` scstfdl c`frbclg) kf gjs ecgjs plrl quf gl oufrzl dli`»fftcbl
tcbl l`ugf gl oufrzl fg»ffbtrcbl
btrcbl f`trf
quf b 4 (¶8 ζ8 )∝</= 2 <85 d/s fs gl vfgjbcklk kf gl guz.
fggjs: ]fbufrkf quf ≅ Ù
α α
v v
l) v 4 <85 d/s
5
m) v 4 = Ù <8 d/s
b) v 4 ; <85 d/s
k) v 4 ? ÙÙ <8 5
d/s
5
f) v 4 2 Ù <8 d/s
Rjgubc»
j`>
4 α όˏ
F
=ψζ 8 r
kj`kf gl bjrrcf`tf quf bcrbugl, vcstj kfskf u` scstfdl rfofrf`bclg f` rfpjsj, fs C
C 4 αv
αv.. Gl oufrzl
dli`»fftcbl
tcbl sjmrf fg ssfiu`kj
fiu`kj lgldmrf sfr»l,
l, f`tj`bfs,
G = = G = =
¶8 α kz όˏ 4 ¶8 αv G όˏ
O
4 C
ˏ k
ℒ M
4
ˏ
Ù ∝ =ψkv ∝
M
8 8 =ψk
<=9
α= G ¶8 α= v = G
4
=ψζ 8 k =ψk
<
4 v=
¶ζ8
<
∻ v 4 ∞
¶8 ζ8
Xrjmgfdl ;.28.
bj` @
V` blmgf bj` @ vufgtls y bjrrcf`tf C
C f`rjggl rlkcjs ] y l 7 ] bjdj dufstrl gl iurl.
f`rjggl u` kj`ut kf rlkcjs
ºBu»ll`tj
`tj vlgf fg d»jjkugj
kugj kfg bldpj dli`»fftcbj (pu`tj r kf gl
tcbj f` bulgqucfr pu`tj kfg pgl`j kfg kj`ut (pu`tj
iurl):
4 8
l) M
4 ¶ @ C
m) M
8
ψr
4 ¶8 @ C
b) M
=ψr
4 ¶8 @ C
k) M
;ψr
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Gl scdftr
scdftr»»ļl kf gl bj`iurlbc» ` `js pfrdctf prjpj`fr quf M
jj` 4 M (r) εˏ. Bj`sckfrfdjs u` l`cggj
rlkcj r f` fg c`tfrcjr kfg kj`ut , tlg quf k
ldpfrcl`j kf rlkcj r 4 r kε ˏ
quf kr 4 r ε . Xjr gfy kf Ldphffrf,
rf,
ˑ
M
kr 4 =ψr M (r ) 4 ¶8 C f`b
¹ f`b 4 @ C
Xjr tl`tj,
¶8 @ C
M M(
M (r )
=ψr
<=5
C`kubtl`bc
C`kubt l`bcls
ls y unj dli`»
ftcbj
ftcb j 6
Fbulbcj`
Fbulbcj`fs
fs kf Dlx
Dlxwfgg
wfgg f` u`j kf gjs durj
durjs
s fxtf
fxtfrcjr
rcjrfs
fs kf gl V`cvfrsc
V`cvfrscklk
klk kf _lrsjvcl
lrsjvcl
<=3
Xrjmgfdl 6.<.
tcfdpj t 4 8 fg bj`kf`slkjr sf f`buf`trl kfsblrilkj y quf M8 0 8 (fg bldpj
Lsudcf`kj quf f` u` tcfdpj
slgf kf gl p»llic`l),
ic`l), gl bjrrcf`tf quf bcrbugl pjr fg bcrbuctj kf gl iurl fs, bjdj ou`bc»j` kfg tcfdpj,
l M(t) 4 M8 t
] B
M8 lm
∝
l) C (t) 4 < f∝t/]B f` sf`tckj l`tc-ejrlrcj
]
M8 lm ∝t/]B
m) C (t) 4 f f` sf`tckj ejrlrcj
]
M8 lm ∝t/]B
b) C (t) 4 f f` sf`tckj l`tc-ejrlrcj
]
M8 lm
∝
k) C (t) 4 < f∝t/]B f` sf`tckj ejrlrcj
]
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
fnfs U
Bj`sckfrfdjs u` scstfdl kf bjjrkf`lkls f` quf gjs fnfs U f S lpu`tl`
S lpu`tl` elbcl gl kfrfbel y lrrcml,
rfspfbtcvldf`tf.
rfspfbtcv tcbj tcf`f gl ojrdl M
ldf`tf. Bj` fggj, fg bldpj dli`»fftcbj 4 M (t) a
ˏ . Bj`sckfrlrfdjs quf gl
ˏ 4 a
`jrdlg lg pgl`j fs ` ˏ . Xjr tl`tj,
¨
ίM 4 M `
ˏ kR 4 M
4 M 8 lmt
fspcrl ¹
Xjr gl gfy kf Olrlkly,
F 4 ∝ kktί 4 ∝M lm
M
8
Xjr tl`tj, fg bcrbuctj pjsff u`l ouf`tf kf vjgtlnf bj`stl`tf bcrbuctj ]B
y sf trltl kf u` bcrbuctj ]
|F||
|F B bj`
bj` fg
bj`kf`slkjr c`cbclgdf`tf kfsblrilkj, buyl fbulbc»jj`` kcofrf`bclg
k cofrf`bclg el sc
sckj
kj trl
trltlkl
tlkl ll`tfrcjrdf`tf.
