DC Railway Simulation Including Controllable
Power Electronic and Energy
Storage Devices
Frehiwot Adugna
adugnafrehiwot16@gmail.com
Abstract— The given article is discussed a set of models that
can be used to simulate how power flows in Direct Current
(DC) railway networks. These models take into account
different aspects of modern DC railway systems such as non-
reversible, reversible (controlled and uncontrolled) substations,
as well as on- and off-board accumulation systems. The model
is also able to consider overvoltage and overcurrent protection,
as well as any links between connected nodes in the railway
network that either have the same or different voltage. This
work is unique compared to other works that have attempted a
similar simulation as it is able to accurately simulate complex
multi-train scenarios.
Keywords—-catenary free, controlled substation, DC power
systems, energy storage, multi-train, non-reversible substations,
traction networks.
I. INTRODUCTION
DC traction systems are electric systems used to feed
different types of railway systems. These systems use
different voltages, from light trams at 750V to heavy trains at
1500V and 3000V. In the past, the existing technology in
these systems was mainly based on non-controlled diode
based substations which had high reliability, but low power
quality and low efficiency. Nowadays, operators are
increasingly interested in technologies based on controllable
power electronic devices and storage systems. These
technologies are used to improve system efficiency,
controllability, and power quality. Power flow analysis is a
common planning and operation methodology. As such, it is
necessary to create steady state simulation models with new
technologies in order to conduct these analyses. This
simulation framework should account for modern features of
DC railway power systems.
A complete simulation framework is an overall system
that is designed to accurately play out the various
components and interactions that make up the functioning of
a DC railway power system. This system should be able to
not only analyze the various features of the railway power
system, but also be able to account for all the typical modern
aspects as well, such as:
Complex multi-train topology.
Non-reversible substations.
Controlled/uncontrolled reversible substations.
Off-board accumulation systems.
On-board accumulation systems.
Regenerative braking of the trains.
Low network receptivity (train overvoltage protection).
Train overcurrent protection.
Combination of catenary free operation segments with
conventional catenary lines.
DC/DC links between nodes of the same voltage level or
different voltage levels with different kind of control.
The first power flow tools for simulating DC trains were
proposed in the 70s. Later on, researchers included the
regenerative braking of the trains in the tools they developed.
It wasn't until the 90s that models considering low network
receptivity in high catenary voltage scenarios were
introduced, but without considering non-reversible or
controlled substations. In recent times, a lot of tools, models,
simulations, and studies have been developed and
researched. Some of this research includes developing a
model with a very detailed simulation of the grounding
system and a combined AC/DC power flow model, which
considers both the DC railway system and AC distribution
system. However, these models are simplistic. Others are
focusing their efforts on simulation of the low network
receptivity, but still not including controllable substations or
accumulation systems. Lastly, yet another group is
developing more detailed models of different devices, such
as controlled substations and non-reversible substations.
Recently, many authors have been studying railway
networks to increase their efficiency. This can be done in two
ways
Simulation of low network receptivity, this involves
studying systems or networks that are a combination
of catenary-free and catenary-feed networks.
The development of on-board and off-board
accumulation method which involve studying how
energy from the network can be stored.
Another group of authors have been developing models
for different components of the network such as the
controlled substation models [16], the non-reversible
substations [17], and the controlled substation with off-board
accumulators [18]. Finally, some authors are creating
complex, accurate models of trains [19] - [21], although there
are gaps in these works, such as not considering regenerative
braking [19], or on-board storage in [21]. However, these
typically aren't implemented in complex scenarios with
