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Biological and therapeutic properties of bee pollen. A review

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DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.7729

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Received: 3 January 2016 Revised: 13 March 2016 Accepted article published: 25 March 2016 Published online in Wiley Online Library: 19 April 2016

(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.7729

Biological and therapeutic properties of bee

pollen: a review
̇
Bozena Denisowa* and Marta Denisow-Pietrzykb

Abstract
Natural products, including bee products, are particularly appreciated by consumers and are used for therapeutic purposes
as alternative drugs. However, it is not known whether treatments with bee products are safe and how to minimise the
health risks of such products. Among others, bee pollen is a natural honeybee product promoted as a valuable source of
nourishing substances and energy. The health-enhancing value of bee pollen is expected due to the wide range of secondary
plant metabolites (tocopherol, niacin, thiamine, biotin and folic acid, polyphenols, carotenoid pigments, phytosterols), besides
enzymes and co-enzymes, contained in bee pollen. The promising reports on the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticariogenic
antibacterial, antifungicidal, hepatoprotective, anti-atherosclerotic, immune enhancing potential require long-term and large
cohort clinical studies. The main difficulty in the application of bee pollen in modern phytomedicine is related to the wide
species-specific variation in its composition. Therefore, the variations may differently contribute to bee-pollen properties and
biological activity and thus in therapeutic effects. In principle, we can unequivocally recommend bee pollen as a valuable dietary
supplement. Although the bee-pollen components have potential bioactive and therapeutic properties, extensive research is
required before bee pollen can be used in therapy.
© 2016 Society of Chemical Industry

Keywords: bee pollen; medicine; therapy; honey; inflammation, cancer

INTRODUCTION General pollen grain structure versus digestibility

Bee products have long been used in medicine in the ancient
world (Egypt, Greece, China). Currently, bee products (propolis,
honey, royal jelly, bee wax, bee pollen) are accepted for use as
alternative drugs and their application refers to complementary
and alternative medicine (CAM).1 – 5 Recently, bee pollen has been
promoted as a valuable apitherapeutic product due to its potential
therapeutic value.6,7 There have been several investigations of its
potential anti-cancer activities.8 – 10 However, many properties of
bee pollen have not been rigorously studied or tested or have been
shown to be ineffective in therapies.11
Here, we have reviewed the research on the bioactivity of bee
pollen compounds to explain their potential medicinal properties
and action. The purpose of this study was also to demonstrate a
possible therapeutic value of bee pollen.
PLANT POLLEN
Pollen is produced in the anthers of spermatophytes (seed
plants) in various quantities.12 It plays an essential role in sex-
ual propagation. To perform its function, each pollen grain
carries a variety of nutrients necessary for survival and fusion
with a female gamete and contains compounds that play a pro-
tective role, i.e. polyphenols.13 Pollen of anemophilous plants
(= wind-pollinated, e.g. grasses, ivy, sedges, rushes, olive, birch,
alder, chestnut) contains allergens that may cause human polli-
nosis with severe allergy symptoms, e.g. harmful hay fever, skin
rash, or asthma and may even be responsible for development of
plant food allergy.14 In contrast, pollen of entomophilous plant
species (= insect-pollinated) is collected by various species of
Pollen grains can be as large as about 2.5–250 μm in diameter.
Each pollen grain consists of vegetative and generative cells sur-
rounded by a double wall of the matrix-type. Its inner part is
composed primarily of cellulose and pectin. The outer part is a
complex carbohydrate sporopollenin (sporoderm). The outermost
layer of the pollen wall is coated with pollenkitt, i.e. a complex of
lipids and pigments.16 Sporopollenin is very difficult or impossi-
ble to digest.17 It is estimated that bee-collected pollen, accurately
chewed before swallowing, is used by the human organism only
in about 10–15%.7 Therefore, ethanol or water extracts are recom-
mended for use to obtain therapeutic effects.18
BEE POLLEN
A mixture of flower pollen from different species is agglutinated
by nectar and honeybee enzymes (e.g. amylase, catalase) secreted
by salivary glands and pollen-loads are formed, which are recog-
nised as bee pollen in the form of granules.19 The composition
of bee pollen is variable depending on biogeographic (regional)
origin, ecological habitat, or even the season.15,17,20 Therefore, the
chemical compounds of bee pollen show large variation between
∗ Correspondence to: B Denisow, Department of Botany, Laboratory of Horticul-
tural Plants Biology, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Akademicka 15, 20-950
Lublin, Poland. E-mail: bozena.denisow@up.lublin.pl
a Department of Botany, Laboratory of Horticultural Plants Biology, University of
Life Sciences in Lublin, Poland
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honeybees (Apis sp.) and utilised as valuable food.7,15 b 1st Military Clinical Hospital in Lublin, Poland