`tfrcjrdf`tf. LsLs»»ļ,
gl gl bjrrcf`tf vcf`f klkl pjr>
C (t) 4
|F|| f
|F ∝t/]B
]
Xlrl kftf
Xlrl kftfrdc`lr
rdc`lr fg sf`
sf`tckj
tckj kf gl bjrr
bjrrcf`
cf`tf,
tf, `jtfd
`jtfdjs
js quf fg unj dli`
dli`»»fftcbj
tcbj ludf`
ludf`tl
tl f` fg tcfd
tcfdpj.
pj.
Kf lbufrkj l gl gfy kf Gf`z, sf c`kubcr»l u`l bjrrcf`tf quf sf jpj`f lg bldmcj f` fg unj. F` fsf
sf`tckj, sf rfqucfrf u`l bjrrcf`tf tlg quf rfkuzbl fg unj, gj quf sf trlkubf f` u` bldmj quf f`trf
f` gl p»llic`l.
ic`l. Xlrl quf fstj jburrl, gl bjrrcf`tf kfmf bcrbuglr f` ojrdl ejrlrcl kf lbufrkj bj` gl
rfigl kf gl dl`j kfrfbel.
<28
Xrjmgfdl 6.=.
Bj`sckfrf u`l fspcrl bcrbuglr kf rlkcj rlkcj r 4 8.= d, dl
dlsl D 4
sl D 4 2 ai y rfs rfscst
cstf`b cl ] 4 ;ψ ℯ quf sf dufvf
f`bcl
bj` vfgjbcklk v 4 v (t) a
∝ ˏ , v (t) 0 8, f` prfs
prfsf`bc
f`bcll kf u` bldpj dli` dli`»»fftcbj
tcbj `j u`cojr
u`cojrdf
df klkj pjr
Mz 4 <88z
<88z [.
[. Rupj`il quf fg pgl`j kf gl fspcrl scfdprf fs pfrpf`kcbuglr l gl kcrfbbc»j` kf djvcdcf`tj.
ºBu»llgg fs gl dli`ctuk kf gl bjrrcf`tf c`kubckl f` gl fspcrl f` t f` t 4 t8 sc gl vfgjbcklk f` kcbej c`stl`tf fs
4 t
v (t8 ) 4 6 d/s:
l) C (t8 ) 4 < L
m) C (t8 ) 4 6 L
b) C (t8 ) 4 = L
k) C (t8 ) 4 <6
<6 L
f) C (t8 ) 4 =8
=8 L
Rjgubc»
j`>
blsj, kz/kt bjrrfspj`kf
F` fstf blsj, kz/kt bjrrfspj`kf l gl vfgjbcklk bj` gl quf blf gl fspcrl, ∝v(t). Bj` fggj, gl bjrrcf`tf
c`kubckl vcf`f klkl pjr>
=
C (t ) 4
8
|F (t ) | 4 <88
8 ψr v (t ) <88
<88ψr 8
4
<88ψψ ¹ 8.8; ¹ 6
L 4 6L
] ] ;ψ
Xrjmgfdl 6.2.
Bj`sckfrf kjs fspc
Bj`sckfrf fspcrls
rls pgl`ls bcrb
bcrbuglrf
uglrfss bj`b
bj`b»»ff`trcb
`trcbls rlkcjs l y m, rfspf
ls kf rlkcjs rfspfbtcv
btcvldf`tf, bj` l
ldf`tf, m. ≮
Rupj`il quf gl c`kubtl`bcl dutul f`trf fggls fs fs D . ºBu»lg
lg sfr
sfr»»ļl gl c`kubtl`bcl dutul f`trf fggls sc
=l y =m rfspfbtcvldf`tf:
tuvcfsf` rlkcjs =l
l) D/
D/;;
m) D/
D/==
b) D
k) =D
f) ;D
<2<
Rjgubc»
j`>
¶8 C ]= ¶8 C
M (8) 4 4
= (]= + z = )2/= z 48 =]
`trcbl kf rlkcj l fs pfquf˗`
Rc gl fspcrl bj`b»ff`trcbl `l,l, bj` l
bj` l ≮ m, pjkfdjs lprjxcdlr fg unj kfg bldpj l
trlv»»fs
trlv fs kf fggl pjr su vlgjr f` fg jrcif`>
= ¶8 ψC l=
ίM 4 ψl
ψ l M (8) 4
=m
¶8 ψl=
D 4
=m
Xrjmgfdl 6.;.
