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FOREIGN TRAVELLERS

Deimachus, • Bindusara also had contact with the Seleucid Syrian king
(320-273 BC), Antiochus I, who sent Deimachus as ambassador to his
Greek (Bindusara) court.
Ambassador • Bindusara asked to Antiochus I asking for sweet wine, dried figs
and a sophist.
• The later sent all but not a sophist because sending a sophist was
prohibited by the Greek law.
Megasthenes, • Indica is an account left by a Greek ambassador, Megasthenes,
(302-298 BC), sent by Seleucus Nikator to the court of Chandragupta Maurya
Greek who lived in the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra.
Ethnographer & • This book has not survived, but its fragments are preserved in later
Ambassador Greek and Latin works.
• Indica describes the subcontinent in terms of its size and shape
(India is a quadrilateral-shaped country, bound by the ocean on
the southern and the eastern side), soil, climate, rivers, plants,
animals (contains lengthy descriptions of elephants, horses, and
monkeys as it appears that Greeks were specially captivated by
Indian animals), produce, administration, society, legends, and
folklore.
• The Greeks referred to the Indians’ worship of Lord Krishna and
addressed him as Dionysus and Herakles/Hercules.
• They portrayed Indians as honest (since theft was rare) and having
great character and moral values.
• Megasthenes was so impressed by the contentment and
prosperity of the people that he made the sweeping remark that,
famine has never visited India.
• The major faults of Megasthenes’ work were mistakes in details,
the uncritical acceptance of Indian folklore, and a tendency to
idealise Indian culture by the standards of Greek philosophy.
• He mentioned existence of seven castes in India (viz.,
philosophers, held in high esteem and consisting of Brahmanas
and Shramanas; farmers, herdsmen, and hunters; artisans and
traders; soldiers; overseers; and the king’s counsellors).
• However, Megasthenes did identify two of the most important
aspects of the Indian caste system: endogamy and hereditary
occupation.
Fa-Hien, • Fa-hien was a Chinese pilgrim who visited India during the reign
(405-411 AD), of Chandragupta II on a religious mission.
Chinese Buddhist • During his stay in India, he went on pilgrimages to Mathura,
Monk Kannauj, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Patliputra, Kashi and
Rajagriha.

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• According to Fa-hien, Magadha was a prosperous country with

large towns and wealthy people. Although people were wealthy,
they led simple lives and observed the Buddhist rules of conduct.
• Fa-hien writes that Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Buddhism and Jainism
peacefully coexisted in society.
• The people lived in peaceful co-existence with other sects. Hindu
gods and goddesses were depicted on coins and also in sculptures
and paintings.
• Fa-hien has also remarked about the mildness of the Gupta
administration. He said that the penal code was fairly liberal and
most offences were punished by fines.
• Fa-hien did not suffer any trouble during his journey from one
place to another in India. The kings and the rich people had built
rest-houses (Dharamshalas) where every convenience was
provided to the travellers. They had also built hospitals for the
poor where free medicine was distributed to them.
• Hence, he said that the Gupta Empire was prosperous and
governed on enlightened principles.
Hiuen-Tsang, • The reign of Harsha is important on account of the visit of the
(630-645 A.D.), Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, who left China in A.D. 629 and
Chinese Buddhist travelled all the way to India.
Monk • After a long stay in India, he returned to China in A.D. 645.
• He had come to study in the Buddhist University of Nalanda
situated in the district of the same name in Bihar and to collect
Buddhist texts from India.
• The pilgrim spent many years in Harsha's court and widely
travelled in India. He was attacked by robbers on the way,
something which we don’t find in the narrations of Fa Hien who
travelled in the Gupta Period. It shows that the administrative
machinery deteriorated.
• Under his influence Harsha became a great supporter of
Buddhism and made generous endowments in its favour.
• The pilgrim vividly describes Harsha's court and life in those days,
and this account much richer and more reliable than that of Fa-
hien.
• It sheds light on the economic and social life as well as the
religious sects of the peril.
• The Chinese account shows that Pataliputra was in a state of
decline; so was Vaishali On the other hand, Prayag and Kanauj in
the doab had become important.
• Hiuen Tsang calls the shudras agriculturists and also talks about
degraded position of the Chandals which is significant.
• The Chinese pilgrim takes notice of untouchables such as
scavengers, executioners, etc. They lived outside the villages, and
took garlic and onion. The untouchables announced their entry

