PRACTICAL MANUAL

Sprinkler and
Micro Irrigation Systems
ANAND AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
 PRACTICAL MANUAL

SPRINKLER AND
MICRO IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

:: BY ::
Er. DEVRAJSINH I. THAKOR
Dr. MUKESH K. TIWARI

DEPARTMENT OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
ANAND AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
GODHRA
 PRACTICAL MANUAL
SPRINKLER AND MICRO IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
Publication Series Number : EDU-4:36:2020:200

Publication Year : 2020

Copies : 200

Prepared By : Er. Devrajsinh I. Thakor

Dr. Mukesh K. Tiwari

Publisher : College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology

Anand Agricultural University
Godhra

Price : No cost distribution to students

Printed By : Asian Printery

Near Talati Hall, Raipur, Ahmedabad-380001
Phone : 079-2214 8826
 Department of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering
College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology
Anand Agricultural University
Godhra-389001

Subject: Sprinkler and Micro Irrigation Systems (IDE 2.4.8) Semester: IV

INDEX
Sr. No. Title Page No.

(1) Study of different components of sprinkler irrigation system 1

(2) Design and installation of sprinkler irrigation system 7

(3) Determination of precipitation pattern, discharge and uniformity 16

coefficient

(4) Cost economics of sprinkler irrigation system 21

(5) Study of different components of drip irrigation 23

(6) Design and installation of drip irrigation system 31

(7) Determination of pressure discharge relationship and emission 42

uniformity for given emitter

(8) Study of different types of filters and determination of filtration 46

efficiency

(9) Determination of rate of injection and calibration for chemigation/ 52

fertigation

(10) Design of irrigation and fertigation schedule for crops 57

(11) Field visit to micro irrigation system and evaluation of drip system 62

(12) Cost economics of drip irrigation system 70

 1 STUDY OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF
SPRINKLER IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Objectives
1. To introduce different components of sprinkler irrigation system
Introduction
Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to
natural rainfall. The spray is obtained by the flow of water under pressure through small
orifices or nozzles known as sprinklers. Water is distributed through a system of pipes
usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into
small water drops which fall to the ground. There are different sizes of sprinkler nozzles
available in the market depending upon the operating pressure and discharge rates. Layout
of sprinkler irrigation system is presented in Fig. 1.1.
Suitable crops
Sprinkler irrigation is suitable for all crops (row crops, field crops and orchards)
except jute and rice as these crops require standing water. Water can be spread over row
crops and under canopy of tree crops. But large sprinklers are not suitable for delicate
flowering and fruiting plants because larger water drops developed by the sprinkler may
damage the crop.
General classification of different types of sprinkler systems
1. Rotating head or revolving sprinkler system
2. Perforated pipe system

A sprinkler system usually consists of the following components

i. A pump unit
ii. Filters and fertilizer application units
iii. Pipe network- main/sub-main lines and laterals
iv. Sprinkler head
v. Accessories - couplers, valves, risers, bends, plugs etc.

1
 Fig. 1.1: Layout of Sprinkler Irrigation System
(Source: https://vikaspedia.in/agriculture/agri-inputs/farm-machinary/
sprinkler-irrigation-system accessed on 14/06/2020)

(i) Pumping set

The pump usually lifts the water from the sources and pushes it through the
distribution system and the sprinkler.
(ii) Filters
Filters are used to filter the suspended particles and debris flowing with water.A
typical diagram of sand filter and screen filter is shown in Fig. 1.2 and Fig. 1.3 respectively.
(iii) Pipe network
The pipe network consists of mains/submains and laterals. Main line conveys water
from the source and distributes it to the submains. The submains convey water to the
laterals which in turn supply water to the sprinklers. Aluminium or PVC or HDPE pipes are
generally used for portable systems, while steel pipes are usually used for center-pivot
laterals. Asbestos, cement, PVC and wrapped steel are also used for buried laterals and
main lines.

2
Fig. 1.2: Sand Filter
(Source: Mane et al., 2019)

Fig.1.3: Screen Filter

(Source: Mane and Ayare, 2019)
3
(iv) Sprinkler heads
It is the most important components of sprinkler irrigation system its operating
characteristics under optimum water pressure and climatic conditions mainly the wind
velocity will determine its suitability and the efficiency of the system. Sprinkler head
distributes water uniformly over the field without generating runoff and loss due to deep
percolation.
Types of sprinklers are rotating head or fixed type. The rotating type can be adopted
for a wide range of application rates and spacing. They are effective with pressure of about
10 to 70 m head at the sprinkler. Pressures ranging from 16 to 40 m head are considered to
be the most practical for normal uses. Fixed head sprinklers are commonly used to irrigate
small lawns and gardens. Perforated lateral lines are also used to sprinkle water. They
require less pressure than rotating sprinklers. However, they release more water per unit
area than rotating sprinklers. Hence fixed head sprinklers are adoptable for soils with high
intake rate. Different components of a twin-nozzle rotating sprinkler head are presented in
Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4: A Twin-nozzle Rotating Sprinkler Head

(Source: Mane and Ayare, 2019)
4
(v) Flow control valves
Used to regulate the pressure and discharge of individual sprinkler and may be
helpful unevenness of the ground causes an unequal distribution of pressure along the
lateral.
(vi) Fertilizer application
Soluble chemical fertilizer can be injected in to the sprinkled system and applied to
the crop. When applied with the sprinkler system the fertilizer is easily placed at the desired
depth in a soluble and readily available form to plants without any danger of being leached
away.
The two operations, namely irrigation and fertilizer application are done
simultaneously, thus saving of labour required for fertilizer application. The fertilizer
applicator consists of a sealed fertilizer tank with necessary tubings and connections. A
venturi injector is connected with the main line, which creates the differential pressure to
suck fertilizer solution to flow in the main line.
(vii) Couplers &fitting accessories
Couplers are used for connecting two pipes and uncoupling quickly and easily.
Essentially a coupler should provide: a) a reuse and flexible connection, b) not leak at the
joint, c) be simple and easy to couple and uncouple and d) be light, non-corrosive, durable.
Some of the important fittings and accessories used in sprinkler system are given below.A
typical diagram of couplers & fitting accessories is shown in Fig. 1.5.
a) Water meters: It is used to measure the volume of water delivered in to the
system. This is necessary to operate the system to supply the required quantity
of water.
b) Flange, couplings and nipples are used for proper connection to the pump,
suction and delivery.
c) Pressure gauge: It is used to measure operating pressure of sprinkler system.
The sprinkler system is operated at the pressure to apply the desired depth of
water and ensure application uniformity.
d) Bend, tees, reducers, elbows, hydrants, butterfly valve and plugs are other
components of a sprinkler system. They are used as per requirements.

5
Fig. 1.5: Fittings and Accessories of Sprinkler System
(Source: Mane and Ayare, 2019)
6
 2 DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Objectives
1. To design a sprinkler irrigation system
2. To install a sprinkler irrigation system
Introduction
A sprinkler irrigation system needs to be designed and laid properly to suit the
conditions of a particular site to achieve high efficiencies.The layout is also dependent on
the location of the water source and quality of water available for irrigation.
Basic data required for sprinkler system design
1. Survey map of the area
2. Water source
3. Soil type
4. Climatic records
5. Type of crop
6. Hydrologic properties of soil
7. Source of energy (power source)
8. Wind speed and direction
9. Water quality
General rules for sprinkler system design
·Main should be laid up and down hill.
·Lateral should be laid across the slope or nearly on the contour.
·Water supply source should be nearest to the center of the area.
·Layout should facilitate and minimize lateral movement during the season.
·Booster pump should be considered where small portion of field would require
high pressure at the pump.
·Layout should be modified to apply different rates and amounts of water where
soils are greatly different in the design area.

7
·Hydraulic design of sprinkler irrigation system
Assuming that, the flow is constant throughout the length without sprinkler, the
frictional head loss in the lateral is calculated by using different equations.
1. Scobey's equation
Scobey (1930) gave an equation for friction or head loss in sprinkler lateral, which is
expressed as,

2. The Hazen-Williams equation

This is the most commonly used equation for estimating the frictional loss in
sprinkler laterals of various pipe material and is given by,

8
9
Sprinkler system design parameters
·Sprinkler discharge considering area of coverage
The actual selection of different components of the sprinkler system is based on
specifications furnished by the manufacturers of the equipment. The selection depends on
wetting diameter of nozzle, at a given operating pressure at nozzle, sprinkler discharge,
combination of sprinkler spacing and lateral moves, application rate suiting to soil and
wind conditions. The required discharge of an individual sprinkler is a function of the water
application rate and the two-way spacing of the sprinklers. It may be determined by the
following equation.

·Height of sprinkler riser pipes

Sprinklers are located just above the crops to be irrigated and, therefore, the height of
the risers depend upon the maximum height of the crop.