Bj`sckfrf gls kjs mjmc`ls kf gl iurl. Rupj`il quf bj` fggls sf elbf` gjs sciucf`tfs fxpfrcdf`tjs
c`kfpf
c`k fpf`kc
`kcf`tfs
f`tfs f`trf s»ļ>
L M
C
R
]
_ 8
<2=
bjrrcf`tf C pjr
Kf gjs bultrj fxpfrcdf`tjs l`tfrcjrfs, gl bjrrcf`tf C rfscstf`bcl ] bcrbuglr»
pjr gl rfscstf`bcl ] bcrbuglr»l f` fg sf`tckj kcmunlkj>
l) Rjgldf
Rjgldf`t
`tff f` fg fxpfr
fxpfrcdf`
cdf`tj
tj CCCC
CC
m) Rjgldf
Rjgldf`t
`tff f` fg fxpfr
fxpfrcdf`
cdf`tj
tj CCCC
b) Rjgldf
Rjgldf`t
`tff f` fg fxpfrcd
fxpfrcdf`
f`tj
tj C
k) F` gjs fxpfrcdf`tjs C y C_
f) F` gjs fxpfrcdf`tjs CC y CCC
Rjgubc»
j`>
l) G= 4 G
4 G< /=
m) G= 4 G
4 G<
b) G= 4 =G<
k) G= 4 ;G<
f) G= 4 G
4 G< /;
Rjgubc»
j`>
<22
Xrjmgfdl 6.?.
glkj l y u` lgldmrf rfbtj DVS glrij umcblkj l
Gl c`kubtl`bcl dutul f`trf u`l fspcrl bulkrlkl kf glkj
kcstl`bcl l/
kcstl`bcl l/== f` fg pgl`j kf gl fspcrl fs>
l
l/
l/==
¶8 l
l) D 4 g`(2)
=ψ
¶8 l
m) D 4 g`(=)
=ψ
¶8 l
b) D 4 g`(2/=)
g`(2/
=ψ
¶8 l=
k) D 4 g`(2/=)
g`(2/
=ψ
¶8 l=
f) D 4 g`(</=)
g`(</
=ψ
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rfl C gl
Rfl C gl bjrrcf`tf quf bcrbugl pjr fg lgldmrf, fg bulg bj`sckfrlrfdjs c``ctj. Vtcgczlrfdjs u` scstfdl
bjjrkf`lkj f` quf ldmls iurls sf elggl` f` fg pgl`j U S , S , bj` fg fnf
fnf ^ slgcf`kj
^ slgcf`kj kf gl ejnl, y fg
fnf S .. Ls
lgldmrf bjc`bckf`tf bj` fg fnf S L s»ļ, fg bl
bldpj
dpj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj prjk
prjkubckj
ubckj pjr kcbej llgldmrf
gldmrf vcf`f klkj
pjr>
¶8 C
M (x) 4 =ψx a ˏ
Fg unj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj l trlv»fs bulkrlkl,, bj` `jrdlg a
fs kf gl fspcrl bulkrlkl ˏ , fs>
l 2l/=
l/=
¶8 C ¶8 C l
¨ ˏ ˏ
ίM 4 M `
ˏ kR 4
¹ 4 kxky 4
kxky 4 g`(2)
8 l/=
l/= =ψx =ψ
R
<2;
(t)
M
G v
x(t)
l) M (t)Gv
m) M (t)Gv
Gv((αt ∝ <)
M (t)Gv
b)
αt <
∝
k) M (t)Gvαt
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Rfl x 4 x
Rfl 4 x((t) gl pjscbc»jj` c`stl`tf t, gl bulg ojrdl u`l fspcrl kf »llrfl
` kf gl mlrrl f` fg c`stl`tf rfl L 4 Gx
4 Gx.. Ls»ļ,
fg unj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj l trlv»fs
fs kf gl fspcrl fs>
∝αt
kίM
ίM 4 ML
M L 4 M
4 M 8 Gx f ∝↝ 4 M 8 G x˓ f∝αt ∝ xα f ∝αt
4 M 8 G(x˓ ∝ xα ∝αt
xα)) f
kt
y bj` fggj>
ζc`k 4 ∝ kktί 4 M(
M
Gv((αt ∝ <)
M (t)Gv
Xrjmgfdl 6.5.