J Sci Food Agric 2016; 96: 4303–4309 www.soci.org © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry
 www.soci.org B Denisow, M Denisow-Pietrzyk

the minimum and maximum values.6,21,22 The types of pollen

Table 1. Pollen composition and human nutritional requirements
grains contained in bee pollen are easy to analyse under a light
microscope. This method has been used since the 1950s; how- Main % RDI for
ever, it does not always allow identification of the species, but components Amount (g kg−1 ) 15 g pollen RDI
mostly facilitates recognition of the plant family or genus.16 The
approach is accepted in bee pollen quality control.6 Bee pollen is Carbohydrates
defined as human food; therefore, the physico-chemical parame- Fructose, glucose, 130–550 1–46 320
sucrose, fibre
ters and nutritional value of the product are standardised accord-
Crude fibre 3–200 0.3–18 30
ing to national legislations (e.g. Poland – PN-R-78893 ‘Obnóza ̇
Protein 100–400 5.4–22 50
pyłkowe’ – Polish legislation for bee-pollen; Switzerland – Swiss
Fat 10–130 0.1–4 80
Food Manual: Pollen Bienenprodukte, BAG – Swiss Federal Office
Vitamins
for Public Health).22 In Germany, bee pollen is officially recognised
Ascorbic acid 0.07–0.56 2–15 100
as a medicine, it is also recommended for use in different phys- (vitamin C)
iopathological conditions in Chinese medical clinical practice.7,21 𝛽-Carotene 0.01–0.20 30–600 0.9
(provitamin A)
Tocopherol 0.04–0.32 8–66 13
Brief historical note
(vitamin E)
There is a long history of the recorded use of bee pollen by Niacin (vitamin 0.04–0.11 7–20 15
humans. For centuries, it has been mentioned for its medicinal B3 )
and health-promoting properties. Historically, the nutritional and Pyridoxin 0.002–0.007 4–13 1.4
medicinal values of pollen have been considered for thousands (vitamin B6 )
of years.6 The consumption of pollen was revered in the Bible, Thiamin (vitamin 0.006–0.013 15–32 1.1
Genesis 1:29. It formed a diet of ancient notable Chinese and B1 )
Egyptian populations.23 Ancient medical texts from Greece and Riboflavin 0.006–0.02 12–42 1.3
(vitamin B2 )
Rome mentioned that Aristotle, Hippocrates, Pythagoras, or Pliny
Pantothenic acid 0.005–0.02 2–9 6
the Elder respected pollen as part of a healthful diet. Information of
Folic acid 0.003–0.01 20–67 0.4
sedative pollen properties and its beneficial effect on gastric and
Biotin (vitamin H) 0.0005–0.0007 30–42 0.045
cardiovascular disorders come from the Middle Ages.3 Pollen has
Minerals
been produced for use in folk medicine around the world.21 In the
Potassium (K) 4–20 5–27 2000
modern era, common use of bee pollen began after the Second
Phosphorus (P) 0.80–6 2–16 1000
World War, when pollen traps became available.7
Calcium (Ca) 0.20–3 0.5–7 1100
Magnesium (Mg) 0.20–3 2–23 350
Chemical composition Zink (Zn) 0.03–0.25 10–79 8.5
Advanced analytical techniques (chromatography, spectrometry) Manganese (Mn) 0.02–0.11 15–85 3.5
allow identification of approximately 200 chemical compounds Iron (Fe) 0.011–0.17 2–37 12.5