·Sprinkler spacing
The spacing of sprinklers on laterals and the laterals spacing are adjusted for
obtaining maximum uniformity for given condition. Greater depth of water accumulates
near sprinkler head and depth decreases gradually with distance from the sprinklers.
Therefore, there is a necessity of overlapping of the spray pattern of the individual
sprinkler, to obtain uniform depth of water application. Sprinklers are arranged along a
lateral such that the diameter of the water spread area of sprinkler is overlapped. If there is a
wind of considerable speed, the spacing between sprinklers is further reduced as given in
Table 2.1.

10
Table 2.1: Overlapping of Sprinkler Spacing for Different Wind Speeds

Sr. No. Average wind speed Spacing

1 No wind 65% of the water spread area of a sprinkler
2 06 km/h 60% of the water spread area of a sprinkler
3 6.5 to 13 km/h 50% of the water spread area of a sprinkler
4 Above 13 km/h 30% of the water spread area of a sprinkler

·Capacity of sprinkler system

The capacity of a sprinkler system is an important design parameter. This is estimated
after knowing the total area to be irrigated by a sprinkler irrigation system. The formula to
compute system capacity is given by,

·Sprinkler discharge
The discharge of a sprinkler is estimated by knowing the diameter of nozzle and
operating pressure available at the nozzle by following formula.

11
·Spread of Sprinkler
The area covered by a rotating head sprinkler can be estimated from the following
formula.

·Rate of water application or precipitation intensity

The rate of water application by an individual nozzle is estimated by the formula as
stated below.

·Layout of sprinkler system

a. fully portable
b. semi portable
c. portable main and lateral

12
 Fig. 2.1: Different Field Layouts of Sprinkler System for Main and Lateral
(a)Fully Portable, (b) Semi portable, (c) Portable Main and Lateral
(Source: Mane and Ayare, 2019)

·Selection of pump
Total head of pump is also known as the total dynamic head and it can be calculated
as,
Total head of pump (Ht) = suction head + delivery head + operating pressure of
sprinkler (Hn) + filter loss + mainline friction loss (Hm) + fitting loss + elevation difference
(Hj)

13
 where,
operating pressure of sprinkler is about 25 m (2.5 kg/cm2)
Filter losses are assumed to be 2 m for sand filter and 2 m for screen/disc filter
Fitting losses are assumed as 2 m
Approximately,

Example 2.1 (Model design)

Design a micro-sprinkler irrigation system for Chilli crop using the following data
1. Size of the field: 1 ha
2. Assume square plot of 100 m × 100 m
3. Crop: Chilli
4. Crop spacing: 45 cm × 30 cm
5. Pan evaporation: 8 mm/day
6. Area to be wetted as a percentage of total area: 75 %
7. Availability of electricity per day: 12 hr
8. Soil type: sandy loam
9. Topography of the field is slightly undulating up to 1 % slope
10. Uniformity coefficient: 85 %
11. Water source is well at the corner of the field
12. Well depth: 10 m
13. Hazen William constant: 150 for pvc and 140 for LLDPE pipes

14
 14. Assume crop coefficient as 0.8 and pan coefficient as 0.7, for entire growing
season.
Example 2.2
Design a sprinkler irrigation system for a square 4 ha field to irrigate the entire field
within a 4 days period. Not more than 12 hrs per day are available for moving the pipe and
sprinkler unit. Depth of application is to be 50 mm at each setting at a rate not to exceed 11
mm/hr. A well 25 m deep located at the center of the field will provide the following draw
down-discharge characteristics obtained from a well test,
12 m – 12.6 lps
15 m – 15.8 lps
20 m – 18.9 lps
Design for an average pressure of 2.8 kg/cm2 at the nozzle. Highest point in the field is
1.3 m above the well site and 1 m risers are needed on the sprinklers. Assuming a pump
efficiency of 60% and assuming that the engine will furnish 70% of its rated output for
continuous operation, determine the rated output for a water-cooled internal combustion
engine.

15
 DETERMINATION OF PRECIPITATION

3 PATTERN, DISCHARGE AND UNIFORMITY

COEFFICIENT

Objectives
1. To determine precipitation pattern
2. To determineuniformity coefficient
Introduction
In this distribution pattern, the depth of water applied, surrounding the sprinkler,
decreases as the distance from the sprinkler increases. A number of methods are used for
testing the uniformity of application of rotating head sprinklers operating under varying
conditions. The basis for all the methods is the collection and measurement of irrigation
water in the container laid out in the plot.
1. Moisture distribution pattern
The moisture distribution pattern and precipitation profile of sprinkler system,
operating under average conditions of pressure and wind is given in the Fig. 3.1.
2. Testing of uniformity
The size of the container (catch can) and their layout will depend on the type of
sprinkler used. The area around the sprinkler is divided into squares of equal area.
The catch-can should be placed about 2 m apart, where the sprinklers are spaced
about 10 m apart and about 3 m apart, where the sprinkler spacing is larger. The grid-
can should cover the entire area of the sprinkler spread (Fig. 3.2).

16
 Fig. 3.1: Distribution Pattern and Precipitation Profiles from a
Typical Rotating Head Sprinkler Operating under Favorable Conditions
(Source: Mane and Ayare, 2019)

Fig. 3.2: Layout of Catch Cans (Containers) for Testing the Uniformity of Distribution
along a Sprinkler Lateral Line
(Source: Mane and Ayare, 2019)
17
 The details of sprinkler types, nozzle size, operating pressure, wind speed and
direction and sprinkler spacing will be recorded on the test sheet. A single sprinkler,
sprinkler lateral or a group of sprinklers operated simultaneously can be tested.
After completion of the test, the amount of water accumulated in each container is
measured by using graduated cylinder. Approximately, each test should run for a period of
time equal to at least one-half of the time planned for the application of average irrigation
time.

·Distribution uniformity (DU)

The distribution uniformity (DU) is also known as pattern efficiency (Pe). This
indicates the uniformity of water application throughout the field and is computed by,

Where, minimum depth is calculated by taking the average of the lowest l/4th of the
catch can readily use in particular test.
The DU is useful for calculating the average depth to be applied for certain minimum
depth, e.g. if a minimum depth of 4 cm is to be applied and the distribution efficiency is 80
per cent, then average depth of 5 cm is to be applied.
3. Uniformity Coefficient (Uc)

This parameter is developed by Christiansen (1942), which is widely used to evaluate

sprinkler irrigation uniformity. A measurable index of degree of uniformity obtained from
any size of sprinkler operating under given condition is known as uniformity coefficient
(Uc).

This calculation is based on determining the average amount of water in the container
and deviation from this amount. The result is expressed as percentage. The better the
uniformity, the smaller the deviation and the value will approach 100 per cent. A uniformity
coefficient of about 85 per cent or more is considered to be satisfactory.

18
 It is expressed by the equation,

·Procedure for determination of Uc

Example 3.1
The step wise procedure applied for determination of Uc is listed below:
1. Note down the following details of the system
i. Sprinkler nozzle size
ii. Sprinkler and lateral spacing
iii. Wind velocity
iv. Wind direction
v. Humidity
vi. Time of test- Usually test should be conducted for at least 1 hour.
2. Record the depth of water in each catch can placed at grid points in between
sprinklers

Sprinkler A 1 2 3 Sprinkler B
4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18
Sprinkler C 19 20 21 Sprinkler D

Total catch cans = 21, Sprinklers = 4

3. Also note down the sprinkler discharge Q in lit/sec, nozzle-working Pressure (H) in
kg/cm2 and pressure variation at 4 sprinklers.
19
4. Analyze the data obtained in step 2, as given in following table.
App lica tion Fr equen cy Applica tion r a te × Num er i ca l Fr equen cy ×
r ate, mm /hr (F) Fr equen cy devia tion s devia tion s

∑F = ∑ ∑B
5. Using the standard formula of Uc etermination, find the percentage uniform
application of water due to 4 sprinklers.
Example 3.2
The data obtained from a field test on determining the water distribution pattern of a
sprinkler is given below:
Sprinkler: 7.10 mm × 4.76 mm – 95.76 lit per min at 4.22 kg/cm2
Spacing: 18.2 m × 18.2 m
Wind: 3.86 km/hr from the south-east
Humidity: 36 %
Time of test: 1 hr
The depth of water in the catch-cans in (mm) is shown below:

North
S 15.7 13.2 13.2 16.7 17.0 S
15.0 15.0 15.7 15.2 17.5 19.5 17.8
14.5 12.7 16.7 16.0 17.8 11.9 14.2
West 15.0 15.5 18.3 19.0 16.2 11.9 12.4 East
17.3 18.8 16.0 15.2 10.7 14.2 16.0
12.2 20.3 14.5 12.4 14.7 10.1 12.9
S 15.5 13.2 13.2 16.5 16.0 S
South

S indicates the location of sprinklers

Determine the uniformity coefficient and distribution uniformity.