multiple trains.
AC distribution system side
DC railway system side
a) b) c) d)
Fig. 1. Different types of railway substations. a) Conventional non-
controlled diode type non-reversible substation. b) IGBT based reversible
substation. c) Reversible substation with a diode rectifier in parallel with a
IGBT based converter. d) Conventional non-controlled diode type non-
reversible substation equipped with an off-board energy storage device
The purpose of this research paper is to develop a
framework that takes into account all of the different
components and features of electrical simulations of DC
railways. The models are both simple enough to be included
in complex multi-train scenarios, and accurate enough to be
used for planning and operation purposes. This framework is
the first of its kind in that it is comprehensive and considers
so many models at the same time.
II. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
A. AC/DC substations
In Fig. 1, different types of substations are shown that are
used to connect AC distribution systems with DC traction
systems. Traditionally, DC railway traction systems are fed
with diode-based, non-controlled substations (Fig. 1a), which
are cost-effective and reliable, but are not able to adjust the
voltage and not efficient in scenarios with few trains. To
solve this problem, IGBT based substations (Fig. 1b) can be
used, which are controllable in both directions, meaning they
can convert power from AC to DC, or DC to AC. To
improve reliability, a combination of diode-based substations
and off-board accumulation systems (Fig. 1d) can be used,
whereby some components are installed together with the
substation, while others are placed in nodes of the traction
network that are not directly connected to the AC system. All
these substations are represented in a general model, shown
in Fig. 2, that explains how the voltages of the AC and DC
systems affect the substation.
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the substation general model.
The left side represents the DC traction system, while the
right side represent the equivalent AC distribution system
modelled using a DC distributed slack bus. The current
arrow represent the positive direction of the current. The left
side of the schematic diagram in the figure represents the DC
traction system and the right side represents the AC
distribution system. The substation needs input from an AC
source and produces output in the form of the catenary
voltage of the DC traction system. The behavior of the
substation is dependent on the voltage the switch controlling
power flow between the AC and DC system receives. The
manufacturers, however, choose to use a diode bridge
rectifier instead of other solutions, like an IGBT converter,
since it has better reliability.
switch position  f (Vsup )
Where Vsup  Vcat  Vs
The use of a problem output ( Vcat ) in the switch control
cause convergence problems, but they can be addressed by
using a damping factor. [10], [11], [22]. Then, the paragraph
1 2
mentions two impedances ( R sub and R sub ), which are
usually calculated based on the voltage drop in the power
transformer and the converter. This calculation approach is
off
commonly used for railway substations. Finally, Rsub is a
high impedance used to improve the convergence
performance when the substation is blocked. The voltage
1 2
sources Vsub and Vsub are mentioned as tools to emulate the
substation controls for different kinds of controls and
substations.
a) b) c)
Fig. 3. Substation model. a) Conventional non-reversible substation. b) Ideal
reversible substation, c) Reversible substation with/without deadband and
the possibility of considering different power converters for forward and
reverse modes
This section is explaining how three types of controls on
a particular type of technology can be simulated by setting
up the correct parameters. In this particular example, the
technology being described is a substation that only allows
for current to only flow in a single direction (forward power
flow). This is represented in Fig. 2, where the current is
positive when it is flowing from DC to AC. To simulate this,
the switch is set to position 1 when the substation is
conducting in forward mode and to position 0 when blocked.
Fig. 3a) shows the characteristic of the substation, where it is
conducting in forward power flow when the slack voltage
( Vs ) is higher than the catenary voltage ( Vcat ). This
behavior is represented in equation (2). Finally, it must be
1
noted that Vsub is set to 0.
 Vsub
 1 Vsub  0 ( switch  1)
I sub   Rsub (2)
 0 Vsub  0 ( switch  0)