Bj`sckfrf u`l mlrrl bj`kubtjrl kf glrij G, dlsl
dlsl d y rfscstf`bcl ]. Kcbel mlrrl blf, pjr lbbc»jj`
` kf
gl irlvfklk, pjr kjs rcfgfs bj`kubtjrfs kf rfscstf`bcl kfsprfbclmgf (vfr iurl) l u` rlpckfz v (t). Fg
scstfdl sf f`buf`trl f` prfsf`bcl kf u` bldpj dli` ftcbj u`cojrdf M lpu`tl`kj elbcl fg plpfg. Bj`
dli`ftcbj
fstjs kltjs, sf pufkf lrdlr quf gl dli`ctuk kf gl bjrrcf`tf c`kubckl f` fg bcrbuctj fs>
<26
i
M
x(t)
G, d
v (t)
l) Mv
MvGG
Mv
MvGG
m)
=]
b) =Mv
MvGG
Mv G
MvG
k) =
]
f) @c`iu`l kf gls l`tfrcjrfs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Bjgjqufdjs u` scstfdl bjjrkf`lkj f` quf fg fnf U fnf U fst» fbel x((t), fg fnf ^
fst»l c`kcblkj bj` gl fbel x fnf ^ slgcf`kj
slgcf`kj
fnf S
kfg plpfg y fg fnf S plrlgfgj
plrlgfgj l gl mlrrl, kf lbufrkj l gl gfy kf gl dl`j kfrfbel. Kf fstl ojrdl, fg
unj dli
dli`»
`»fftcbj
tcb j fs> ¨ ¨
ίM 4 M `¹
ˏ kR 4
4 M ˏ
a aˏ kR 4
∝ ¹
4 MGx ∝
R R
kj`kf efdjs tjdlkj gl `jrdlg kf gl supfrbcf elbcl oufrl kfg plpfg. Lejrl mcf`, kf lbufrkj l gl
gfy kf Olrlkly‒Gf`z,
ζc`k 4 kί 4 MGv
M
M Gv ∝
kt
bj` gj quf gl bjrrcf`tf pjsff u`l dli`ctuk>
C 4
|ζ | 4 MGv
c`k
] ]
Xrjmgfdl 6.3.
Bj`sckfrf gl sctulbc»jj`
` kfsbrctl f` fg Xrjmgfdl 6.5. Gl oufrzl `ftl sjmrf gl mlrrl fst»l klkl pjr>
MG))= v
(MG
(
l) O
O 4 di ∝ ļ
]
m) O
4 di ˏ
O ļ
<2?
b) O
4 di
O ∝ M Gv
ˏ
ļ
]
k) O
4 (di
O ∝ (MG =
MG)) v ) ˏļ
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
[jdl`kj fg scstfdl kf bjjrkf`lkls kfsbrctj l`tfrcjrdf`tf, `jtldjs quf fg pfsj kf gl mlrrl bjrrfs-
pj`kf l Y
4 di ˏ
Y ļ. Xjr jtrl plrtf
plrtf,, lg fxcs
fxcstcr
tcr u` bldpj dli`
dli`»»fftcbj
tcbj y u`l bjrr
bjrrcf`
cf`tf
tf bcrb
bcrbugl`
ugl`tf,
tf, gl
oufrzl dli`»fftcbl
tcbl vcf`f klkl pjr
pjr>>
d 4 M
4 MG))=
v (MG
O C G
4 C Ù ∝MC G ˏļ 4 ∝ ]
ˏ
ļ
kj`kf G
tcf`f dli`ctuk G
dli`ctuk G y
y su kcrfbbc»jj` ` bjc`bckf bj` gl bcrbuglbc»jj`
` kf gl bjrrcf`tf, ˏ. Ls»ļ,
ļ, gl ouf
oufrzl
rzl
`ftl bjrrfspj`kf l>
MG))=
O
O 4 Y + O d 4 di
v
v((MG
∝ ˏ
ļ
]
Xrjmgfdl 6.<8.
Bj`sckfrf fg scstfdl kfg Xrjmgfdl 6.5. Kfspu»
ffss kf DVBEJ tcfdpj, gl mlrrl lgbl`zlr»l u`l vfgjbcklk
tfrdc`lg bj`stl`tf buyl dli`ctuk fst»l klkl pjr>
di ∝ MG]
l)
MG
di]
m)
MG
di] MG/]
b) MG ∝
di]
k)
MG))=
(MG
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
<29
=G/
G/22
G/22
G/
C (t)
¶8 C 8 σG
l) ζc`k 4 sc`(σt))
sc`(σt
=ψ
¶8 C 8 σG
m) ζc`k 4 g`(=)sc`(σt))
g`(=)sc`(σt
=ψ
¶8 C 8 σG
b) ζc`k 4 g`(2)sc`(σt))
g`(2)sc`(σt
;ψ
¶8 C 8 σG
k) ζc`k 4 g`(=)sc`(σt))
g`(=)sc`(σt
ψ
4
M ∝M(t) aˏ 4 ∝ ¶=ψyC bjs(σt
8 8 ˏ
bjs(σt)) a
kj`kf gl `jrdlg kf gl fspcrl sf tjd»j slgcf`kj kfg plpfg, c.f. ` ˏ . Bj` fggj, fg vjgtlnf c`kubckj
ˏ 4 a ∝
vcf`f klkj pjr>
kίM ¶8 C 8 σG
ζc`k 4 4 ∝ g`(2)sc`(σt))
g`(2)sc`(σt
kt =ψ
Xrjmgfdl 6.<=.