in bee pollen originating from various plant species (Table 1). Copper (Cu) 0.002–0.016 4–36 1.2
The major components include proteins (5–60%), essential amino
The composition of carbohydrates is according to Campos et al.,19 and
acids, reducing sugars (13–55%), lipids (4–7% ), nucleic acids of minerals is according to Bogdanov.7
(especially RNA), and crude fibre (0.3–20%).6,7,9 Given its compo- RDI, Required Daily Intake requirements are according to Reports of
sition, bee pollen is recognised as a ‘perfectly complete food’.15 the Scientific Committee for Food, 2010. Average RDI values have been
The minor components are minerals such as Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, assumed. RDI is given as g day−1 for carbohydrates, and as mg day−1
for vitamins and minerals.
with a high K/Na ratio, vitamins: provitamin A (𝛽-carotene), vitamin
E (tocopherol), niacin, thiamine, biotin and folic acid, enzymes or
co-enzymes.24 Bioactive substances are important compounds.22
These include unsaturated/saturated fatty acids (1–10%; linoleic, anti-atherosclerotic activities capable of modifying or regulat-
𝛾-linoleic, and archaic), phospholipids (1.5%), phytosterols, i.e. ing immune functions (Fig. 1).8,37 Given the nutritional properties
𝛽-sitosterol, P-sitosterol (1.1%) and terpenes.25 Moreover, polyphe- of bee pollen compounds, it is recommended as a valuable dietary
nols, mainly flavonoids (3–8% dry weight) are relevant.18,26 In supplement.7
the group of flavonoids, catechins, kaempferol, quercetin, and
isorhamnetin are the most frequent.6,22 Bee pollen is also rich in
Antioxidative effects
organic carotenoid pigments (i.e. lycopene, zeaxanthin).27 Such a
Oxidative stress results from an increase in the concentration of
variable composition with various secondary metabolites makes
reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells. ROS are generated by both
bee pollen a very valuable supplementation of the diet.9,24,28,29
exogenous (environmental) and endogenous factors (i.e. O2 − , the
Ethanol or water extracts have significantly higher content of
superoxide anion, a natural by-product of metabolism). Increased
bioactive elements compared to natural bee pollen.18
levels of ROS contribute to cell membrane or DNA damage,
and are implicated in a variety of cellular responses that induce
Therapeutic properties chronic inflammation.38,39 Accordingly, ROS is involved in develop-
A variety of primary and secondary metabolites contained in ment of numerous diseases such as cardiovascular, metabolic (dia-
bee pollen exhibit a wide range of properties and bioactivities, betes), degenerative (arthritis, Parkinsons’s disease, Alzheimer’s
i.e. antioxidant,30,31 anti-inflammatory,32 anticarcinogenic,33 disease), and neoplastic disorders.40 Human cells have a num-
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antibacterial,27,34 antifungicidal,35 hepatoprotective,36 and ber of defence systems against ROS, i.e. endogenous antioxidants:

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Bee pollen and medicine
Figure 1. Potential therapeutic properties of bee pollen and plausible biological mechanisms by which the pollen compounds act. Abbreviations: NF-𝜅B,
nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TNF-𝛼, tumour necrosis factor alpha; IgE, immunoglobulin E;
Fc𝜀RI, Fc epsilon receptor for immunoglobulin; ALA, 𝛼-linolenic acid; ↓, decrease/inhibition; ↑, increase/activation.
enzymes – catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and per-
oxidases. In many studies, the oxidative stress reduction by exoge-
nous dietary antioxidants has been well documented.41,42
Antioxidative effects (= inactivation of oxygen radicals) of
bee pollen is perhaps attributable to the activity of antioxidant
enzymes as well as to the content of secondary plant metabolites
such as phenolic substances, carotenoids, vitamin C, vitamin E,
and glutathione.41 Flavonoids are the most abundant and most
frequently studied class of polyphenols of low molecular weight.
Bee pollen contains, among others, quercetin, caffeic acid, caffeic
acid phenethyl ester (CAPE), rutin, pinocembrin, apigenin, chrysin,
galangin, kaempferol and isorhamnetin.21,26 It has been shown
that flavonoids present in bee pollen are capable of inactivation of
electrophiles, scavenge free radicals, ROS, and accordingly prevent
them from becoming mutagens.27 The hydrogen from the phe-
nolic hydroxyl groups of flavonoids captures the free radical chain
oxidation; thereby, they form stable end-products, which inhibit
further oxidation.19,20,23 Flavonoids also bind metal ions and in
this way may remove toxic metals from the body.21 Flavonoids
support the defence against free radicals and serve as a defence
factor against genotoxic substances or carcinogens.31,43,44 In an
experimental clinical study, Duclos et al. documented weakened
oxidative stress and increasing antioxidation in prostatic secretion
and semen after application of extracts from bee pollen.45
The flavonoid content significantly increases in ethanol,
methanol/water, and water extracts from bee pollen.18 Con-
sequently, pollen extracts exhibit higher antiradical activity
compared to bee-collected pollen. However, the antioxidant
effect of bee pollen is species-specific and differs consider-
ably between plants.3 In the study of Fatrcová-Šramková et al.,
the antioxidant effect decreased in the following order: Bras-
sica napus subsp. napus (Brassicaceae) > Papaver somniferum
(Papaveraceae) > Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae).46
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Anti-inflammatory effects
Substantial evidence suggests that pollen compounds (e.g.
polyphenols or flavonoids) may exert beneficial effects on numer-
ous cells (i.e. macrophages, T cells, B cells, NK cells, hepatocytes,
mast cells, basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils), which play a crucial
role in host defence against invading pathogens and in inflam-
matory processes.22,27 The anti-inflammatory action of flavonoids
may result from the activity of quercetin, which is known to inhibit
the arachidonic acid metabolism.28 A decrease in the arachidonic
acid level reduces the level of proinflammatory prostaglandins
and provides the anti-inflammatory effect.43 As a result, good
effects for the local pain elimination and prevention of platelet
aggregation are observed after application of bee pollen.7,47
Another important mechanism of the action of bee pollen bio-
compounds on cell function may be the capacity to stimulate
or inhibit protein phosphorylation and thereby to modify cell
signalling pathways, including inhibition of cell proliferation.1,26
Flavouring substances of bee pollen (e.g. anethole) are recog-
nised as a potent inhibitor of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-induced
nuclear factor (NF)-𝜅B activation. The nuclear factor (NF)-𝜅B path-
way has been considered a proinflammatory signalling pathway
by expression of proinflammatory genes including cytokines and
adhesion molecules. The anti-inflammatory property of bee pollen
is thus expressed by inhibition of the proinflammatory NF-𝜅B
pathway.28
The mechanism of the anti-inflammatory effect is also related to
the presence of fatty acids and phytosterols, which are active in
the anti-inflammatory process.10,48 Particularly beneficial effects of
bee pollen in removing swellings of cardiovascular and renal origin
have been reported.49 Generally, the anti-inflammatory activity of
bee pollen is compared to such non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
4305
drugs as naproxen, analgin, phenylbutazone or indomethacin.10
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Complementation of conventional therapy with bee pollen
improves the condition of patients with asthma.50
Anticarcinogenic activity
Several studies have shown that bee pollen has greater or lesser
antimutagenic properties in certain types of cancer.23,33,51 The anti-
carcinogenic activities may be derived from its antioxidant prop-
erties, i.e. suppression of oxygen reactive species (ROS) formation
and removal or inactivation of oxygen reactive species.15,27,31 There
are also reports about the ability of bee pollen to induce apoptosis
and stimulate secretion of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-𝛼).52
Thus, bee pollen may be considered to have cytotoxic activity on
cells by inhibiting their development.27