The second configuration represent a particular type of
electrical substation which acts like an impedance,
conducting power in both directions (forward and reverse).
To get this behavior, the substation would be powered by an
IGBT based converter. This is represented in a diagram in
Fig. 1b. The characteristics of this control are depicted in
Fig. 3b. To get the current that passes through the substation,
you need to apply a formula (3).
Vsub
I sub  1
( switch  1) (3)
Rsub
In Fig. 3c), presents the third control characteristic of the
(1) substation. It can be observed here that there is a deadband,
1 2
which is set by two parameters Vsub and Vsub . This means
that the substation will be blocked in both directions when
the voltage is within this deadband. When the voltage is
outside the deadband, the substation can either conduct in the
forward mode or the reverse mode depending on the value of
Vsup , which is summarized in equition (4). A point to be
1
noted is that Vsub needs to be set to zero for the substation in
Fig. 1c).
 Vsub  Vsub
1

 1
Vsub  Vsub
1
( switch  1)
 Rsub (4)

I sub  0 Vsub
1
 V  Vsub
2
( switch  0)
 V  V 2
 sub sub Vsub  Vsub
2
( switch  2)
 Rsub2

a) (b)
Fig. 5. a) Deep discharge protection characteristic. b) Overcharge protection
characteristic

Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the off-board accumulator system.

Variables on top of light grey arrows represent the charging mode while
arrows on top of dark grey arrows represent the discharging mode. The
current arrows represent the positive direction of the currents while the
power arrows represent the actual direction of the power flow in both modes

B. Off-board accumulators
Off-board accumulators are an alternative to using Fig. 6. Off-board accumulator system characteristic
substations for providing voltage support to the DC traction The combination of factors such as, the maximum power
system. They are installed at an AC/DC substation, they can
in charge mode ( Pchmax ) but also on the state of charge of the
be also installed in other parts of a traction network as well.
The off-board accumulator model is a separate model from accumulator (SOC) and the protection parameters soc3 and
any other system, such as the AC system. In this particular
case, off-board accumulator model was capable of being soc4 were determine the actual available power ( Pchav ) that
connected to a substation node or any other traction node, can be injected into the accumulator, as observed in Figures
meaning it is not linked or dependent on the AC system in 5b and 6.
any way. This type of accumulator is a power load/generator
that changes depending on the voltage it is exposed to. It will  Pchmax SOC  soc3

inject or absorb power into the DC traction system when the  SOC  soc4 (6)
catenary voltage drops below a certain value, and absorbing Pchav   * Pchmax soc3  SOC  soc4
power in case of high catenary voltage.  soc3  soc4
 0 SOC  soc4
Fig. 4 shows a schematic of an accumulator, which is a
device used to store energy. The left side of the figure The relation between the protection parameters must be
represents the catenary, and the right side represents the the next one:
accumulator, which are connected by a power converter. The soc1  soc2  soc3  soc (7)
power converter has two different efficiencies: charging
mode (ds ) and discharging mode ( ch ). Here, not only is the The power flow solver can be used to calculate the power
power electronic equipment's efficiency considered, but also available for charging or discharging a battery, which is
the efficiency of the electro-chemical conversion process. In known as the accumulator. The voltage dependent power
this case, the current and power in the accumulator is characteristics of the accumulator can be built by looking at a
assumed to flow from left to right, in charging mode (in Fig. graph (Fig. 6). The parameters Vreg2
and Vreg3 indicate the range
4 I acc and Pacc ). Pacc is the power that the accumulator either in which the accumulator does not operate, and the
injects or extracts from the DC traction system, while Pds and parameters Vreg
1
and Vreg
4
play a role in determining the
Pch refer to the actual power that reaches the accumulation accumulator's behavior both inside and outside this range, as
described by expression (8).
system in discharging and charging modes respectively. To
ensure that the accumulator does not become overcharged or   Pdsav ds Vcat  Vreg
1

deeply discharged. This affects the power that can be 

 Vreg2  Vcat (8)
extracted from the accumulator, as the power available ( Pdsav )   Pds  ds V 2  V 1
av
Vreg1  Vcat  Vreg2
depends on the maximum power in discharge mode ( Pdsmax )  reg reg

Pacc  0 Vreg2  Vcat  Vreg3
and the state of charge (SOC) of the accumulator, as well as 
 av Vcat  Vreg
3
the protection parameters SOC1 and SOC2 . These parameters  Pch /  ds V 4  V 3 Vreg3  Vcat  Vreg4
can be seen in Figures 5a and 5b.  reg reg