20
 4 COST ECONOMICS OF SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Objectives
1. To understand types of cost included in sprinkler irrigation system.
2. To estimate cost of micro-sprinkler system
Introduction
The relative cost of sprinkler irrigation system installation decreases with increase in
area, since certain essential components remain the same irrespective of the area covered.
The life of materials and accessories of the system is normally considered as 5 to 10 years.
The steps followed to carry out economic analysis are stated below.
1. Determine the fixed cost of sprinkler system
a) Use life of micro irrigation system (i.e. 5 to 10 years).
b) Determine the depreciation cost.
c) Determine the interest (use prevailing bank interest rates for agriculture).
d) Determine the annual repair and maintenance cost (1% of annual cost).
e) Determine the total cost (b+ c +d).
2. Determine the cost of cultivation
The cost of cultivation includes field preparation, seedlings, planting, intercultural
operations, cost of fertilizers and manures and their application, plant protection chemicals
and their application, harvesting and other relevant operations.
·Cost estimation of micro sprinkler for 1 ha area(consider example of model
design in Practical No. 2)
The details of material required for 1 ha vegetables (Chilli) are given in the above
example is given below:

21
 Sr. No. Items Quantity Rate Amount
(`) (`)
1 PVC pipe, 90 mm (m) 180 80 14400
2 PVC pipe, 63 mm (m) 204 40 8160
3 LLDPE lateral, 16 mm (m) 3600 7 25200
4 Micro-sprinkler, 83 lph (nos.) 1350 9 12150
5 Extension tube, 6 mm (m) 1000 3.5 3500
6 Screen/disk filter, 40 m3/hr (no.) 1 5000 5000
7 Ball valve, 63 mm (nos.) 4 350 1400
8 Flush valve, 63 mm (nos.) 4 200 800
9 Filter and accessories (10% of above) - @ 10% 7061
Total 77671/-

The cost of micro-sprinkler system depends on the spacing between micro-

sprinklers, discharge of micro-sprinklers and other factors. However, maximum
care should be taken to reduce the cost of the system without affecting plant
population and uniformity coefficient.

22
 5 STUDY OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF
DRIP IRRIGATION

Objectives
1. To introduce different components of drip irrigation system
Introduction
The components required for drip irrigation system aregenerally more than those for
other application system due to the need to filter the water supply and to maintain a specific
pressure distribution throughout the system.
A drip irrigation system consists of filters, main line, submains, laterals, drippers
(emitters) and other small fitting and accessories such as valves. Different components of
drip irrigation system are presented in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1:Different Components of Drip Irrigation System

(Source: Mane et al., 2019)

23
Detail Description of Components
1. Filters
Filters are used to remove undesirable material from the water supply before it enters
the distribution system and creates the potential for emitter clogging. The types of filtration
needed dependson water quality and emitter type. The different types of filters used in
microirrigation system are described below.
a) Gravel/media/sandfilter
Media filters consist of fine gravel or coarse quartz sand of selected sizes (usually 1.5
– 4 mm in diameter) free of calcium carbonate placed in a cylindrical tank. These filters are
effective in removing light suspended materials, such as algae and other organic materials,
fine sand and silt particles. This type of filtration is essential for primary filtration of
irrigation water from open water reservoirs, canals or reservoirs in which algae may
develop. Water is introduced at the top, while a layer of coarse gravel is put near the outlet
bottom. Reversing the direction of flow and opening the water drainage valve cleans the
filter. Pressure gauges are placed at the inlet and at the outlet ends of the filter to measure the
head loss across the filter. The flow rate of the filters may be 10 to 50 m3/hr and the tank
diameter may range from 10 to 50 cm depending on the capacity of the system.Different
types of media filters are presented in Fig. 5.2.

Fig. 5.2: Different Types of Media Filters

(Source: Anonymous, 2004)
24
b) Centrifugal / hydro cyclone filters
Centrifugal filters are effective in filtering sand, fine gravel and other high-density
materials from well or river water. Water is introduced tangentially at the top of a cone and
creates a circular motion resulting in a centrifugal force, which throws the heavy suspended
particles against the walls. The separated particles are collected in the narrow collecting
vessel at the bottom. Different types of centrifugal / hydro cyclone filters are shown in Fig.
5.3.

Fig. 5.3: Hydro Cyclone Filter

(Source: Anonymous, 2004)

c) Screen filters
Screen filters are always installed for final filtration as an additional safeguard
against clogging. While majority of impurities are filtered by sand filter, minute sand
particles and other small impurities pass through it. A typical diagram of screen filter is
shown in Fig. 5.4. The screen filter, containing screen strainer, filters physical impurities
and allows only clean water to enter into the micro irrigation system. The screens are
usually cylindrical and made of non-corrosive metal or plastic material. These are available
in a wide variety of types and flow rate capacities with screen sizes ranging from 20 to 200
mesh.

25
 Fig. 5.4:Screen Filter Showing Steel Wire Mesh Strainers
(Source: Anonymous, 2004)
d) Discfilters
Disc filter contains stacks of grooved, ring shaped disks (Fig. 5.5) that capture debris and
are very effective in the filtration of organic material and algae. During the filtration mode,
the discs are pressed together. There is an angle in the alignment of two adjacent disks,
resulting in cavities of varying size and partly turbulent flow. The sizes of the groove
determine the filtration grade. Disk filters are available in a wide size range (25-400
microns). The pressure drop is slightly higher than the screen filter but disk filters have
better cleaning capacity then screen filter.A typical diagram of disc filter is shown in Fig.
5.5.

Fig.5.5: Disk Filter Showing Stacks of Discs

(Source: Internet)
26
2. Main line
The mainline transports water within the field and distribute to submains. Mainline is
made of rigid PVC and High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) to minimize corrosion and
clogging. Usually they are placed 60 to 90 cm below the ground, so as not to interfere with
cultivation practices. The diameter is based on the system flow capacity. Velocity of the
flow should not be greater than 1.5 m/s and the frictional head loss should be less than 5 m
per 1000 m running length main pipeline.
3. Submain
Submains (Fig. 5.6) distribute water evenly from mainline to a number of lateral
lines. They are also buried in ground below 45 cm to 60 cm and made of rigid PVC and
HDPE material. The diameter is usually smaller than mainline for economy.

Fig. 5.6:A Typical Drip Irrigation System with Different Components

(Source: Jain Irrigation Systems Limited, Jalgaon, MH)

27
4. Laterals
Laterals distribute the water uniformly along their length by means of drippers or
emitters directly to the root zone. Laterals are small diameter flexible pipes or tubing made
of Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE) or Linear Low Density Poly Ethylene (LLDPE) and
having 12 mm, 16 mm and 20 mm diameter. They are coloured black to avoid algae growth
inside and minimize the damaging effect of ultraviolet radiation. They can withstand
maximum pressure of 4 kg/cm2. The pressure variation between two extreme point of a
lateral should not be more than 15 to 20 percent and discharge variation should not be more
than 10 percent.
5. Emitters / drippers
The dripper is an emitter for discharging water from lateral to the soil. Two major
categories of drippers are point source and line source. They are made of plastic such as
polyethylene or polypropylene. Their discharge ranges between 1 to 16 lph. Emitters may
be punched externally on the lateral or may be fitted in the lateral. Accordingly, they are
called as on line or in line emitters, respectively.
6. Control / ball valve
These are used to control the flow through the submain pipes. Generally, they are
installed on filtration system, mainline and on all submains. They are made up of gun metal,
PVC, cast iron and their size ranges from 20 mm to more than 140 mm.
7. Flush valve
Provided at the end of each submain to flush out the water and dirt accumulated at the
endof submain.
8. Air release cum vacuum breaker valve
It is provided at the highest point in the main line to release the entrapped air during
start of system and to break the vacuum during shut off.
9. Non-return valve
It is used to prevent the damage of pump from back flow of water (water hammer) in
rising main line of drip irrigation system.
10. Pressure gauge
It is used to indicate the operating pressure of the drip system. Installed at the inlet and
outlet of filters.A typical diagram of pressure gaugeis presented in Fig. 5.7.

28
 Fig. 5.7:Pressure Gauge
(Source:https://www.netafim.com/499749/globalassets/products/drippers-and-dripperlines/
drip-irrigation-system-handbook.pdf)

11. Grommet and take-off

Used to connect lateral to submain. Grommet acts as a seal. Take-off is pressed in to
the grommet with take-off punch.A typical diagram of grommet and take-off is presented in
Fig. 5.8.

Fig. 5.8:Grommet and Take-off

(Source: Internet)

29
12. End caps (end sets)
They are used to close the lateral ends, submain ends or mainline ends. Submains and
mains are preferably provided with flush valve. They are convenient for flushing the line.
13. Fertigation system
Used to add the chemicals to the irrigation water.A fertilizer tank mixes water with
fertilizer for quantitative fertigation. It is operated by the hydraulic pressure in the
irrigation system and does not need an external energy source (subject to excess pressure
available in the system). The desired amount of fertilizer placed in the tank is dissolved and
injected into the irrigation system.
A Venturi injector uses excess pressure in the irrigation system to create a low-
pressure zone, or vacuum, in the injector throat. This vacuum efficiently draws chemicals
into the pressurized water line, eliminating the need for a separate chemical injection
pump.
Venturi injectors are the most cost-effective method of introducing chemicals into a
pressurized irrigation system, popular because of their simplicity, reliability and low cost,
and because they don't require a power source. A typical diagram of fertilizer tank and
venturyis shown in Fig. 5.9.