The effect of bee pollen extracts on inhibition of different cell
lines was reported for K-562 cells,51 leukaemia cells,53 or prostate
cancer PC-3 cells.44 The inhibition of respiratory burst within can-
cer cell lines treated with bee pollen extracts is probably associated
with their antioxidant potential.10 Strong cytotoxicity by trigger-
ing apoptosis in human prostate cancer PC-3 cells was revealed
after application of a steroid fraction of a chloroform extract from
bee pollen harvested from Brassica campestris (Brassicaceae).52
The beneficial effects of bee pollen extracts in prostatic conditions
are thought to arise from their presumed anti-inflammatory and
anti-androgen effects.43 Pollen of Cistus ladaniferus (Cistaceae)
has been reported to exhibit an anabolic and stimulatory impact
on bone tissues in rats in vitro and in vivo54 and possess high
antioxidative and scavenging abilities.55 Saric et al. found that
antioxidant enzyme activity in the livers, brains and lysates of ery-
throcytes in mice could be modulated by bee pollen extracts.56 For
example, bee pollen extracts decreased the peroxidative break-
down of membrane lipids in murine hepatic cells. Good results of
treatment with bee pollen have been reported in patients with
chronic non-bacterial prostate syndrome as well as in prostatic
hyperplasia.6 Improvement in patients with benign prostatic
hyperplasia (BPH) and patients with prostate cancer in the initial
stage was found after application of bee pollen [rye pollen extract,
Glycine max (soy), Prunus mexicana]. However, it has to be under-
lined that in patients with prostate cancer the pollen application
was complementary to chemotherapeutic treatment.45 In accor-
dance with results obtained in cell cultures, it can be suggested
that bee pollen extracts with different types of compounds, espe-
cially phenolic acids and flavonoids (e.g. kaempferol, apigenin),
help to control cell growth.51 Beneficial effects are also expected
via enhancing and strengthening the immune system.
Antibacterial and antifungal effects
Certain antimicrobial effects of commercial Spanish and Por-
tuguese bee pollen have been demonstrated, for example against
Staphylococcus aureus and Candida glabrata.10 Antibacterial activ-
ity of monofloral bee pollen against pathogenic bacteria was
determined by Fatrcová-Šramková et al.46 For example, Staphylo-
coccus aureus was the most sensitive bacteria to an ethanol extract
(70%) of poppy pollen (Papaver, Papaveraceae), and Salmonella
enterica was the most sensitive bacteria to a methanol extract
(70%) of rape bee pollen (Brassica napus, Brassicaceae) and an
ethanol extract (70%) of sunflower (Helianthus annus, Asteraceae).
Listeria monocytogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia
coli were less sensitive to bee pollen extracts. The antibacte-
rial effect of an ethanol extract (80%) of bee pollen was shown
against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella sp. and
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Pseudomonas aeruginosa.41 However, pollen was shown to have
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B Denisow, M Denisow-Pietrzyk
no antimicrobial effects on bacteria (Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis,
Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus,
Yersinia enterocolitica, Enterococcus faecalis and Listeria monocyto-
genes) and fungi (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida rugosa,
Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus oryzae) treated at concentrations
from 0.02% to 2.5% (v/v).57 Therefore, antimicrobial activity of bee
pollen is concentration dependent.
The antibacterial effect of pollen is probably associated with the
property of glucose oxidase, an enzyme produced by honeybees.
It is added to pollen when pollen granules are formed.19 It has
also been shown that microbiological activity is related to phenolic
acids and flavonoids.57 The mechanism of the action of flavonoids
and phenols against bacterial and fungal cells is degradation of the
cytoplasm membrane, which leads to loss of potassium ions and
initiation of cell autolysis.
Hepatoprotective and detoxifying activity
In several studies on animals, pollen bioactive substances
improved liver function.58 Pollen extracts lowered pathologi-
cal levels of enzymes (e.g. alanine, aspartate transaminase, acid
phosphatase) and bilirubin present in the blood of individuals
poisoned with organic compounds (ethanol, carbon tetrachloride
and trichlorethylene, ethionine, ammonium fluoride) or with
drugs (paracetamol and hydrocortisone).59 The detoxifying pollen
activity is associated with polyphenols, mainly flavonoids and
phenolic acids.60 A detoxification effect of bee pollen has been
shown in rats intoxicated with heavy metals or pesticides (carbaryl,
protuxor).10 Therefore, bee pollen extracts are recommended in
acute and chronic inflammatory conditions, initial degenerative
conditions, and cholestatic liver diseases as well as in toxic and
post-traumatic damage to this organ.61
Anti-atherosclerotic effect
Pollen extracts are reported to have hypolipidaemic activity by
decreasing the content of total lipids, triacylglycerol, and choles-
terol. Therefore, beneficial effects in cardiovascular disease have
been reported.62,63 In patients with cardiovascular disease, intake
of bee pollen reduces blood viscosity and is effective in reduc-