 P av
ch /  ch Vcat  Vref4
 0 SOC  soc1
 C. DC/DC links
 SOC  soc (5)
Pdsqv   1
* Pdsmax soc1  SOC  soc2 The research paper is proposing a framework that can
 soc2  soc 1 simulate the connection between two different Direct
 Pdsmax SOC  soc2 Current (DC) nodes with a DC link. The proposed
framework is very flexible, so it can implement multiple
different modes of operation that represent different
technologies. The model for the DC link looks very similar
to the model for the substation, just without the slack
voltage source ( Vs ).
Fig. 7. Schematic representation of the substation link model. The left side
represents the source node and right side represent destination node, both
of them in the DC traction system. The current arrow represent the positive
direction of the current
Fig. 8. Different approaches for modelling the lines. a) Positive and return
conductors modelled separately. b) Simplified model grouping the positive
and return conductors
The switch position in the link model will depend
also on the voltage drop through the link as it can be
observed in the next expression.
switch position  f (Vlink ) (9)
Where Vlink  Vcatsrc  Vcatdst
As in the case of the substation model, three different
configurations will be considered for the links. The
conventional non-reversible link, the ideal bidirectional link
and a reversible link with or without deadband. The current
and the power in the link will be positive when flowing from
source to destination. The three above-mentioned controls
explained with (2), (3) and (4) and Figs. 3 a), b) and c)
respectively, substituting the subindex ”sub” by ”link”. It
must be pointed out that with this definition, non-reversible
links will transport power from destination node to source
node and this power will be negative.
D. line model
The authors are discussing two methods of modelling a
train line. One approach is simplified in which the trains are
connected directly to the ground and each positive and
return impedance (resistance to electrical current) is
represented. This approach is accepted by many authorities.
The second approach is based on splitting the positive and
return conductors into separate circuits. This option is more
accurate and allows them to calculate the voltage drops in
the contact system and the return system separately but it is
more computationally demanding. It is the only option when
an accurate calculation or stray current is needed.
Comparing the results of this approach to experiments has
shown that it is acceptable for power flow purposes. Both
approaches are represented in the figure 8. The authors also
consider 2 additional possibilities for catenary-free
segments.
Fig. 9. Train model in traction mode. The current arrows represent the
positive direction of the current while the power arrows represent the actual
direction of the power flow
The first type is a catenary-free connected line, where the
two nodes connected by a catenary-free segment (a segment
of the track with no overhead wires) are still electrically
connected. The second type of track is the catenary-free
disconnected line, where the two nodes connected by a
catenary-free segment are not electrically connected. In this
case, the train needs to be powered by its own on-board
accumulation system.
E. Train model
The train is a complex device that has to be simulated in
a decoupled way, which means that numerical data from an
external software is used as input for the network solver.
This approach is widely accepted since it helps to define the
train's mechanical power reference and its position before the
simulation starts and can give warning if the train cannot get
the required power from the network. However, it does not
take into account the on-board accumulation system that is
also necessary. The models of train and the accumulator have
to be coupled in order to simulate the accumulator control.
This means that even when the catenary voltage ( Vcat ) is
known, the priority is given to the accumulator when the
train is accelerating or braking, allowing it to use or absorb
the available power.
1) Train in traction mode and on-board accumulator in
discharging mode: The train plus the accumulator in traction
mode is a system that can move a train from one place to
another. In Fig. 9, the different currents ( I train , I acc , I cat )
representing the current absorbed by the train, current
injected by the accumulator, and the current absorbed from
the catenary respectively show that all the powers run in a
positive direction. Fig. 10 a) is a graph that shows the
characteristics of the train in traction mode. Parameters
2
V 1train and Vtrain represent the overcurrent protection of the
train and depend on the train model. The equation that
determines the characteristics of the train in traction mode is
determined by multiplying the mechanical reference power
and dividing it by the train efficiency value.
For a given catenary voltage ( Vcat ), the train power ( Ptrain )
is calculated according to:
  0 Vcat  Vtrain
1 2) Train in braking mode and on-board accumulator in
 charging mode: The figure being referenced (Fig. 11)
 V  Vtrain Pref
2 mech
(10) displays the currents used to power the train and the figure
Ptrain   cat 1
Vtrain  Vcat  Vtrain
2

