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Biology UNIT 3X EMPA Revision Guide
Biology UNIT 3X EMPA Revision Guide
Biology UNIT 3X EMPA Revision Guide
BIO3X – EMPA
REVISION GUIDE
Section 1: Graphs and Processing Data
Identifying variables
Dependent variable The variable that changes as a due to the independent variable
changing. This is the variable you measure.
Control variable This variable must be kept the same to make the experiment valid.
Drawing tables
2. Full headings – so that an observer could look at the table and understand the experiment.
e.g. Time taken for solution to turn from pink to completely colourless.
3. Units in brackets in the heading, e.g. (seconds), (cm3), (big booty hoes).
Example:
You are investigating how the temperature of an enzyme solution affects the time it takes for the
reaction to complete (the time it takes for the solution to go from milky to colourless).
Temperature of Time taken for the reaction to complete, as shown by the solution
the enzyme turning from milky to colourless (seconds)
INDEPENDENT LEFT
solution (°C) 1 RIGHT 2 3 Average
DEPENDENT
.
STUPID MOFO
Data types
Graph
5. Line – Clearly plotted points (sharpened pencil) joined by a ruler. Don’t extrapolate.
For example: You are asked to investigate the rate of 3 10 1/10 = 0.1
an enzyme reaction in different pHs, but you were
asked to measure the time taken for there to be a
7 14 1/14 = 0.07
colour change.
No set of data can be perfect – there must have been some limitations or sources of error in the
experiment.
2. Was the experiment repeated? This would increase the reliability, along with the accuracy of the
standard deviation.
Do not mention limitations to do with your own ineptitude e.g. I find it hard to find my pulse – you
just look retarded and don’t get the mark.
Examples:
You are trying to view a cell under a microscope under a microscope using a slide you prepared with
a scalpel.
Scalpel is not precise enough to isolate one cell; multiple layers of cells will be seen.
You are judging potometer bubble movement in a certain time period during a transpiration
experiment.
Difficult to judge the distance moved as the bubble will continue to move after the time has
finished.
Reliability
Question comes up all the time. This is all you have to say for three easy marks:
1) Take repeats.
2) Identify anomalies so that they can be removed before calculating the mean.
Accuracy – The choice of equipment so that the reading is closest to the true value.
e.g. Gas syringe as opposed to measuring cylinder.
Precision – The use of measuring equipment with smaller intervals between units of measurement.
e.g. mm as opposed to cm.
Bias
This is removed by selecting a sample at random, ensuring that the selected sample is
representative of the whole population.
Sample size
The larger the sample size, the more representative it is of the whole population.
Standard deviation is the spread of all the data around the mean.
Therefore a large standard deviation means a large spread of data about the mean.
This means there is greater variation in the data set.
A small standard deviation means a small spread of data about the mean.
This means there is less variation in the data set.
Standard deviation allows for statistical use – allowing you to tell if differences are
statistically significant.
You should be familiar with the appearance of a normal distribution curve for a set of data.
Standard deviation error bars
On graphs standard deviation for each data set is marked by error bars. You will be expected to
comment on these if asked to describe a graph showing them.
2. Mention any overlaps or lack of overlap in the standard deviation bars. This is an indication
of the significance of the differences in the data.
No overlap means there is a statistically significant difference.
Overlap means no statistically significant difference.
Example
In this example:
When describing the results from a table or graph, make sure your answer takes the SE format:
(not SEE – we aren’t being asked to explain).
Top Tip
Give the values at which these patterns occur, and note any
maximum/minimum values in the data.
Examples
Describe the relationship between light intensity and photosynthesis using data from the table. (2)
A graph may suggest that there is a correlation between two variables. Does this prove that the
change in the independent variable will cause the dependent variable seen?
Such as _____. (Give some suggestions of other factors known to affect the variable).
Example:
Does
this prove that smoking causes cancer? (3)
If asked how you would go about predicting data values from data gathered in an experiment:
1) Plot the independent variable on the x axis against the dependent variable on the y axis.
(You must name them and say which axis).
This holds true for all calculations of percentage change – use it for percentage increases and
decreases – in the case of a decrease just convert the negative value into a positive percentage.
Evaluating data
Remember – you have to argue equally for both sides, no matter how much you have to bullsh*t.
Here are some ideas for pros and cons that you can use to argue:
Sample size.
Usually you state this is small so conclusions unreliable. The sample will also not be
representative of the population.
If this is mentioned in the information given, you must refer to it.
Is the organism the same species that the conclusion is being drawn for?
e.g. tested on rabbits, but conclusion is applied to humans. If not, their response to the
independent variable may be different.