Fig. 5.9: Fertilizer Tank and Ventury

(Source:https://www.netafim.com/499749/globalassets/products/drippers-and-dripperlines
/drip-irrigation-system-handbook.pdf)

30
 6 DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF DRIP
IRRIGATION SYSTEM
Objectives
1. To design a drip irrigation system
2. To install a drip irrigation system
Introduction
The drip irrigation pipe network consists of lateral, submain and main lines. Laterals
are designed to distribute irrigation water throughout the field with an acceptable degree of
uniformity. The submains deliver water to the laterals and also needs adequate designing to
achieve uniform flow to the lateral lines. The main line serves as a conveyance system for
delivering the total amount of water at the required water pressure for the entire irrigation
system.
Design of drip irrigation system
·Basic information required
1. Survey of land
2. Type of crop
3. Soil type
4. Land slope
5. Climatic records
6. Source of water and water quality
·Determination of water requirement
Water requirement for wide spaced tree crops

where,
crop area = row to row spacing (m) × plant to plant spacing (m) of the crop, m2
PE = maximum pan evaporation of the region, mm/day
Pc = pan coefficient, approximately taken as 0.7 to 0.8

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Kc = crop coefficient, the value of which for any crop depends upon foliage
characteristics, stage of growth of crop, environment and geographical
location
wetted area = it is the area which is shaded due to its canopy cover when sun is
overhead, which depends on stage of growth of plant. Generally, it is
assumed that the area occupied by the roots is same as that occupied
by the canopy. Percentage wetted area of crop varies in between
1/3rdto 2/3rdof the area of the plant.
Eu emission uniformity of drip system, decimal

·Steps in design of drip irrigation system

1. Selection of dripper (emitter)
2. Selection and design of lateral
3. Selection and design of submain
4. Selection and design of main line
5. Selection of pump
6. Calculation of irrigation time
1. Selection of dripper (emitter)
Drip irrigation emitter can be designed as a point source or line source to supply water
into the plant root zone depending on the type of crop. The required emitter flow can be
calculated based on the water requirement of the crop, number of emitters per plant,
irrigation application efficiency of drip irrigation system and the duration of irrigation and
can be expressed as,

where,
qr = required emitter flow rate, l/h
qt = water requirement per plant per day, lit/plant/day
I = irrigation interval, days
T = irrigation time per set, hrs

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Ea = irrigation application efficiency
e = number of emitters per plant

For line source emitters can be determined as the ration of total number of emitters to
the total number of plants along the line.
2. Selection and design of lateral
·Calculation of lateral flow rate
Flow rate of lateral is the function of emitter discharge and number of emitters along
the lateral.
Ql = K ne qa …(6.3)
where
Ql = total flow rate of one lateral, lps
ne = number of emitters on one lateral
qa = average emitter discharge, lph
K = constant, 1/3600

·Lateral length (Ll)

It depends on the number of drippers along lateral's length and distance between
them, that is,

Ll = ne l …(6.4)
where,
Ll = length of lateral
l = spacing between two emitters
ne = numbers of emitters on one lateral
·Lateral head loss calculation
The William-Hazen formula used for calculation of head loss is given as follows,

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5. Selection of pump
Total head of pump (Ht) = suction head + delivery head + filter losses + mainline loss
+ operating pressure (Hn) + fitting loss + venturi head loss + elevation difference (Hj)
·Filter head losses are assumed to be 2 m for screen filter / disc filter and 2 m for sand
filter
·Operating pressure is about 1 kg/cm2 (10 m)
·Fitting loss = 2 m
·Venturi head loss = 5 m

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·Installation of dripirrigation system
The installation of the micro irrigation system be divided into 3 stages.
1. Installation of head equipment
2. Connecting mains and sub mains
3. Laying of lateral with drippers
1. Installation of head equipment
The following points should be considered for fixing the position of filter station.
1. Minimum use of fitting such as elbows and bends to be made.
2. Whether the pump delivery can be connected to the sand / screen filter.
3. Sand / screen filter can easily be connected to mainline.

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 4. As far as possible, use GI fitting for connecting delivery of pump and filter
inlet.
5. Arrangement of back-wash to be made as per the farmer's suitability.
6. Arrangement of by-pass water to be made.
7. Sufficient space to be provided for the easy operation of filter valves.
8. Hard surface or cement concrete foundation to be made for sand filter so that it
will not collapse due to vibration and load. For screen filter, provide strong
support by using GIfittings to avoid its vibrations due to load.
9. Use hold-tight over the threads of GI fittings and apply proper mixture of M-
seal over the joints uniformly to avoid leakage.
10. Before pouring the sand into the sand filter, see that all the filter candles
(mushrooms) are fitted tightly.
11. Pour the sand of desired grade and spread it uniformly in the filter and see that
all the filter candles are covered sufficiently by sand.
12. Fix the pressure gauges in inlet and outlet of the filter.
13. Avoid direct linking of oil pump delivery and filter. Instead connect the filter to
the pump delivery using flanges or even the hose pipe can be used for this.
2. Connecting mains and sub mains
1. It should be laid at a depth of more than 45-60 cm so as to avoid damages during
inter cultivation and also to increase the life of the system.
2. Remove mud, if any, in the pipes before fitting. These pipes can be fitted using
solvent cement with the help of brush.
3. A gunmetal gate valve / PP Ball valve is provided at the start of sub main with
PVC MTA fittings for connecting the valve in the PVC sub main.
4. If field is undulating, air release cum vacuum breaker valve should be provided
after the ball valve.
5. As far as possible ball valve should be above the ground, otherwise small
chamber should be made for ball valve protection.
6. Provide flush valve at the end of main and sub main such that it faces towards
slope.
7. Make the main and submain firm by putting soil near the flush valve and at the

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 different places, so that pipe will not move while making the drill into it.
8. Use appropriate size drill. There is a possibility of breakage of grommet and
take off, if undersize drill is used and possibility of leakage, if over-size drill is
used
9. Apply uniform pressure vertically over the drill while drilling in the sub main
so that the hole will be smooth and round.
10. Fix the rubber grommets in the holes made in the sub main in such a way that
the groove in it goes inside the pipe.
11. Fix the take-off position such that its arrow or the chamber faces towards the
gate valve of the sub main for the easy flow of water. See that the take-off is
fixed tightly in thegrommet. The loose fitting of take-off indicates the breakage
of grommet.
12. Get the sub main flushed so that the PVC piece / mud fallen in the sub main
while making drill will get flushed. Otherwise this scrap will block the drippers
through polytube.
3. Laying of laterals withdrippers
1. Pass water through the poly tube and get it flushed so that it gets bulged and
makes easy for punching.
2. Punch the lateral sideway using standard punch.
3. The dripper position should be fixed according to design, soil and water report
and water level in peak summer.
4. If two drippers are to be provided such that all the drippers come in a straight
line.
5. Do not fix drippers unless a complete lateral line is punched. Otherwise the
placement of drippers will be changed if moved.
6. Punching should be done from the sub main.
7. While fixing the dripper, push it inside the lateral and pull it slightly.
8. Close the end of lateral by fitting end cap.
·Installation of pump
If existing pump of desired head and discharge is available, then there is no
need of pump installation. But for new installation of pump, all care should be taken

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 while making the connections. Pump foundation should be strong enough, so that it
will not vibrate due to load.
The total head of pump and discharge of pump should be in accordance to the
design of the system.
·Testing or commissioning of the system
After installation of the system, its testing should be done in following ways:
1. Backwash the sand filter till clean water comes out through its flush valve.
2. See all the gate valves and flush valves are open before testing.
3. Close the flush valve after the submain is completely flushed.
4. When the laterals are completely flushed, close them with the help of end caps.
5. Check the pressure on the gauges installed at inlet and outlet of the filter.
6. Obtain the desired pressure at the filter, if excessive pressure is observed, open
the bypass valve slowly till the desired pressure is obtained.
7. For measuring the pressure at submain, use pressure gauge with adapter at the
shredder valve provided.
8. At this pressure, measure the discharge at a minimum of three different places.
For this volumetric method can be used.
9. Check the working of air release valve at the submain.
10. After fitting of the entire system, install venturi on the filter properly.
·Instructions given to the operator
Following instruction should be given to the operator of the drip system:
1. Remain alert, when the system is in operation.
2. How to operate the system?
3. How to backwash sand filter?
4. How to use fertilizer tank/venturi and how to apply fertilizer and give chemical
treatment?
5. How much water should be applied during different stages of crop and how
many hours the system should be operated?
6. At what pressure the system should be run?
7. Care to be taken for the prevention against damages from rats, ants etc.
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·Model design of drip irrigation system for 1 ha vegetables
While designing drip irrigation system in case of close growing row crop such
as vegetables, the planting pattern should be slightly modified (that is known as skiff
row plantation or paired row plantation) so that the total number of plants should not
be affected as per conventional method.
In conventional method, the rows are spaced at 60 cm spacing, so the total
number of rows = 100/0.6 = 166 and total numbers of plants are about 55,000 per ha.
Therefore, there should be 83 paired rows in case of drip irrigation method and
provide one lateral for two rows of crop, for economy. The dripper spacing is
depends on the type of soil, discharge of drippers and water requirement of the crop.
Example 6.1 (Model design)
Design a drip irrigation system for brinjal using following data:
1. Size of the field = 1 ha
2. Shape = assume square plot of 100 m × 100 m
3. Type of drippers = online
4. Crop spacing = 30 cm × 60 cm × 75 cm
5. Discharge of dripper = 2 l/h at 1 kg/cm2
6. Spacing of dripper along the lateral = 0.6 m
7. Spacing of lateral = 1.2 m
8. Pan evaporation = 8 mm/day
9. Area to be wetted as a percentage of total area = 75%
10. Soil type = clay loam
11. Availability of electricity per day = 12 hr
12. Topography of field = level
13. Distribution uniformity = 90%
14. Well depth = 12 m
15. Hazen-William constant = 150 for PVC and 140 for LLDPE pipes
Assume water source is at the corner of the field.