V 2
 V 1
 train train tr  train referenced after that (Fig. 10 b) displays the train
 Prefmech / trtrain Vcat  Vtrain
2 characteristics, like the overvoltage protection, in braking
 mode. The negative power reference is used to determine
It mentioned that to reduce the power gradually as the how much power the train uses, and the train efficiency in
voltage decreases is just an approximation since a linear braking mode is used to determine how much mechanical
derating of the current would yield a more accurate result. power the train will generate.
But the linear approach is simpler and accurate enough for
power flow purposes, which is supported by an experimental  Prefmech .brtrain Vcat  Vtrain
3

 4
result from another research paper. Finally, the real  V  Vcat mech train (15)
mechanical power (which comes from the train's traction Ptrain   train Pref .br 3
Vtrain  Vcat  Vtrain
4

mode efficiency) is found by taking train power and
multiplying it by the train's efficiency.
mech
The real mechanical power supplied to the train ( Psup
is obtained using the train efficiency in traction mode by
means of the next expression:
mech
Psup  Ptrain .trtrain
2 The characteristic being talked about is a protection
If the catenary voltage is lower than Vtrain , there is
mech
nonsupplied power Pnosup that is calculated as
sup  Pref
Pnomech  Psup
mech mech
It begins by saying that the network and the train have
been "decoupled" - meaning they have been set up to run
separately as part of the same simulation. The simulation is
set up so that the position of the train is already
predetermined, however, in some cases the network may not
be able to provide the total power requested by the train
which will cause the train to be unable to accelerate at the
desired rate. The phrase "accumulator" is referring to an
energy storage device which is used to store surplus power,
so that it can be used when it is needed. The actual power
received by the train from the accumulator is then calculated
using an equation mentioned in the sentence.
Pacc  min( P . , Ptrain )
av
ds
acc
ds
Fig. 10. Train characteristics in a) traction mode and b) braking mode
V 4
 V
 train train
3
 0 Vcat  Vtrain
4

) Before you begin to format your paper, first write and
save the content as a separate text file. Complete all content
and organizational editing before formatting. Please note
sections A-D below for more information on proofreading,
(11) spelling and grammar.
system for the accumulator, or a device responsible for
storing energy. This protection system is the same as one
used in an off-board device as shown in Figure 5b and 6.
(12) Pchav refers to the power available for charging on the left
side of the accumulator converter, shown in Figure 11. The
power used in the right side can be calculated with the
information provided as:
Pacc  max( Pdsav / dsacc , Ptrain )(16)
All the powers in equation (16) are negative values,. It is
then saying that using equation (14) work out how much
power is absorbed by a catenary. Finally, it is saying that
using a different expression power used by a rheostatic
system ( Prhe )were obtained as:
Prhe  Prefmech .brtrain  Ptrain (17)
(13)
III. CURRENT INJECTION POWER FLOW ALGORITHM
The algorithm mentioned here is based on a Current
Kircchoff Law (KCL) and Voltage Kircchoff Law (KVL),
This particular algorithm is better suited to solve power flow
problems that include devices with non-smooth
characteristics. The procedure for this algorithm is outlined
in Alg. 1. Before the algorithm were used, the set-up of the
distributed slack voltage sources ( Vs ), configuration
parameters of the substations, off-board accumulators, links,
lines, trains, and on-board accumulators
( Vs , Psubs , Poff _ acc , Plinks , Plines , Ptrains , Pon _ acc ).Trains schedule
will also need to be specified with the parameters in Psch .