kf @ vufgtls
V`l mjmc`l bcrbuglr kf @ vufgtls y rlkcj
rlkcj ] fs umcblkl sjmrf u` bldpj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj fxtfr`j. Fg bldpj
fs jsbcgltjrcj, y su dli`ctuk vcf`f klkl pjr>
r ∝
M (r, t) 4 M 8 < σt))
bjs(σt
bjs(
=]
kj`kf r fs gl kcrfbbc»j`
kj`kf r j` rlkclg dfkckl kfskf fs bf`trj kf gl mjmc`l. Rc fg bldpj fs kcrcickj pfrpf`kcbu-
glrdf`tf lg pgl`j kf gl mjmc`l, ºbu»llgg fs fg vjgtlnf c`kubckj f` fggl:
<25
(r, t)
M
=
l) ψσ@]= M8 sc` (σt
sc` σt))
2
m) σ@ ]= M8 sc` (σt
sc` σt))
Rjgubc»
j`>
Xrjmgfdl 6.<2.
Rf tcf`f` kjs mjmc`ls glrils, kf glrijs G< y G= (G= 7 G< ) y »llrfls trl`svfrslgfs L< y L= (L= 7 L< ),
rfls trl`svfrslgfs
umcblkls bjdj dufstrl gl iurl. @jtlr quf ldmls mjmc`ls @J fst»ll` ` bj`fbtlkls kcrfbtldf`tf. Gl
mjmc`l < fst»l bj`fbtlkl l u`l ouf`tf kf bjrrcf`tf C (t) 4 C 8 bjs bjs (σt).
σt ). Gl mjmc`l =, quf fst»l lg c`tfrcjr
kf gl mjmc`l <, sf bj`fbtl l u` vjgt ļdftrj _ .
vjgt»»ļdftrj tcf`f` @ < y @ = vufgtls, rfspfbtcvldf`tf,
. Rc gls mjmc`ls tcf`f`
ºbu»llgg fs fg vjgtlnf, f` ou`bc»jj`
` kfg tcfdpj, dfkckj pjr pjr _ :
_ :
<23
_
C (t)
¶8 L= @ < C 8 σ
l) _
_ 4 σt))
sc`(σt
sc`(
G<
¶8 L= @ < @ = C 8 σ
m) _
_ 4 σt))
sc`(σt
sc`(
G<
b) _
_ 4 ∝ ¶ L @
8
G
@ C
= <
bjs(σt
bjs(
<
= 8
σt))
k) _
_ 4 8 =
∝ ¶ LG@ C bjs( < 8
σt))
bjs(σt
<
Rjgubc»
j`>
Fg bldpj dli`»fftcbj
tcbj lg c`tfrcjr kf gl mjmc`l < fst»l klkj pjr>
Bj` fggj,
¶8 L= @ < @ = C 8 σ
_
_ 4 σt))
sc`(σt
sc`(
G<
Xrjmgfdl 6.<;.
kcstl`bcl ℒ,, fst»ll`
Kjs rcfgfs ejrczj`tlgfs y plrlgfgjs, sfplrlkjs pjr u`l kcstl`bcl ℒ ` bj`fbtlkjs pjr u`l rfscstf`bcl
] bjdj sf dufstrl f` gl iurl. Rupj`il quf blkl u`j kf gjs rcfgfs tcf`f u`l rfscstf`bcl
rfscstf`bcl α pjr u`cklk
dft lgcbl, lm
kf glrij. V`l mlrrl dftlgcbl, lm,, kf rfscstf`bcl kfsprfbclmgf sf pufkf kfsgczlr sc` orcbbcj`
orcbbc j` sjmrf gjs
kjs rcfgfs. Fxcstf, lkfd»ls,ls, u` bldpj dli`»fftcbj tcbj M
u`cojrdf, pfrpf`kcbuglr lg pgl`j, quf lpu`tl elbcl
lkf`trj. Rupj`il quf gl mlrrl sf dufvf elbcl gl kfrfbel bj` u`l vfgjbcklk v (t) kf tlg ojrdl quf gl
bjrrcf`tf C f`
bjrrcf`tf C f` fg bcrbuctj pfrdl`fbf bj`stl`tf f` fg tcfdpj.