Subjective measurements.
e.g. a pain scale used by a patient is unreliable as they could easily over/underrate their
feelings, or any arbitrarily divided scale (e.g. Healthy, Slightly injured, Severely injured).
Are they tested on cells/tissues (in vitro) rather than whole organisms?
Standard deviation
Are there overlaps/lots of spread of data about the mean?
Top Tips
There will be some information concerning an experiment in the written paper. You have to be able
to glean through the information to find the stuff that’s relevant, e.g.
A group of scientists tested a new drug Novartis on a group of 2,560 heart cells taken from mice of a
variety of ages and both sexes. They found that there was a significant effect on decreasing the effect
of heart disease.
I found the following pros:
“2,560 heart cells” – That’s a large sample size, increasing the reliability of the results.
“Variety of ages and both sexes” – The experiment has taken into account different
confounding factors and reduces bias.
“There was a significant effect” – The results indicate that there is an effect.
Use the points you have found from the earlier stage, and then relate back to the statement. Add
something like: “Therefore, we cannot predict the effect on humans”.
Section 3: Application of Syllabus Knowledge
You will investigate water movement through plants. In addition, you will need to
understand the following topics:
The roots of a plant extend underground in order to absorb vital water and nutrients.
Water can take two possible routes from the root hair cells to the xylem:
Water moves only through the cellulose cell walls of the cortex by cohesion tension of
water molecules.
The cellulose is made of fibres with water filled spaces to give little resistance.
However, once the water reaches the impermeable Casparian strip it cannot pass and is
forced to pass through the protoplast to join the symplastic pathway.
Water passes through the cytoplasm from cell to cell along the water potential gradient
maintained by root pressure by osmosis.
The cytoplasms of neighbouring cells are joined by fine tubes known as plasmodesmata
which form an unbroken water transport pathway.
Found within the cell membrane, are carrier proteins which allow ions, such as nitrate, to be moved
from the cortex into the xylem by the process of active transport.
As the dissolved ions are now found within the xylem vessel, this can be termed a hypertonic
solution with a higher water potential than the cortex cells. As a result, water moves from the
cortex into the xylem by the process of osmosis.
Cohesion tension
When water molecules evaporate from the stomata, the hydrogen bonds between water molecules
pull water up the xylem. This pull is transmitted all the way down through the roots, forming an
unbroken stream of water molecules. It is unbroken through the xylem due to adhesion from the
xylem walls.
Transpiration
The transpirational stream is the continuous passage of water from the roots of a plant up to the
leaves. The speed of the transpiration stream is dictated by the rate of evaporation of water out of
the plant’s exchange surfaces.
Temperature:
Increased temperature increases the kinetic energy of water molecules. This makes water
molecules move faster.
This increases the rate of evaporation and diffusion of water molecules out of the leaf.
Light intensity:
More stomata open to allow more carbon dioxide to diffuse the leaf for photosynthesis.
This means more water is able to diffuse out of the leaf as there is an increased surface area
for diffusion.
Water vapour is removed quickly from outside the leaf by air movement.
This increases the water potential gradient between the moist air in the air spaces and
outside of the leaf. This increases the rate of diffusion of water out of the leaf.
High humidity:
Diffusion of water vapour out of the leaf slows down as the leaf is already surrounded by
moist air.
This is because the water potential gradient has been reduced (or removed).
This decreases the rate of diffusion of water out of the leaf.
Transpiration during the day
During the day there is increased light intensity and temperature, increasing the rate of
transpiration as detailed previously.
Increased evaporation and diffusion of water out of the leaves decreases the water potential of
mesophyll cells in the leaves. This increases the rate of osmosis between the xylem and mesophyll
cells.
This means there is more tension in the xylem as more water molecules are being drawn up to
replace them; this tension is caused by the cohesion between water molecules (due to hydrogen
bonds).
This reduces the diameter of the xylem vessels as there is more adhesion of water molecules to the
walls of the xylem, pulling them together and making them narrower.
Adaptations of the xylem vessel:
They are long cells/tubes with no end walls. This maintains continuous water columns.
They have no cytoplasm and no organelles which allows easier water flow.
They have lignin which provides support to withstand tension.
The lignin is waterproof to keep water in cells;
There are pits in walls to allow lateral movement.
Xerophytes
Plants which live in hot/dry conditions and have adaptations to minimise water loss are known as
xerophytes. These adaptations include:
Reduced number of
Reduces the surface area through which water can diffuse.
stomata
Reduces surface area for water vapour loss & reduces the water
Leaves curled
potential gradient by keeping moist air near the leaf
Precautions such as cutting the shoot under water and making the joint water tight ensures that
air bubbles do not enter which would block the xylem.