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into the town by shouting loudly so that people might keep away
from them.
Al-Masudi, • Gives an extensive account of India in his work “Muruj-ul-
(957 A.D.), Zahab”.
Arab Traveller
Al- Beruni or Abu • Came along with Mahmud Ghazni during one of his Indian raids.
Rehan Mahamud, • First Muslim Scholar to study India also known as founder of
(1024-1030 A.D.), Indology.
Muslim Scholar • Wrote “ Tahqiq-i-Hind/Kitab-ul-Hind.
and Polymath
Marco Polo, • Visited South India in 1294 A.D during the reign of Pandyan ruler
(1292-1294 AD), of Madurai, Kulshekhara (1272-1311)
Venetian Traveller • His work “The Book of Sir Marco Polo” which gives an invaluable
account of the economic history of India.
Ibn Batuta, • Visited India during the reign of Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq.
(1333-1347 A.D.), • His book is named “Rehla” (the travelogue).
Morrocan
traveller
Nicolo Conti, • Came during the rule of Devraya I of Sangam Dynasty of
(1420-1421 A.D.), Vijayanagar empire.
Venetian traveller • Given a graphic account of Vijayanagaras capital.

Abdur Razzaq, • Came during the rule of Devraya II of Sangam dynasty of

(1443-1444 A.D.), Vijaynagar Empire.
Persian traveller, • Came in India at Zamorin's Calicut.
Ambassador of • Given a brief account of this countryside, in his ‘Matla us Saddin
Shahrukh of wa Majuma ul Baharain’.
Timurid dynasty.
Athanasius • Visited South India in 1470.
Nikitin, • He describes the condition of the Bahmani kingdom under
(1470- 1474 A.D.), Muhammad III (1463-82).
Russian merchant • His narrative “The journey beyond 3 seas”.

Duarte Barbosa, • He has given a brief description of the government and the people
(1500-1516 A.D.), of Vijayanagar Empire.
Portuguese
traveller
Domingo Paes, • Visited the court of Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagar Empire.
(1520-1522 A.D.),
Portuguese
traveller
Fernao Nuniz, • Came during the rule of Achyutdeva Raya of Tuluv dynasty of
(1535-1537 A.D.), Vijayanagar Empire.
Portuguese • Wrote history of the empire from its earliest times of the closing
merchant years of Achyutdeva Raya’s reign.

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BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Introduction • The evolution of Bhakti Movement in medieval India, which gained

momentum in the northern parts of the country during the
12th−17th century CE, differs from the southern Bhakti Movement.
• The Bhakti Movement in the north included socio-religious
movements that were linked to one of the acharyas from the south,
and is sometimes seen as a continuation of the movement that
originated in the south.
• Though there were similarities in the traditions of the two regions,
the notion of bhakti varied in the teachings of each of the saints.
• The northern medieval Bhakti Movement had the influence of the
spread of Islam in India. The distinctive characteristics of Islam such
as Monotheism or belief in one God, equality and brotherhood of
man, and rejection of rituals and class divisions certainly influenced
the Bhakti Movement of this era.
• Moreover, the preaching of Sufi teachers shaped the thinking of
Bhakti reformers like Ramananda, Kabir, and Nanak, as the Bhakti
Movement also initiated certain reforms in the society.
• Some scholars consider the rise of the Bhakti Movement as a
reaction against feudal oppression and against conformist
Rajput−Brahman domination. The anti-feudal tone in the poetry of
Bhakti saints like Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya, and Tulsidas is seen as
testimony to this point.
• According to scholars, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the
demand for manufactured goods, luxuries, and other artisanal goods
increased, leading to a movement of artisans into the cities. The
movement gained support from these classes of the society as these
groups were dissatisfied with the low status accorded to them by the
Brahmanical system, and hence they turned towards Bhakti since it
focused on equality.
• Though there is no single opinion about the origins of the Bhakti
Movement, there is unanimity of thought over the fact that the
Bhakti Movement focused on the message of equality and
devotional surrender to a personally conceived supreme God.
• The Bhakti movement is also divided into two different ideological
streams of ‘Saguna’ (those poet-saints who composed verses
extolling a god with attributes or form) and ‘Nirguna’ (those extolling
god without and beyond all attributes or form).
• The Saguna Bhaktas like Tulsidas upheld the caste system and the
supremacy of the Brahmans, and preached a religion of surrender
and simple faith in a personal God, having a strong commitment
towards idol worship.
• On the other hand, the Nirguna Bhaktas like Kabir rejected the
varnashrama and all conventions based on caste distinctions. They