<;8
v (t)
]
M ℒ
m
x(t)
Mℒv
l) C 4 f` kcrfbbc»jj`
` kf m elbcl
kf m l
elbcl l
=αx
]Mℒv
m) C 4 f` kcrfbbc»
jj`
` kf m elbcl
kf m l
elbcl l
=αx
Rjgubc»
j`>
ίM 4 ∝Mℒx
Mℒx((t) ∝↝ ζc`k 4 ∝ kktί 4 Mℒv
M
M ℒv
Lejrl mcf`, gl rfscstf`bcl tjtlg kfg bcrbuctj vcf`f klkl pjr gl rfscstf`bcl ] y gl pjrbc»jj`
` kf gjs kjs
=αx.. Xjr tl`tj,
rcfgfs, =αx
ζc`k Mℒv
C 4 4 0 8
]tjtlg ] + =αx
=αx
<;<
Rjgubc»
j`>
Kfrcvl`kj
Kfrcvl`kj bj` rfspfb
rfspfbtj
tj lg tcfd
tcfdpj,
pj, y rfbj
rfbjrkl`k
rkl`kjj quf x˓ 4 v
4 v y v˓ 4 l
4 l,,
=αC
αCvv
=αC
αCvv 4 Mℒℒv˓
4 M ∝↝ l 4
Mℒ
kf x y `j kf v
Bjdj qufrfdjs quf fg rfsugtlkj kfpf`kl kf x kf v , rffdpglzldjs>
Xrjmgfdl 6.<?.
Bj`sckfrf gl sctulbc»jj` ` kfsbrctl f` fg Xrjmgfdl 6.<;. ºBu»lg
lg fs gl pjtf`bcl
p jtf`bcl kcscplkl f` fg bcrbuctj: Lqu
Lqu»»ļ,
l fs gl lbfgfrlbc»jj`
` kf gl mlrrl.
lM = ℒ=
l) X
X 4
α
lM = ℒ=
m) X
X 4
=α
lM = ℒ=
b) X
X 4
=αℒ + ]
= 2
k) X
X 4 lM
=αℒ
lM = ℒ2
f) X
X 4
α
<;=
Rjgubc»
j`>
Kf gl fbulbc»jj`
` quf rfglbcj`l gl lbfgfrlbc»jj`
` bj` gl vfgjbcklk,
Mℒl lM = ℒ=
X
X 4 MCℒv
MCℒv 4 MCC ℒ
4 M 4
=αC =α
Xrjmgfdl 6.<9.
V` bj`kubtjr s»jjgckjgckj kf rlkcj l, fst»l sfplrlkj pjr u` dltfrclg lcsgl`tf kf u` bj`kubtjr kfgilkj kf
m,, kf djkj tlg quf ojrdl u` blmgf bjlxclg. Gjs kjs bj`kubtjrfs sj` DVS glrijs y bj`kubf` u`l
rlkcj m
rlkcj
bjrrcf`tf C f`
bjrrcf`tf C f` kcrfbbcj`fs jpufstls. Gl lutjc`kubtl`bcl pjr u`cklk kf glrij kfg blmgf bjlxclg fs>
l)
¶8
g`
m
=ψ l
m)
¶8
g`
m
;ψ l
b)
¶8
g`
m
2ψ l
k)
¶8
g`
m
ψ l
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
rlkcj r 0 l
[jdlrfdjs u`l bcrbu`ofrf`bcl kf rlkcj r l f`
f` tjr`j lg bj`k
bj`kubtjr
ubtjr c`tfrcjr. Xjr scdftr
scdftr»»ļl, fg bldp
bldpjj
dli`»
dli `»fftcbj
tcb j slt
sltcsol
csolbf>
bf>
¶8 C
=ψr M 4 ¶8 C
4 ¶ ∝↝ M 4
=ψr
<;2
Bj` fggj,
G 4 ί 4 ¶ ℒ g` m
M 8
∝↝ G 4 ¶8 g`
m
C =ψ l ℒ =ψ l
Xrjmgfdl 6.<5.
lutjc`kubtl`bcl G 4
Fg c`kubtjr kf gl iurl tcf`f lutjc`kubtl`bcl G 4 8.=? E y ggfv
ggfvll u`l bjrr
bjrrcf`
cf`tf
tf f` gl kcrfbb
kcrfbbc»
c»jj`
` c`kcblkl.
Fstl bjrrcf`tf kfbrfbf u`cojrdfdf`tf f` fg tcfdpj, bj` C ˓ 4 8.8<5L ∝
8<5L//s. F`tj`bfs, fg vjgtlnf c`kubckj
∝
4 _ l _ m fs>
_ llmm 4 _
(l) G (m)
l) 6.<=d_
<=d_,, _ m 0 _ l
m) ;.?5d_
?5d_,, _ l 0 _ m
b) 9.6=d_
6=d_,, _ l 0 _ m
k) 5.<=d_
<=d_,, _ l 0 _ m
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
_ ml
ml 4
4 G ˓ 4
G C ∝;.?5d_
pufstj quf sf blgbugl f` gl kcrfbbc»jj`
` f` q
quf
uf bcr
bcrbugl
bugl gl bjrrcf`tf. Ls ļ, _ l 0 _ m .