The first two steps of the algorithm involve initializing

the nodal voltage vector ( vN ) and the load current vector
( iL ). The load current vector includes the currents of any off-
board and on-board accumulation devices and trains. The
function “g()” is used to determine the current as a function
Fig. 11. Train model in braking mode. The current arrows represent the of the voltage, using the power-vs-current curves (as
positive direction of the current while the power arrows represent the actual
direction of the power flow
described in Section II). This power is then divided by the
The power absorbed from the catenary is: nodal voltage to get the current. After these steps, all train
currents, off-board and on-board accumulator currents have
Pcat  Ptrain  Pacc (14) been computed for that specific voltage. Steps 3 and 4
involve computing a vector of voltage drops across all the ran extensive random tests to look at how the algorithm they
substations and links( Vsub and Vlinks ), and from those the had used worked and if it was converging. The next part of
switch positions of each of the substations and links the paper was divided into two parts; the first part discussed
a realistic case study which was solved and analyzed and the
( sswitch and sswitch ) are determined (in steps 5 and 6). Finally,
sub links second part looked at the algorithm performance for both the
from the parameters defining the substations and links, as described case and a variation of the case. Finally, it
well as the switch positions, the current through them can be compared the speed and convergence rate of their algorithm
calculated. With all the parameters defining the substations with two other well-known methods (Newton-Raphson and
and the links and the position of the switches, the current Backward/Forward Swept)
through all of these devices ( I sub and Ilink ) can be computed in
A. Case study
steps 7 and 8.
The design of a case study that contains four different
Input: Vs , Psubs , Poff _ acc , Plinks , Plines , Ptrains , Pon _ acc , Psch . electrical lines, each with six substations. Two of the lines
have a voltage of 1500V and the other two have a voltage of
Output: vN , iN , iL
3000V. The blue and red lines have two substations in
1. SET all vN (k) = 1 ←Nodal voltages init. common. The blue line runs from S1 to S4 and S4 is
0
2. COMP all iL = g ( vN )← Load currents init. connected to S5 and S6 (both in grey) via a conventional
3. COMP all ∆ Vsub ← Voltage drops in substations electrical line. The DC connection between the orange line
4. COMP all ∆ Vlinks ←Voltage drops in DC/DC links and the blue line is unidirectional and limited to 10V. There
5. COMP all sswitch = f (Vsub ) ← Subs. Switches is a link that connects the red and blue lines in both
sub
switch directions. A third link connects the red and green lines in
6. COMP all slinks = f (Vlink ) ← Links switches
both directions and has a deadband of 10V. There is one
7. COMP all I sub = f (Vsub; s switch
sub ) catenary free segment that contains an electrical underground
8. COMP all I link = f (Vsub ; slink ) ←Links curr.
switch
line, but the trains are not fed from it, and one with no
9. COMPUTE all iN ← Nodal currents computation electrical connection.
10. COMPUTE Y← System admittance matrix
0
11. iL = iL
0
12. vN = vN
13. vN = Y 1 . iN ←Nodal voltages updating
0
14. vN = α vN + (1 - α) vN ←Damping factor
15. iL = g( vN )← Load currents updating
0 0
16. IF || iL - iL || > Ɛ or || vN - vN ||> Ɛ GOTO 3
17. ELSE Break