ing the intensity of atherosclerotic plaque formation and decreas-
ing platelet aggregation.10,64 These effects of bee pollen are
related to free forms of fatty acids (omega-3, a-ALA) present
in bee pollen (more than 50%), which act as a precursor for
prostaglandin-3, the main inhibitor of platelet aggregation. More-
over, increased fibrinolytic system activity has been confirmed
after pollen consumption.64 Such a property protects from heart
diseases and brain strokes.7,63
Immune regulatory and anti-allergenic effect
Bee pollen is reported to strengthen the immune system. Qin
and Sun documented improved cell immune response in mice
after application of an ethanol extract of pollen typhae (EEPT).65
Stimulation of humoral immune response (an increase in specific
IgM and IgG levels) was noted in rabbits.66 The immunosuppres-
sive activity of bee pollen is presumably attributed to flavonoids,
steroids, and volatile oil compounds. Ishikawa et al. revealed that
bee pollen might enhance the anti-allergic reaction by inhibiting
activation of mast cells, and thus exert an impact on both the early
and late phase of allergic reactions.67 The anti-allergic bee pollen
activity is expressed by prevention of IgE binding to its receptor
(Fc𝜀RI) and inhibition of histamine secretion, the main stimulator
of allergenic response.
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Bee pollen and medicine
Nutritional properties
A beneficial effect of diet supplementation with pollen was
reported in animals and humans.7,68 One of the possible mech-
anisms by which pollen acts at the molecular level is associated
with regulation and enhancement of protein metabolism, thus
it is useful in recovery from malnutrition. Bee pollen is particu-
larly favourable for older individuals, who may have difficulty
in recovering from a malnourished state and exhibit great
requirements for essential amino acids, essential fatty acids,
and micro-nutrients.52,69 It has been shown that a diet enriched in
protein-rich pollen is suitable for children with a lack of appetite;
it is especially beneficial for patients after surgery, and elderly
long-hospitalised patients in whom malnutrition is a state respon-
sible of morbidity and mortality.70 Nutrient-rich pollen can
reduce the side effects of chemotherapies or radiotherapies and
improves the condition of patients.64 Regular intake of fresh bee
pollen is beneficial for people undertaking hard physical and
mental work.39,41,70 Diet supplementation with bee pollen results
in strengthening muscle function and increasing body mass.47
Moreover, bee pollen supplements have shown a positive effect
on probiotic viability and occurred on increase apparent viscosity
of fermented milk beverages.71
Side effects of bee pollen consumption
The major problem is that bee-collected pollen may con-
stitute an important risk factor concerning the presence of
contaminants (heavy metals, pesticides, herbicides, mycotox-
ins, bacteria, antibiotics). In general, it seems that bacterial
and mycotoxin contamination is a greater problem.7 Among
mycotoxins, ochratoxin A, produced by Aspergillus species, is
recognised as one of the most dangerous toxins. Mutagenic
properties (induction of DNA damage) and a major role in
reducing antioxidant defences have been documented for ochra-
toxin A.72 In the pollen of some plant species (Echium vulgare,
Symphytum officinale, Senecio jacobaea), pyrrolizidine alkaloids
with hepatotoxic properties were recorded.73 Therefore, stan-
dardised pollen tablets are recommended.74 Moreover, allergic
reactions including anaphylaxis have been recognised after
intake of bee-collected pollen.75 – 77 Accordingly, patients who
are prone to allergies or atopic individuals should avoid any
type of bee pollen, both bee-collected and extracts. In these
people, consumption of bee pollen may cause more compli-
cations than therapeutic benefits.78 In general, the application
of bee pollen should be discussed with physicians in order to
avoid complications.
CONCLUSION
Complementary and alternative treatments are offered as various
cures for disease. In general, these treatments have not been
proven effective and safe in clinical experiments. The extracts of
bee pollen collected from flowers of different angiosperms can be
regarded as a promising therapeutic and nutritional natural food
supplement. Its functional biological property is due to the high
content of flavonoids and polyphenols and considerable radical
scavenging capacity. However, more research and more experi-
mental and clinical studies are required to verify the effectiveness
of bee pollen extracts, using tests accepted by the Western
medical establishment. Bee pollen may be toxic and unsafe for
human consumption due to elevated levels of pesticides (imida-
cloprid) or allergenic compounds or have life-threatening side
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effects. A further study should concentrate on methods to isolate
active ingredients from bee pollen and on experimental tests
of individual components or their combination in different cell
lines and clinical therapies. The ethanol/water extracts of bee
pollen seem to be the most promising agents, as the highest
antioxidant and radical scavenging activity has been found in
these products. The potential risks of consuming organic bee
pollen include contamination by fungal mycotoxins, pesticides or
toxic metals.
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