Ls»»ļ,
<;;
Fbulbcj`
Fbulbcj`fs
fs kf Dlx
Dlxwfgg
wfgg f` u`j kf gjs durj
durjs
s fxtf
fxtfrcjr
rcjrfs
fs kf gl V`cvfrsc
V`cvfrscklk
klk kf _lrsjvcl
lrsjvcl
<;6
Xrjmgfdl ?.<.
Bj`sckfrf fg bcrbuctj kf gl iurl bj` u`l bjrrcf`tf lgtfr`l kf orfbuf`bcl l`iuglr σ.
σ . Fg vlgjr kf gl rlz»j`
j`
|ˏjut
_ ˏ ` kf gjs rfspfbtcvjs olsjrfs fs>
jut /_ cc` |
_c`
B
] G
_jut
σG))=
(σG
l) < =
σG ∝ σB
+ ]=
]=
< = + ]=
m)
σG ∝
σB
σG))= + ]=
(σG
b) < =
σG ∝ σB
+ ]=
σG))=
(σG ∝ ]=
k) < =
σG ∝ σB
+ ]=
σG]))=
(σG]
f) < =
σG ∝ σB + ]=
Rjgubc»
j`>
fqucvlgf`tf ^ kfg
Gl cdpfkl`bcl fqucvlgf`tf ^ kfg bcrbuctj fs>
<
<
=
^ 4 ] 4 ^ fc ε ,
+ c σG + ] 4 | | <
|^ | 4 ]= + σG ∝
c σB σB
olsf ε < `j `js c`tfrfsl pjr fg djdf`tj. Xjr gl gfy kf Jed, fg olsjr kf bjrrcf`tf quf bcrbugl pjr
y gl olsf ε
fg bcrbuctj fs>
ˏ `
ˏ 4 _ cc`
C
^
<;?
Xrjmgfdl ?.=.
V` c`kubtjr, u` bj`kf`slkjr, u`l rfscstf`bcl y u`l ouf`tf kf pjkfr kf bjrrcf`tf lgtfr`l sf bj`fbtl`
f` sfrcf
sfrcf.. Rc sf kjmgl` gjs vlgjrf
lgjrfss kf gl blplb
blplbcklk,
cklk, gl c`kub
c`kubtl`bc
tl`bcll y gl rfsc
rfscstf`
stf`bcl,
bcl, ºqu
ºqu»»f jburrf bj` gl
orfbuf`bcl kf rfsj`l`bcl:
l) Rf kupgcbl
m) Rf bulkr
bulkrupgcb
upgcbll
b) Rf rfkubf l gl dctlk
k) Rf rfkubf l u` bulrtj
f) @c`iu
@c`iu`l
`l kf gls l`t
l`tfrcjr
frcjrfs
fs
Rjgubc»
j`>
Ls»ļ,
< < < σr
σr ‽ 4 4 4
∞ =G ¹ =B = ∞ GB
GB =
Xrjmgfdl ?.2.
Gl kcofrf`bcl kf olsf, f` irlkjs, f`trf gl bjrrcf`tf y fg vjgtlnf kf gl ouf`tf kf pjkfr f` gl iurl fs>
G 4 8.6E
?8.=◯
l) ?8.
<;9
;8.<◯
m) ;8.
2?..3◯
b) 2?
=6..2◯
k) =6
<=.2◯
f) <=.
Rjgubc»
j`>
kj`kf
σG ∝ σB
<
tl` ε 4
]
4 ∝ 2; ∝↝ ε 4 2?..3
∝2? ◯
Xrjmgfdl ?.;.
ˏ
8
F` u`l rfic»jj`
bj`stl`tfs. ` kfg
F` fsplbcj
fg pgl`j Uely
^ kfu`fsl
^ bldpj
rfic»jj`,fg»
`,fbtrcbj
fbtrcbj klkju`pjr
sf fsbjif F 4 F
bldc`j sc` (ax σt)
sc`
rfbtl`iuglr σt
B ), kf
∝ , kj`kf
kj`kf l8 ,ya ,mσ
glkjs F σ, quf
sj`
fnf U
c`tfrsfbtl lg fnf U f` pu`tjs x< y x= (vfr iurl). Blgbugf gl bcrbuglbc»jj`
f` gjs pu`tjs ` kfg bldpj dli`»fftcbj tcbj l gj
bldc`j B ,, c.f.
glrij kfg bldc`j B ˑ kr
M ¹
B
<;5
z
B
m/=
y x< x= x
∝m/=
l
¶8 ζ8 σF 8 lm
b) sc`(a
sc`(a Qx= ∝ x T ∝ σt)
< σt )
a (l + m)
m)
¶8 ζ8 σF 8 (l + m
+ m))
k)
a
sc`(a Qx=
sc`(a ∝ x T ∝ σt)
< σt)
¶8 ζ8 σF 8
f)
alm
sc`(a Qx=
sc`(a ∝ x T ∝ σt)
< σt )
Rjgubc»
j`>
Bj` fggj,
¶8 ζ8 σF 8 m
ˑ
M kr 4
¹ sc`(ax=
sc`(ax ∝ σt)
σt) ∝ sc`(ax ∝ σt)
sc`(ax σt ) <
a
B
<;3
Xrjmgfdl ?.6.