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championed new values, helping the emergence of new groups and

new unorthodox or protestant sects.
• The Nirguna Bhakatas are also known as Monotheistic Bhakti saints,
who gave more importance to the personal experience of Bhakti
saints with god.
• They rejected the authority of the Brahmans and attacked the caste
system and the practice of idolatry.
• While the differences between these two branches are indeed
important, their overarching similarities cannot be minimised:
1. Both focused on singular devotion, mystical love for God, and
had a particular focus on a personal relationship with the Divine.
2. Both were highly critical of ritual observances as maintained and
fostered by the Brahman priesthood In fact, many poetsaints,
specially in northern areas, were themselves of lower caste
lineages.
3. Another commonality was their usage of the vernacular or
regional languages of the masses, as opposed to the sacred
language of the elite priesthood, Sanskrit.
4. They composed their poems in popular languages and dialects
spoken across north India. This enabled them to transmit their
ideas among the masses and also among the various lower
classes.

Sankaracharya • Great thinker, distinguished philosopher, and leader of the Hindu

revivalist movement of the 9th century, which gave a new
orientation to Hinduism.
• He was born in Kaladi (Kerala) and propounded the Advaita
(Monism) philosophy and Nirgunabrahman (god without attributes).
• In Advaita, the reality of the world is denied and Brahman is
considered as the only reality.
• It is only Brahman at its base that gives it its reality.
• Although it is only the Brahman that exists all around us, we see the
world, which is only a reading of Brahman by our minds.
• But once we attain realisation and see that it was Brahman all along,
we do not see the world anymore.
• According to him, gyaan (knowledge) alone can lead to salvation.
Wrote commentary on the Bhagvat Gita, on the Brahmasutra and
the Upanishads, and wrote books like: (a) Upadesh Shastri (b) Vivek
Chudamani (c) Bhaja Govindum Stotra
• Established mathas at Sringiri, Dwarka, Puri, and Badrinath.
Ramanuja • Born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai in the 12th century.
• He opposed the mayavada of Shankara and advocated the
philosophy of Vishista Advaitavada (qualified monism), and founded
the Shrivaishnava sect.

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• According to him, God is Saguna Brahman. The creative process and

all the objects in creation are real but not illusory as was held by
Sankaracharya.
• Therefore, God, soul, matter, are real. But god is inner substance and
the rest are his attributes.
• In Vishista Advaita, the world and Brahman are also considered two
equally real entities, as in dualism, but here the world is not separate
from Brahman but is formed out of Brahman.
• The practice of religion in Vishista Advaita is similar to Dualism, and
the only difference is that mankind enjoys a higher status than in
pure dualistic worship and is nearer to God.
• Thus in Vishista Advaita, although both the world and Brahman are
considered equally real, they are not considered two separate
entities as in Dualism.
• He also advocated prabattimarga or the path of selfsurrender to
God. He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism and advocated
salvation by bhakti.
Madhavacharya • In the 13th century, Madhava from Kannada region propagated
Dvaita or the dualism of the Jivatma and Paramatma.
• According to this philosophy, the world is not an illusion but a reality,
full of real distinction.
• According to Madhava, Brahman and the world are considered to be
two equally real entities and not related in any way.
• The God of dualism is the Hindu God, Vishnu. Vishnu has created the
world, and the world stands separate from God and in an inferior
position to God with no link between the two.
• Vishnu controls the world and all world events, and the duty of all
persons is to worship and pray to god. God, soul, and matter are all
unique in nature, and hence they are irreducible to each other. He
also founded the Brahma Sampradya.
Nimbraka • Younger contemporary of Ramanujam who propounded the Dvaita
advaita philosophy and the philosophy of Bheda Abheda (difference/
non–difference).
• According to him, Brahman or the supreme soul transforms itself
into the souls of the world, which are therefore real, distinct, and
different from Brahman.
• Like Vishista Advaita, the Bheda Abheda school also believes that the
world and Brahman are both equally real, and that the world is a part
of Brahman. The difference is on emphasis only.
• The world also is but a manifestation of Brahman, but it is a very
small manifestation, and the difference with Brahman is very large.
• Preacher of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telangana region.
• Worshipper of Krishna and Radha and established his ashrama in
Braja (Mathura).
• He also founded the Sanak Sampradaya.