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·Model design of 1 ha fruit crop
Example 6.2
Design a drip irrigation system for 1 ha fruit crop using following data:
1. Type of crop = Sapota
2. Spacing = 6 m × 6 m
3. Size of land = 1 ha (100 m × 100 m), assume square plot
4. Type of soil = Medium black
5. Land slope = 0.2 percent (North to South)
6. Maximum evaporation = 10 mm/day
7. Water source = Well, at the corner of the field
8. Static head = 12 m
9. Wetted area of sapota = 25 percent
10. Age of orchard = 5 years
11. Assume crop factor = 0.7
16. Hazen-William constant = 150 for PVC and 140 for LLDPE pipes
Assume water source is at the corner of the field.

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 DETERMINATION OF PRESSURE DISCHARGE

7 RELATIONSHIP AND EMISSION UNIFORMITY

FOR GIVEN EMITTER

Objectives
1. To understand hydraulics of drippers
2. To determine pressure discharge relationship
3. To determineemission uniformity
Introduction
Drip irrigation system design must ensure nearly uniform discharge of the drippers in
each section that is controlled by avalve and irrigated as unit of the system. In general the
flow rate through the emitters is controlled by hydraulic pressure at the emitter and the flow
path dimensions of the emitter. The relationship between in pressure head and discharge is
an important characteristic of emitters. The pressure compensating emitters have a low
value of the exponent. However, since they have some physical part that responds to
pressure their long range performance requires careful consideration. The compensating
emitters usually have a high coefficient of manufacturing variation (Cvm) and their
performance may be affected by temperature, material fatigue or both.
Emission uniformity is the measure of the unoformity of emitters discharge from all
the emitters of drip irrigation system and is the single most important parameter for
evaluating system performance. EU shows relationship between minimum and average
emitter discharge.
·Hydraulics of drippers
Over a wide range of discharge of emitter following equation is used.
q = k Hx …(7.1)
where,
q is the emitter discharge, l/h
k is the constant of proportionality
H is the working pressure head at the emitter, m
x is the emitter exponent, which characterizes the flow regimes and it varies between
0.1 to 1 depending on emission devices.
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·Pressure discharge relationship
i. Laminar flow emitter
Relationship between the discharge and the operating pressure is linear.
Doubling the pressure doubles the discharge. Therefore, the variation in operating
pressure head within the system are often held to within ±5 percent of the desired
average.
ii. Turbulent flow emitters
The change in discharge varies with the square root of the pressure head; i.e.
emitter exponent, x = 0.5, in above equation, consequently, the pressure must be
increased four times to double the flow. Therefore, the pressure head in system using
turbulant flow emitter is often allowed to vary by ±10 percent of the desired average.
iii. Flow compensating emitters
Some emitters provide varying degrees of flow regulation and emitter
exponent x may be less than 0.5.With x ranging between 0.3 to 0.4, considerable
regulation is achieved.
·Emission uniformity (EU)
·Methods of emission uniformity estimation
1. Method-EU field test
The EU during the field test is the ratio expressed as a percentage of the average
emitter discharge from the lowest 1/4th of emitter to the average discharge of all the emitters
of the drip system. It is expressed by the equation

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·EU design estimate
To estimate the emission uniformity for the proposed drip irrigation system design,
the following equation can be used

where,
EU = design emission uniformity, percent
Ne = number of point source emitter per emission point
Cv = manufacturer’s coefficient of variation for point source or line source
emitters
Qmin = minimum emitter discharge rate in the system, l/h
Qavg = average or design emitter discharge rate, l/h

Example 7.1
Calcualte the emission uniformity for a drip irrigation lateral for arid region using
following data for point source emitter on a permanent crop. Assume uniform terrain with
slope less than 2 percent
(i) Cv = 0.07
(ii) Qmin = 10 l/h
(iii) Qavg = 11 l/h
(iv) Ne = 2

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Recommended ranges of design emission uniformity (EU) are presented in Table 6.1
Table 6.1: Recommended ranges of design emission uniformity (EU)

Sr. Emitter type Soil topography EU range for arid

No. areas (%)

1. Point source on Uniform* 90 to 95

permanent crops (spaced
Steep or undulating** 85 to 90
> 4 m apart)
2. Point source on Uniform* 85 to 90
permanent crop or semi-
Steep or undulating** 80 to 90
permanent crops (spaced
< 2 m apart)
3. Line source on annual Uniform* 80 to 90
row crops
Steep or undulating** 70 to 85

* Slope < 2 percent

** Slope > 2 percent
(For humid areas, values may be lowered by up to 10 percent)
(Source: American Society of Agricultural Engineers, “Design, installation and
performance of trickle irrigation system”. ASAE Engineering practice, 1985.)

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 STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF FILTERS

8 AND DETERMINATION OF FILTRATION

EFFICIENCY

Objectives
1. To studydifferent types of filters
2. Tostudy filtration efficiency
Introduction
Filters plays an important role in modern irrigation systems, where low discharge
emitters were used. Due to small cross-section of nozzles, the emitters are susceptible to
clogging, which results in poor water distribution over the entire field. In order to protect
the emitter against the clogging hazard, filters are provided at the head of irrigation system.
The types of filters to be used in drip irrigation system depends on water quality and the
type of water source.
·Types of filters
There are several types of commercially available filters, each based on different
working principle and technologies and platforms different filtration tasksaccording to
water quality.
a) Gravel filters (also known as sand filter or media filter)
b) Screen filters
c) Disk filters
d) Hydrocyclone filters (sand seperators)
a) Gravel filters (also known as sand filter or media filter)
Gravel filters clean the incoming water to the drip system by passing it through a thick
layer of uniformly graded particles. These particles can be sand, gravel or another granular
material. The filtration performance depends on the effective size of the particles and the
rate of water flow through the filter.
Granular filters are cleaned by back flushing. The filter media should be replaced
after one or two years, depending on water quality. A typical diagram of gravel filter is
presented in Fig. 8.1.

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Operation
Water enters through the top of the filter body and percolates through the filtering
bed. Filtration occurs during water movement through the media.

Fig. 8.1: Gravel Filter

(Source: Mane and Ayare, 2019)
Use
Granular filters are used for the primary filtration of water from reservoirs, open
channels, rivers, sewers and other sources, which have suspended particles in water.
Filtration efficiency
Granular filters are ineffective in separating particles of size in the range of 1 to 10
microns. Their efficiency in this range is less than 15%. The efficiency of granular filters in
removing particles of size exceeding 10 microns is more than 50%.
The filtering media should be as far as possible, of uniform grain size, in order to
increase filtration efficiency.

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 The thicker the filtering media, the more efficient the filtration process. This is
particularly true for coarse grain filtering media.
The formation of a layer of organic matter, particularly algae will result in surface
filtration and willdecrease filtration efficiency, especially where small particles are
involved.
Selection
(1) Thickness of filtering media and grain size
These two factors are inversely related. For slow filtration, fine grain media (0.1 to
0.8 mm, silica sand) of 80 to 100 cm thickness should be specified. For rapid filtration
coarse grain media (1 to 2 mm silica sand) of 60 to 100 cm thickness should be specified.
(2) Flow rate
Filters enable relatively low flow rates. Flow rate is directly related to flow velocity,
the higher the flow velocity, the less the adherence between the particles and the filtering
media.
(3) Organic matter
Maintenance
The filtration media must be periodically cleaned as follows:
i. Rapid flow filters
Back flushing is done by passing high velocity clear water jet through the filter.
The operation is carried out periodically or when a certain amount of pressure loss
(normally 0.7 atm) is observed between the inlet and the outletof the filter.
ii. Slow flow filters
The upper filter layer which is the most polluted, should be removed and
replaced by clean sand. Frequency of treatment should be 1 to 6 times a year.
Application of chlorine at high concentration during back flushing is recommended.
Filtering media should be replaced after every two years of working.
b) Screen filter
Screen filters are always installed for final filtration as an additional safeguard
against clogging. While majority of impurities are filtered by sand filter, minute sand
particles and other small impurities pass through it. Screen filters are usually of very simple
construction and are less expensive than the other types. A screen filter consists of a plastic
or metal screen element on which all suspended particles exceeding the screen mesh size is
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retained. A typical diagram of screen filter is shown in Fig. 8.2. Screens are available in a
wide variety of types and flow rate capacities with screen sizes ranging from 20 mesh to
200 mesh. After a certain quality of dirt accumulates on the screen a pressure drop through
the filters occurs, at which stage flushing of the screen becomes necessary. Flushing can be
carried out either manually or automatically.