Algorithm 1: Summary of the power flow algorithm

Step 9 of the algorithm combines all the electrical
currents generated in the system, such as current at
substations and links, together to create an injection of
energy into each node ( iN ). Step 10 creates a Admittance
matrix which serves as a way of calculating how the energy
is distributed between all the nodes. This Admittance matrix
must be recomputed each iteration as the states of the
substations and links can change very quickly, however this
is not an issue when it comes to how fast the algorithm runs.
Step 11 and 12 save the current and voltage vectors from the
last iteration, before calculating a new voltage vector (step
13) using the Admittance Matrix and nodal current vector.
Fig 12. Schematic representation of the case study
Step 14 adds a damping factor (α) to the node voltage vector,
which affects the rate of convergence for the algorithm. Step TABLE I. LENGTHS BETWEEN SUBSTATIONS IN KM
15 compares the voltage and current vectors from the last
iteration to the new ones to check if the algorithm has Red Blue Green Orange
achieved the desired level of accuracy - if the difference S1 - S2 4.316 4.316 8.120 7.310
between the two vectors is too large then the Admittance S2 – S3 0.500 25.284 2.880 4.200
Matrix is recalculated for the new voltage level and the S3 - S4 13.800 7.335 12.560 2.600
algorithm is run again until it has converged.
S4 - S5 7.848 12.497 5.440 8.100
S5 - S6 4.378 19.797 7.930 3.700
IV. CASE STUDY AND ALGORITHM PERFORMANCE
ANALYSIS S6 - S1 X X X 4.930
The researchers tested their models in comparison to real
measurements to study how accurate they were. They then
Fig. 13. Subfigures a), b) and c) represent, respectively, the speed, the
acceleration and the power reference of the first train departing from
Substation S1 to S6 (Green line) during the first 30 minutes of simulation

The links and substations have been set to 270 mΩ and

180 mΩ, respectively. This means that 270 mΩ is an
electrical resistance between the substations and the links,
while 180 mΩ is the electrical resistance between just the
substations. The simulation has 80 trains in it, and each train
is equipped with an energy storage device based on ultra
capacitors. The figures 13 and 14 present the results of the
simulation for the first half an hour. These results show the
speed, acceleration and power reference of the train 1
travelling in the green line (as a function of its distance from
the substation 1), with the maximum speed of 68.4 km/h.

The behavior of a substation (S2 in the green line) which

is equipped with an off-board accumulator. Figures 13a) and
b) show the Voltage (in black) and Power (in red) provided
by S2 (Fig. 13a)) and the State of Charge (in black) and
Power (in red) of the S2 accumulator (Fig 13b). The
substation behaves in a unidirectional manner, meaning that
the power it provides is either negative (always) or zero. Fig. 14. Case study results
When the DC Voltage rises above 1490V, the substation is Substation S4 in the red line is a type of power transfer
blocked and the accumulator is activated. When the Voltage station that can work both ways. The voltage and power of
drops below 1485V the discharging mode of the accumulator the station can be seen in figure 13c. It can only move power
is activated and the State of Charge of the accumulator will from Alternating Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC) when
the voltage drops below 1480V. In the reverse mode, the
never drop below 0.1 p.u. or exceed 1 p.u., due to protective
station can move power again when the voltage rises above
measures in place. 1520V.