Along with the usual factors (temperature, light intensity, humidity, wind speed), surface area of the
leaves should be controlled, as this means that there is the same number of stomata through which
water can escape.
To control this, leafs from the same species of plant, and the same number of leaves in total should
be used.
Coronary heart disease (CHD) is caused when the heart receives an inadequate amount of blood or
oxygen via the coronary arteries.
This oxygen is needed for the cardiac muscle to respire and generate sufficient energy for its
contractions. A lack of oxygen can lead to myocardial infarction, i.e. a heart attack.
Atheroma
Thrombosis
Aneurysm
An atheroma can weaken the artery wall, causing it to swell. It can then burst, leading to
haemorrhage (bleeding).
A diet high in saturated fat, salt and alcohol can increase the risk by
Diet
causing hypertension.
LDLs can cause CHD as they can infiltrate the endothelial lining
of the arteries and cause an atheroma.
Cholesterol levels
HDLs remove cholesterol from tissues and organs and transport
it to the liver to be excreted; they thus protect the arteries from
disease.
Age Those most at risk are over the age of 40.
Prophase:
The chromatin in the nucleus shortens and thickens (supercoils) into chromosomes.
They are visible as two sister chromatids joined by centromeres.
The nuclear membrane disintegrates and disappears.
The centriole divides in two and moves to the opposite poles. The daughter
centrioles form the spindle apparatus: this is a network of microtubules which help
to carry out mitosis.
Metaphase:
The centromeres of the sister chromatids line up along the equator of the cell.
The spindle fibres attach to the sister chromatids at the centromeres.
Anaphase:
The spindle fibres attached to the chromosomes contract and shorten.
This pulls the centromeres apart, causing them to split.
This causes the sister chromatids to separate and migrate as individual
chromosomes to the opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase:
Then the two sets of chromosomes reach opposite poles the nuclear envelopes
reform around them; the spindle apparatus disappears.
The chromosomes uncoil and are no longer visible.
Mitosis is normally followed by cytokinesis. The cell membrane pinches and separates into two
separate diploid cells.
It is caused by damage to the genes regulating mitosis and the cell cycle.
Treating cancer
Block the cell cycle to disrupt the cell division of new cancer cells using chemotherapy:
Inhibit metaphase stage of mitosis by interfering with spindle formation e.g. vinca alkaloids.
The circulatory system is used to transport nutrients and gases to cells by mass transport: the bulk
transport of substances from one area to another by pressure changes (initiated by the heart). It
also maintains concentration gradients and removes waste products.
Mammals have closed circulatory systems with a network of blood vessels: arteries carry blood away
from the heart, and lead to arterioles – small, narrow-walled vessels connecting arteries to
capillaries. Capillaries are microscopic vessels forming networks in the body’s tissues. They are
connected via venules (narrow, vein-like vessels) to veins, which carry blood back to the heart.
Mammals also have double circulatory systems: blood passes through the heart twice in a single
circuit of the body. The pulmonary circulatory system transports between the heart and lungs; the
systemic circulatory system between the heart and the rest of the body. Each organ has a major
artery and vein connecting it to the heart:
Arteries carry blood under high pressure away from the heart. They have the following features:
Capillaries allow metabolic materials to be exchanged between blood and tissues of the body. The
flow of blood in the capillaries is much slower to allow this to happen. It has the following features:
Very small lumen, wide enough to allow one red blood cell through at a time.
o The blood cells are squeezed against the ride of the capillary, reducing diffusion
pathway and greater friction allows more time for diffusion.
o Increases the surface area of the red blood cell with the capillary for faster diffusion
of oxygen.
Endothelial lining is one cell thick, reducing the diffusion pathway for faster diffusion.
Lining made up of flattened endothelial cells which again reduces the diffusion pathway.
Fenestrations, small gaps in the walls, increase permeability for molecules passing out of
capillaries.
Numerous – there are large numbers of capillaries throughout the body’s tissues, giving a
large combined surface area.
Tissue fluid forms the immediate environment of most mammalian cells. It has specific chemical
makeup and temperature etc. to provide optimum conditions for the cells.
Tissue fluid forms because of the high hydrostatic pressure at the arterial end of capillaries. This
squeezes water and small molecules out of the capillaries in a process known as ultrafiltration.
Tissue fluid, because it comes from blood, has a similar composition to plasma, but without the
globular proteins – these are too large to be squeezed out of the capillaries. This establishes a water
potential gradient between the capillaries and the tissue fluid, known as osmotic pressure.
At the venous end, the osmotic pressure is greater than the hydrostatic pressure, and fluid moves
back into the capillaries. Any excess tissue fluid drains into the lymphatic system.