Fig. 8.2 Screen Filter

(Source: Mane and Ayare, 2019)

Screen filters are classified in accordance with the following criteria.

i. Type of filtration element
·Plastic or metal screen
·Set of axially-compressed grooved rings

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ii. Method of flushing
·Manual flushing is typical in very simple screen filters. In some cases, such
filters consist of two filtering elements.
·Continuous flushing is carried out in filters in which there is a bleeder through
which the particles retained on the screen are continuously washed away.
·Automatic flushing is carried out in sophisticated filters in which the pressure
differential between the inlet and the outlet of the filter element is sensed by a
pressure differential sensor.
c) Disk filter
Disk filters consists of stock of thin plastic disks, which are piled together around a
telescopic core, according to the desired degree of filtration.A typical diagram of disk
filters is shown in Fig. 8.3. Both sides of the disks are grooved and the grooves cross each
other when piled up and tightened together.The water passes through the filter from the
outside to the inside. The filter element can be cleaned easily by opening the core. The disks
are released and can easily be rinsed under running water. The pressure drop is slightly
higher than the screen filter but disk filters have better cleaning capacity than screen filter.
The water flow should be at tangent to the disks to allow them in spin freely.

Fig. 8.3: Disk Filter

(Source: Internet)

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d) Hydrocyclone filters / sand seperators / centrifugal filters
Centrifugal filters are effective infiltering sand, fine gravel and other high density
materials from water. Therefore, the hydro cyclone filter will normally not be used alone
but may constitute the first element of the filtration system. Water is introduced tangentially
at the top of a cone and creates a circular motion resulting in a centrifugal force, which
throws the heavy suspended particles against the walls. The separated particles are
collected in the narrow collecting tank at the bottom. This tank is flushed from time to time.
As the operation of hydro cyclone filters is based on centrifugal and gravitational
forces, it is necessary to maintain a constant flow in the filter in order to maintain efficient
operation. For the same reason the performance of hydro cyclone will depend on particle
mass rather than on particle size and shape. A typical diagram of hydro cyclone filter is
shown in Fig. 8.4.

Fig. 8.4: Hydrocyclone Filter

(Source: Retrieved from https://automatworld.in/ht-146-hydrocyclone on 14/06/2020)
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 DETERMINATION OF RATE OF INJECTION

9 AND CALIBRATION FOR CHEMIGATION

/ FERTIGATION

Objectives
1. To determine injection rate
2. To calibrate chemigation/fertigation
Introduction
Incorporating fertilizer in the irrigation water is the vital part of drip irrigation. The
success of drip irrigation is to a good degree, due to an improved supply of nutrient to the
plants. The opposite is true not incorporating the fertilizer or incorporating it incorrectly
can prevent achieving the desired results. The main requirements are control of timing,
concentration, location and proportion of the nutrients.
Fertigation is the process of application of water-soluble solid fertilizer or liquid
fertilizers through drip irrigation system. Through fertigation nutrients are applied directly
into the wetted volume of soil immediately below the emitter where root activity is
concentrated. Fertigation is possible only in drip irrigation.
Fertigation design
Factors crucial for effective fertigation design include (1) estimation of available
nutrients in soil (2) estimation of amount of fertilizer required (3) frequency of fertigation
(4) fertilizer tank capacity (5) irrigation water requirements (6) capacity of drip system (7)
injection duration (8) estimation of concentration of nutrients in irrigation water and (9)
injection rate.

·Estimation of available nutrients in soil

Concentration of nutrients in soil may be estimated on the basic of soil properties by
using equation as follows:

Cn = Ex × CEC × Cnmeq × 10-2 …(9.1)

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where,
Cn = concentration of available nutrients in soil, ppm
CEC = cation-exchange capacity, meq/100g of soil
Ex = exchangeable nutrients (% of CEC)
Cnmeq = concentration of 1 meq of nutrient per 100 g of soil, ppm

Availability of nutrients (Nitrate-Nitrogen and P2O5) on the basis of analysis may be

estimated by using equation as follows.

An = A × d × B d × Cn × 10-6 …(9.2)
where,
An = available nutrients, kg/ha
A = cultivated area, m2
d = depth of soil, m
Bd = bulk density of soil, kg/m3

In case of widely spaced orchard and vegetable crops plant roots do not spread in the
entire land area. Consequently, a fraction of total area is not wetted through drip irrigation.
Since the plants will take-up the nutrients from wetted soil zone, the fertilizer availability in
soil is estimated on the basis of actual area irrigated.
Example 9.1
If CEC of the loam soil is 0.6 meq/100g of soil, and the exchangeable K2O is 9% of the
total CEC, determine the availability of K2O in one-hectare area.

·Estimation of amount of fertilizer required

Requirement of fertilizers changes according to the stage of the plant growth. The
amount of nutrients to be applied during any given fertigation and the total amount to be
applied during the production season depend on the frequency of fertigation, soil type,
nutrient requirements of the crop and its availability in the soil. Required amount of
fertilizer may be estimated by using equation as follows:
Fn = (R - An) Fcf …(9.3)

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where,
Fn = nutrient requirement, kg/ha
R = recommended dose of fertilizer for the crop, kg/ha
Fcf = fertilization correction factor
An = available nutrients, kg/ha

The available nutrients vary in fertilizers with change in fertilizer source. If nutrient
content in given fertilizer is n% then the actual amount of fertilizer mixture (RF, kg/ha)
required to apply the Fn, kg/ha is estimated as follows:
RF = (Fn × 100) / n …(9.4)
Example 9.2
Estimate the quantity of urea required to apply Nitrogen @130 kg/ha if soil happens
to posses 35 kg/ha Nitrate-Nitrogen.
·Capacity of fertilizer tank
Low cost tanks are practical where an injection pump or a venturi is used. A large tank
provides a good place to store fertilizer for long period as it reduces the labour requirement
associated with frequent filling. The tank is generally made of stainless steel.
Commercially available fertilizer tank ranges from 30 to 600 litres. This is not enough,
because some fertilizers need larger quantities because of high application rates or low
solubility. The stock solution can be prepared based on the solubility of the fertilizers used.
Normally highest concentration is not desirable and it is recommended that stock solution
is prepared with slightly lesser concentration. The size of the fertilizer tank (Jensen, 1980)
is calculated on the basis of the total volume of stock solution required and the frequency of
irrigation as follows-
Capacity of fertilizer tank, Vt depends on the area irrigated in one application through
the control head in question, and the application rate (amount per hectares), RF
(kg/hectares).
Vt = (RF × A) / (C × nf) …(9.5)

where,
C = the concentration of the fertilizers in the stock solution, kg/L
nf = numbers of fertigations during the crop season
Vt = capacity of fertilizer tank, L
RF = fertilizer application rate, kg/h
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Example 9.3
Determine the capacity of fertilizer tank required to apply 130 kg of urea per ha in a
crop of 110 days duration.
·Estimation of concentration of nutrients in irrigation water
The actual concentration of nutrients needed in the irrigation water depends on the
type of crop. Therefore, periodic analysis of soils and plant material should be made, and
the rate of fertilization of quantity of nutrients needed per unit area is determined. The
fertilizer concentration (Jensen, 1980) in the irrigation water, Cf, is determined by using
equation as follows:
Cf = Fn / (Vd × nf × Rt) …(9.6)

where,
Cf = concentration of the fertilizers in the irrigation water, kg/L
Rt = ratio between fertilization time and irrigation time
nf = number of fertigation
Fn = nutrient requirement, kg/ha
Vd = daily water requirement, L

Example 9.4
Estimate the construction of Nitrogen in irrigation water to supply 130 kg of Nitrogen
in 15 fertigation. If daily water requirement of the crop is 35000 litres applied in 1.5 hours
irrigation with 1 h of irrigation duration.
Injection rate
Injection rate refers to the volume of fertilizer solution injected during a specific
period of time. The fertilizer injection rate into the system depends on the concentration of
the liquid fertilizer and the desired quantity of nutrients to be applied during the irrigation.
Discharge through the applicator depends on the ration, Rt, of fertilizer application time to
the duration of irrigation. It is not advisable to fertilize throughout the irrigation, as the
system should be flushed at the end with clear water. On the other hand, too short
application times require too highly concentrated solutions and may also results in
excessive leaching. Therefore, the maximum value of Rt can be 0.75 to 0.80 to allow time to
flush the system. The equation can be used to determination of the injection rate (Keller and
Karmeli, 1975).