rfscstf`bcls ],, kjs c`kubtl`bcls G
V` bcrbuctj bj`tcf`f kjs rfscstf`bcls ] c`kubtl`bcls G y blplbctl`bcl B .. Fstjs fgfdf`tjs fst»l`
y u`l blplbctl`bcl B l`
lgtfr`l _ (t
bj`fbtlkjs l u`l ouf`tf kf vjgtlnf lgtfr`l (t) 4 _ 8 bjs( σt),
bjs(σt ), bjdj f` gl iurl.
] B
G
_G
_
G ]
= </=
_ 8
=
σ GB <∝
l) C 8 4 <+
=] σ]B
_ 8
m) C 8 4 =]
= ∝</=
= <
σ GB ∝
b) C 8 4
_ 8
<+
=
=] σ]B
∝</=
σ = GB =<
∝
k) C 8 4
_ 8
<+
=] σ]B
∝</=
σ = GB <
f) C 8 4
_ 8
<+
∝
=] σ]B
Rjgubc»
j`>
kj`kf
= </=
<
|^ | 4 (=])= + =σG
(=] ∝ σB
<
=σG ∝
ϖ 4 lr
lrbt
btl`
l`
σB
=]
Xjr gl gfy kf Jed, gl bjrrcf`tf quf bcrbugl fs>
ˏ
_ ˏ
_
ˏ
C 4 4 f∝c ϖ
^ ^ | |
<68
| |
ldpgctuk C 8 4 _ 8 / ^ sf pufkf fsbrcmcr bjdj>
kf djkj quf gl ldpgctuk
∝
_ 8 σ = GB <= = </=
C 8 4
<+
∝
=] σ]B
Xrjmgfdl ?.?.
rfsj`l`bcl σ8 plrl gl bulg gl ldpgctuk kf gl
F` fg bcrbuctj kf Xrjmgfdl ?.6, ºbu»llgg fs gl orfbuf`bcl kf rfsj`l`bcl
bjrrcf`tf fs d»llxcdl:
xcdl:
<
l) σ8 4 ∞ GB
<
m) σ8 4 ∞
= GB
=
b) σ8 4 ∞ GB
=
k) σ8 4
GB
<
f) σ8 4 ∞ =GB
Rjgubc»
j`>
=σ8 G ∝ σ <B 4 8 ∝↝
8
σ8 4
<
∞ =GB
Xrjmgfdl ?.9.
F` fg bcrbuctj kf Xrjmgfdl ?.6, ºbu»llgg fs gl ldpgctuk _ kfg vjgtlnf lgtfr`j
G lgtfr`j _ (t):
G
l) 4 _ σG
_ 4 _
G 8
=]
σG
m) G 4 _
_ 4 _ 8 <
=σG ∝ σB
<6<
σG
b) G 4 _
_ 4 _ 8 < =
;]= + σG ∝ σB
σG
k) _ 4
G _
4 _ 8 < =
;]= + =σG ∝ σB
f) 4 _
_ 4 _
G 8 σG
]= + σG ∝ < =
σB
Rjgubc»
j`>
kj`kf efdjs utcgczlkj quf ∝ sc`( sc`(x ∝ ψ). Bj` fggj, gl ldpgctuk kfg vjgtlnf vcf`f klkl pjr>
x) 4 sc`(x
sc`(x
_ 4 _ |^ Gσ| 4 _
G
8
8 σG
< =
;]= + =σG ∝ σB
Xrjmgfdl ?.5.
F` fg bcrbuctj kf Xrjmgfdl ?.6, sc gl orfbuf`bcl σ kf gl ouf`tf bjc`bckf bj` gl orfbuf`bcl kf rfsj`l`bcl
σ8 , c.f.
c.f. σ 4 σ
4 σ 8 , ºbu»llgg fs gl pjtf`bcl prjdfkcj
prjdfkcj X quf
X quf f`trfil gl ouf`tf:
_ 8 =
l) X
X 4
=]
_ 8 =
m) X
X 4
;]
b) X
X 4 8 Y
_ 8 =
k) X
X 4 ∝ ;]
_ 8 =
f) X
X 4
5]
Rjgubc»
j`>
Gl pjtf`bcl c`stl`t»ll`fl
`fl kfg bcrbuctj vcf`f klkl pjr>
X (t) 4 _ (
_ (t)C (t) 4 _ C bj
bjss (σt)bjs(
8 8 σt ∝ ϖ)
σt)bjs(σt
<6=
Ls»ļ,
_ 8 C 8
=
X (t) 4 _ C bjs
8 8 (σt)
σt ) ∝↝ X
X 4
=
]ffdpglzl`kj,
_ 8 =
X
X 4
;]