TABLE II
ANALYSIS OF THE DAMPING FACTOR EFFECT OVER THE SPEED AND CONVERGENCE RATE OF THE PROPOSED CURRENT INJECTION ALGORITHM
 TABLE III
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE THREE ALGORITHMS (NR, BFS AND CI)
Fig. 15. Convergence analysis of the three algorithms with the case A. a)
Percentage of solved cases with the time. b) Average error propagation
The link between two substations, S6 and S5, which
only has a negative power, meaning power flows from the
destination to the source, when the voltage drop, which is
the difference between the voltage in the source node and
voltage in the destination node, is lower than -10V. This is
shown in Fig. 13 d). For a different link, between S4 and
S4, the voltage drop lies within 100 V, and for this link it is
bi-directional, meaning power can go in either direction,
with the flows being activated when it is below -20V or
above 40V. Figs. 13 f), g) and h) then show the
performance of the train departing from S1 on the red line,
including the catenary voltage and power reference, the
charging and discharging power and the burnt power in the
rheostatic system of the train and the non-supplied power.
In three occasions, even when the accumulator is not
full, some energy was burnt. This means that the
accumulator was being charged at its maximum rate, and
the train overvoltage protection was activated.
Furthermore, it was also observed that the train's
overcurrent protection (was only activated once during the
first half an hour when the catenary voltage dropped below
2650 V.
B. Algorithm performance analysis
The performance of an algorithm when compared to
other algorithms like Newton-Raphson (NR) an
Backward/Forward Swept (BFS). The proposed algorithm
or CI, and was tested with two different cases, case A
which has non-bidirectional substations and case B which
was a simplification of case A with all substations
bidirectional. Table III shows the minimum, maximum and
average time of the proposed algorithm, compared to the
other algorithms (Newton-Raphson and
Backward/Forward Swept) for both cases. The proposed
algorithm was fastest in case A with 0.030ms per instant,
and the Backward/Forward Swept was fastest in case B
with 0.013ms per instant. The tables also show the
percentage of 'instants successfully solved' which was
100% for case B and around 90% for case A. The damping
factor is a parameter that has an effect on the speed and the
convergence rate of the algorithm. A set of random tests
can be done to find the best damping factor for a specific
network. If the damping factor is too high, the convergence
rate can drop drastically.
In general, Fig. 15 a) a graph that shows how
successful the three algorithms were at solving problems in
a 30-minute interval. Each second of the interval is
represented by one case and a total of 1800 cases were
tested. The graph shows that the CI algorithm was able to
successfully solve 95% of the cases in less than 50
milliseconds, with longer times needed to solve the
remaining 5%. Fig. 15 b) is another graph that shows how
the mean error changed over time for all three algorithms.
V. CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents a set of models that can be used to
simulate different components of a DC railway (e.g.
substations, links, accumulators, trains, and catenary free
segments). These models are developed in an accurate, but
simple way. Additionally, a mathematical formulation is
proposed to incorporate these models into a current
injection power flow algorithm. To test the compatibility
of the models, the authors study a complex and realistic
case and analyze the performance of the modified
algorithm with the damping factor compared to other
algorithms, such as Newton-Raphson and
Backward/Forward Swept.
REFERENCES
[1] S. Talukdar and R. Koo, “The analysis of electrified ground
transportation networks,” Power Apparatus and Systems, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 96, no. 1, pp. 240–247, 1977.
[2] T. Suzuki, “DC power-supply system with inverting substations for
traction systems using regenerative brakes,” Electric Power
Applications, IEE Proceedings B, vol. 129, no. 1, pp. 18–26,
January 1982.
[3] Y. Cai, M. Irving, and S. Case, “Iterative techniques for the
solution of complex dc-rail-traction systems including regenerative
braking,” Generation, Transmission and Distribution, IEE
Proceedings, vol. 142, no. 5, pp. 445–452, 1995.
[4] C. Pires, S. Nabeta, and J. Cardoso, “ICCG method applied to
solve dc traction load flow including earthing models,” Electric
Power Applications, IET, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 193–198, 2007.
[5] P. Arboleya, G. Diaz, and M. Coto, “Unified AC/DC power flow
for traction systems: A new concept,” Vehicular Technology, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 61, no. 6, pp. 2421–2430, July 2012.
[6] B. Mellitt, Z. S. Mouneimne, and C. J. Goodman, “Simulation
study of dc transit systems with inverting substations,” IEE
Proceedings B -Electric Power Applications, vol. 131, no. 2, pp.
38–50, March 1984.
[7] C. Mayet, P. Delarue, A. Bouscayrol, E. Chattot, and J. N. Verhille,
“Comparison of different emr-based models of traction poweer
substations for energetic studies of subway lines,” IEEE
Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 1021–
1029, March 2016.
[8] V. Gelman, “Energy storage that may be too good to be true:
Comparison between wayside storage and reversible thyristor
controlled rectifiers for heavy rail,” IEEE Vehicular Technology
Magazine, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 70– 80, Dec 2013.
[9] M. Chymera, A. Renfrew, M. Barnes, and J. Holden, “Modeling
electrified transit systems,” Vehicular Technology, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 2748–2756, 2010.
[10] C. Mayet, L. Horrein, A. Bouscayrol, P. Delarue, J.-N. Verhille, E.
Chattot, and B. Lemaire-Semail, “Comparison of different models
and simulation approaches for the energetic study of a subway,”
Vehicular Technology, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 63, no. 2, pp.
556–565, Feb 2014.