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 Qi = (RF × A) / (nf × C × tf) …(9.7)
where,
Qi = injection rate of fertilizer solution, lph
A = cultivated area, ha
C = concentration of solution in stock solution, kg/l
Tf = injection duration, hr
RF = fertilizer application rate, kg/ha
nf = number of fertigation during the crop season

Example 9.5
Determine the injection rate of stock solution of urea to apply Nitrogen @150 kg/ha
in the field of 1 ha in 12 fertigations. Duration of each irrigation and fertigation (injection)
are 1.5 and 1.0 hour respectively.

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 10 DESIGN OF IRRIGATION AND FERTIGATION
SCHEDULE FOR CROPS

Objectives
1. To design irrigation schedule of crops using drip irrigation system
2. To design fertigation schedule of crops using drip irrigation system
Introduction
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation scheduling involvestwo primary decisions when to irrigate (timing)? And
how much water to apply (amount)? These decisions arecritical to the management of any
irrigation system. In case of drip irrigation, the frequency of irrigation is high as compared
to conventional irrigation methods. The key principle of drip irrigation is to maintain a
moist segment of the root zone with relatively small application of water applied
continuously. The quantity of water delivered is determined by adjusting the irrigation
period using automatic or manual controls. The irrigation set time is related to the design of
drip irrigation system, the application efficiency, the total water requirement and any
allowable deficient situation and can be expressed by the equation,

where,
T = irrigation set time, hours
WR = required amount of water to supply to root zone, litre
PD = percent of deficit
Qa = actual total discharge delivered by the system, lit/sec
Ea = application efficiency

The required amount of water (WR) is determined from daily consumption use or
evapotranspiration requirement of the crop and irrigation interval. The allowable deficit is
estimated from the relationship between crop yield and amount of water application. This is
an economic consideration and usually the allowable deficit is assumed so that is cause a
significant reduction in crop yield. The actual total discharge Qa can be estimated from the

57
designed total discharge and emitter flow variation qvar. The irrigation application
efficiency can be determined by using following equation:

·Estimation of fertilizer requirement

Requirement of fertilizers changes according to the stage of plant growth. The
amount of nutrients to be applied during fertigation and the total amount to beapplied
during active crop production season depend on the frequency offertigation, soil type,
nutrient requirements of the crop and its availability in thesoil. Required amount of
fertilizer may be estimated by using the followingequation.

To determine the quantity of fertilizer to be injected into the system for each
setting,the area irrigated in each setting of the lateral line is obtained by multiplying
thelength of the lateral coverage and the move of the lateral. The quantity of fertilizer to be
injected is calculated using the following equation

58
Example 10.1
A lateral has 20 sprinkles spaced 10 meters apart. The laterals arespaced 20 meters on
the main line. Determine the amount of fertilizer to be appliedat each setting when the
recommended fertilizer does is 100 kg/ha.
·Frequency of fertigation, duration and capacity of fertilizer tank
a. Frequency of fertigation
Fertilizers can be injected into the irrigation system at various frequencies once
aday or once in every two days or once in a week. The frequency depends on
systemdesign, irrigation scheduling, soil type, nutrients requirement of the crop and
thefarmer's preference. It is also important to monitor the application of water,
asfertilizer application is linked to water application.In any cases, it is extremely
important that the nutrients applied in irrigation are notsubject to leaching either
during the same irrigation or during subsequent irrigation.
b. Injection duration in fertigation
The maximum injection duration depends soil type and nutrient and
waterrequirements of the crop. A maximum duration of 45 to 60 minutesis generally
recommended with enough time for flushing of fertilizer residuesfrom the lines
before shutting the pump off. The injection duration is sufficient foruniform
distribution of nutrients throughout the fertigation zone. Better to inject forlong
duration to leave enough time to flush chemicals out of system rather than in a“slug”
where highly concentrated solutions of fertilizer usually injected in muchless than
45 minutes.
Injection duration is kept within permissible limits to prevent the application of
toomuch water, because excessive water leaches plant nutrients below the root zone.
Inaddition, too much water saturates the soil, causing damage to roots and plants.
c. Fertilizer concentration
The actual concentration of nutrients needed in the irrigation water depends on
thetype of crop. Many systems will have flowing water with a requirement to
maintaina desired concentration of a chemical in the system. This requires injecting
a supplymixture at proper rate to maintain the desired concentration level.
Fertilizer concentration in the irrigation water isestimated by

59
d. Fertilizer injection rate
The fertilizer injection rate into the system depends on the concentration of
theliquid fertilizer and the desired quantity of nutrients to be applied during
irrigation.The following equation is used to determine the fertilizer injection rate.
Theinjection rate may be predetermined by the capacity of the injector or the flow
rateof the irrigation system.The desired injection rate can also be calculated by using
the following formula ifall the parameters are known.

Injection time should be limited to prevent overapplicationof water that will

leachchemicals.
e. Fertilizer tank capacity
The size of the fertilizer tank will depend on the volume of chemical mixtureto
be injected, which in turn will depend on either the total amount or volume
ofchemicals to be applied or on the length of the injection period. Low cost tanks

60
arepractical where an injection pump or venturi is used. A large tank provides a
goodplace to store fertilizer tank ranges from 30 to 600 L. This is not enough,
becausesome fertilizers need larger, the capacity varies from 300 to 600 L. This is
notenough, because some fertilizers need larger quantities because of high
applicationrates or low solubility. The stock solution is prepared based on the
solubility of thefertilizers used. Normally highest concentration is not desirable and
it isrecommended that stock solution is prepared with slightly lesser concentration.

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 11 FIELD VISIT TO MICRO IRRIGATION SYSTEM
AND EVALUATION OF DRIP SYSTEM

Objectives
1. To visit micro irrigation system installed field
2. To evaluate drip irrigation system
Introduction
Learning outcome
·Demonstrate the knowledge of the importance of micro irrigation system
Practical
1. Visit to an agricultural farm to study the various components of micro
irrigation system
2. Visit to anagricultural farm tostudy the design of themicro irrigation systemin the
field
3. Identifycomponents of sprinkler irrigation system (SIS)
4. Identify tools andmaterials used forinstallation of sprinkler irrigationsystem
5. Demonstration of operation of sprinkler irrigation system
6. Demonstration of operation of dripirrigation system
7. Demonstration of maintenance of micro irrigation system
·Performance evaluation of drip irrigation system
The theory behind the drip irrigation system for conserving water and fertilizer is
sound, but the implementation in the field is not always easy. Though the method has great
potential for achieving high irrigation efficiency but due to improper design, poor
management and maintenance, it can lead to low efficiency, results in non-uniform emitter
discharge throughout the irrigated fields.
1. Manufacturing characteristics
1.1 Coefficient of manufacture's variation
The coefficient of variation, Cvis a statistical parameter expressed as

62
 Where, S is the standard deviation of flow and qavg is the mean flow for a sampled
number of emitter of the same type tested at a fixed pressure and temperature (20 °C).
A parameter which can be used as a measure of emitter flow variation caused by
variation in manufacturing of the emitter is called the coefficient of manufacturing
variation and Cv serves as that parameter.
The manufacture coefficient of variation is determined from flow rate measurement
for several identical devices and it computed with following equation:

The Table 11.1 shows the ASAE interpretation of manufacturing coefficient of

variation
Table 11.1: Recommended Classification of Manufacturer's Coefficient of Variation

(Source: 'Design, installation and performance of trickle irrigation system',

ASAE Engineering Practice, 1985, ASAE EP 405).
63
1.2 Operational characteristics
ØEmission uniformity (EU)
2. Methods of emission uniformity estimation
2.1 Method-EU field test: Practical No. 7
2.2 II method
The second method for field evaluation of emission uniformity relies on the design
procedure based on estimating emitter flow variation. It consists of finding the minimum
and maximum pressure in the sub-units and calculating the emitter flow variation (Qvar) as
follows:

General criteria for Qvar values are 10% or less (desirable) and 10 to 20% acceptable
and greater than 20%, not acceptable. A major limitation of this method is that, it does not
include emitterflow variation due to manufacturing or plugging, which can be significant
factors in affecting the system uniformity.

64
 1.1 III method
This method is based upon the statistical uniformity coefficient given by the equation
(Bralts and Kesner, 1982)

The advantage of this method is that, field measurements are simple and confidence
limits of the uniformity values can be set. A graphical technique for field determination of
system or statistical uniformity can be used based upon the time to fill a container rather
than the emitter flow rate. This method assumes that the disturbance of emitter flow is
normal. It uses the highest 1/6th and lowest 1/6th of the times needed to fill a container to get
the statistical uniformity. An example of the graphical method is illustrated in Fig. 11.1 and
procedure for the use of nomograph is as follows:

Fig. 11.1:Nomograph for Estimating Statistical Uniformity Based on Emitter Discharge Rates
(Source: Mane et al., 2019)
65
1. Take a container for measurement of flow rate (100 or 200ml).

2. Choose 18 emitters at random in the submain and measure the time it takes to fill the
container.

3. Tmax is the sum of three highest times to takes to fill the container.

4. Tmin is the sum of three lowest times to takes to fill the container.

5. Find Tmax on the vertical axis and draw a horizontal line.

6. Find Tmin on the vertical axis and draw a vertical line.

7. The intersection of the two lines gives the statistical uniformity.

Example 11.1

Estimate the total statistical uniformity (Us) for a drip irrigation submain unit with
following field data. The time in second to fill a 100 ml container is; 64,79, 67, 71, 75, 81,
68, 85, 75, 69, 85, 77, 89, 68, 81, 90, 65 and 61 sec.

3. Soil water distribution

Soil water distribution is determined by the soil properties and the way water is added
and withdrawn from the soil profile. Factors which generally differentiate the soil water
regime for drip system from other irrigation system are:

(i) Flow regimes is 2 or 3dimensional rather than vertical only

(ii) Water is added at a high frequency

(iii) Soil water is maintained within a relatively narrow range

Generally, for tree crops, 30 to 50% and for row crops, 70 to 80% root zone wetting
has been recommended for drip irrigation system.

The soil type is important because it affects the extent of available water. Fig. 11.2
shows soil water distribution under different soil textures and conditions.

66
 Fig. 11.2: Soil Water Distribution under Different Soil Structure and Condition
(Source: Mane, Ayare and Magar, 2019)

The maximum water application depth based upon soil type is estimated by the
equation,

Imax = y × AWC × (ZP/100) …(11.7)

67
68
4.2 Application efficiency (Ea)
The application efficiency is defined as ratio of water required in the root zone to the
total amount of water applied. It shows how well irrigation water is applied that is, what
percentage of water applied is stored in the root zones are required and is available for plant
use.
The water required in the root zone is assumed to be applied at the minimum flow rate
and over the total irrigation time. Therefore, application efficiency can be expressed as,

69
 12 COST ECONOMICS OF DRIP IRRIGATION
SYSTEM

Objectives
1. Economic evaluation of drip irrigation.
2. To estimate cost of dripirrigation system.
Introduction
The estimated cost of installing drip irrigation system as per government guidelines
prepared for different lateral spacings for calculation of subsidy for different crops.The
relative cost of drip installation decreases with increase in area, sincecertain essential
components remain the same irrespective of the area covered. Further, the cost of
installation will reduce for close growing vegetable crops by using laterals in paired row
system. The life of material sand accessories of the system is normally considered as 5 to 10
years.
Table 12.1:Estimated Cost of Drip System for Various Crops with Different Spacing
Lateral for Estimated cost,
Sr. crop
Fruit crops
No. spacing, 0.4 ha 1 ha 5 ha
mxm
1. Wide spacing
i) 12 x 12 13785 18820 73611
Mango/Sapota
ii) 10 x 10 14277 20041 79831
2. Moderate spacing
i) 6 x 6 16605 26551 109129
Mango/Sapota
ii) 5 x 5 17977 30143 126925
3. Orange and citrus species
Pomegranate 4x4 18621 31793 135459
Grapes 3x3 20048 36551 153441
Ber 3x3 20048 36551 153441
Banana 2x2 31616 63598 305797
Papaya 2x2 31616 63598 305797

70
 4. Closed spaced vegetable crops
Brinjal 1.5 x 1.5 35973 74737 360002
Tomato 1.2 x 0.6 43816 97548 474070
Chilli 1.2 x 0.6 43816 97548 474070

(Source : Government of India. (2010). National Mission on Micro Irrigation.

Ministry of Agriculture, Deptt. of Agri. and cooperation, New Delhi)

·Economic evaluation of drip irrigation

To evaluate the economic viability of drip investment both the Net Present Value
(NPV) and Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) are computed by utilizing discounted cash flow
technique. The net present value (NPV) is the difference between sum of present value of
benefits and that of costs covering items like capital and depreciation costs of drip system.
In terms of the NPV criteria, the investment on drip set can be treated as economically
viable, if the present value of benefits is greater than present value of costs. The BCR is also
related to NPV as it is obtained just by dividing the present value of benefit stream with that
of cost stream. Generally, if the BCR is more than one then, the investment of that project
can be considered as economically viable. A BCR greater than one obviously implies that
the NPV of the benefit stream is higher than that of cost stream. The NPV and BCR can be
defined as follows.

71
 Since, the drip irrigation involves fixed capital, it is necessary to take into accountthe
income stream for the whole life span of drip investment. It is difficult togenerate the cash
flows for the entire life span of drip investment in the absence ofobserved temporal
information on benefits and cost, we need to make fewassumptions so as to estimate both
cash inflows and outflows for drip investment.These assumptions are:
i. The life period of drip set is considered as 5 to 10 years depending upon type of crop.
Considering 5 years for banana, papaya and 10 years for Mango, Sapota etc.
ii. The income stream from drip set is uniform and constant over its entire life for the
crops. However, this assumption is relaxed at later stage by considering alternative
scenarios; where in cash out flows are allowed to increase by 2% and 5% per annum
over the corresponding cash inflows.
iii. Differential rates of discount (interest rate) are considered to undertake sensitivity of
investment to change in capital cost. These are assumed at 10, 12 and 15% as
alternatives representing various opportunity costs of capital.
Finally, the crop cultivation technology is to be assumed constant for considering
same group of crops.

·Economic analysis considering optimal spacing of laterals

The major limiting factor in large scale adoption of drip irrigation is its higinitial
investment. Physical factors such as field dimensions, shape and topography will influence
the layout of pipe networks. Cost of the lateral and drippers are the main factors that
influence the system cost. Any effort made to reduce the length of lateral and number of
drippers in a drip system will cause reduction in the system cost.

·Economic analysis of experimental field trials under drip irrigation

Large numbers of field experiments were conducted in Precision Farming
Development Centre projects sponsored by National Committee on Plasticulture
applications in Horticulture (NCPAH), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India to
evaluate the benefit cost analysis of drip/micro irrigation on various fruits, vegetables and
other horticultural crops. The biometric and yield responses of these horticultural crops
were recorded for different amount of water application through drip and conventional
irrigation (ring basin, check basin or furrow) methods. The amount of water to be given to

72
the crop was estimated by FAO56 (Penman Monteith) or using USWB open pan
evaporation method. The economic analysis ofthe data recorded from long term field
experiments 3 years for seasonal vegetables and fruit crop such as Banana, Papaya and Pine
apple and 56years for perennial fruit crops (Mango, Sapota, Guava crops) were analysed.
The steps followed tocarry out economic analysis are stated below.

73
 REFERENCES

American Society of Agricultural Engineers, (1985). Design, installation and performance

of trickle irrigation system. ASAE Engineering Practice, ASAE EP 405, ST Joseph,
MI.
Anonymous (2004). Task force on micro irrigation, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of
Agriculture & cooperation, Government of India, New Delhi.
Christiansen, J. E., (1942). Irrigation by sprinkling (Vol. 4). California Agricultural
Experiment Station. Bulletin 670. Berkeley: University of California.
Government of India. (2010). National Mission on Micro Irrigation. Ministry of
Agriculture, Deptt. of Agri. and cooperation, New Delhi. Retrieved from
http://aps.dac.gov.in/microirrigation/Archive/NMMI-Guidelines.pdf.
Jensen, M. E., (1980). Design and operation of farm irrigation systems. ASAE
Monograph, No. 3, published by American Society of Agricultural Engineers. P 717.
Keller, J. & Karmeli, D., (1975). Trickle irrigation design. First edition. Rain Bird sprinkler
manufacturing Corporation, Glendora California, USA. p 133.
Mane, M. S., & Ayare, B. L. (2019). Principles of sprinkler irrigation. New Delhi: Jain
Brothers.
Mane, M. S., Ayare, B. L., & Magar, S. S. (2019). Principles of drip irrigation system. New
Delhi: Jain Brothers.
Scobey, F. C. (1930). The flow of water in riveted steel and analogous pipes, Technical
Bulletin No. 150, US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.

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NOTES

75
NOTES

76
 :: Authors ::
Er. Devrajsinh I. Thakor is a Ph. D student in the
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering at
College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology,
Anand Agricultural University, Godhra, Gujarat, India.
He is working in the field of Irrigation Water
Management and Micro Irrigation System.

Dr. Mukesh K. Tiwari is an Assistant Professor and Head of

Department of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering at College of
Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Anand Agricultural
University, Godhra, Gujarat, India. He has more than 10 years’
research and teaching experience. He is working in the area of
Hydro informatics, Soft Computing Techniques, Watershed
Management, Irrigation Water Management, Remote Sensing and
GIS in Water Resources.

DEPARTMENT OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
ANAND AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, GODHRA