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Vallabhacharya • Born in Benaras in the 15th century and lived at the court of
Krishnadeva Raya.
• He propounded the Shudhadvaita (pure monism).
• In Shudhadvaita, as in Vishista Advaita, the world is taken to have a
real existence, as also Brahman.
• But it is said that there is no change of Brahman into the world, the
world exists as it were as an aspect of Brahman without undergoing
any change, it is a part of Brahman.
• There is no change — the world is a part of the coin that is Brahman.
Hence, this is called ‘Shudh Advaita’ because it is said that there is
only one and there is no change.
Jnaneswara • A 13th century pioneer bhakti saint of Maharashtra, whose
commentary on the Bhagvat Gita called Jnanesvari served as a
foundation of the bhakti ideology in Maharashtra.
• Arguing against caste distinctions, he believed that the only way to
attain god was through bhakti.
Namdeva • He was a poet-saint from Maharashtra belonging to the 14th
century, who belonged to the Varkari sect.
• He attracted individuals from diverse classes and castes during
community-driven bhajan singing sessions.
• It is interesting to note that while he is remembered in the north
Indian monotheistic tradition as a nirguna saint, in Maharashtra he
is considered to be part of the Varkari tradition (the Vaishnava
devotional tradition).
• He is considered one the five revered gurus in the Dadupanth
tradition within Hinduism, the other four being Dadu, Kabir, Ravidas,
and Hardas.
• According to tradition, Namdeva was a tailor who had taken to
banditry before he became a saint.
• His Marathi poetry breathes a spirit of intense love and dedication
to god.
• His companions during worship sessions included Kanhopatra (a
dancing girl), Sena (a barber), Savata (a gardener), Chokhamela (an
untouchable), Janabai (a maid), Gora (a potter), Narahari (a
goldsmith), and Jnanesvar (also known as Dnyandev, a Brahmin).
• It is believed that his Abhangas were included in the Guru Granth
Sahib.
Eknath • He was a prominent Marathi saint, scholar, and religious poet of the
Varkari sampradaya, belonging to the 16th century CE.
• In the development of Marathi literature, Eknath is seen as a bridge
between his predecessors—Dnyaneshwar and Namdeva—and the
later Tukaram and Ramdas.
• He introduced a new form of Marathi religious song called Bharood.
Eknath’s teachings in Marathi attempted to shift the emphasis of
Marathi literature from spiritual to narrative compositions.

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• He is believed to be a family man and emphasised on the fact that

stay in monasteries or resignation from the world are not necessary
for leading a religious life.
Tukaram • Tukaram was a 17th century poet-saint of the Bhakti movement in
Maharashtra who also was part of the egalitarian Varkari
devotionalism tradition and was a Sudra by birth.
• Tukaram is known for his Avangas (dohas), which constitute the
gathadevotional poetry, and communityoriented worship with
spiritual songs known as kirtans.
• His poetry was devoted to Vitthala or Vithoba, an avatar of the Hindu
God Vishnu.
• He was a contemporary of Shivaji and was responsible for creating a
background for Maratha nationalism, ‘Parmaratha’.
Ramdasa • He was born in c.1608 CE and was the spiritual guide of Shivaji.
• He wrote Dasabodha, combining his vast knowledge of various
sciences and arts with the principles of spiritual life.
Ramananda • He is believed to have lived in the first half of the 15th century, born
in Allahabad, and was originally a follower of Ramanuja.
• Later, he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi
at Benaras and Agra.
• He considered it to be the link between the South Indian Bhakti and
North Indian Vaishnava Bhakti traditions.
• Ramananda brought to North India what Ramanuja did in South
India.
• He raised his voice against the increasing formalism of the orthodox
cult and founded a new school of Vaishnavism based on the gospel
of love and devotion.
• His most outstanding contribution is the abolition of distinctions of
caste among his followers.
• He looked upon Ram and not Vishnu as the object of bhakti.
• He worshiped Ram and Sita and came to be identified as the founder
of the Ram cult in north India.
• He, like the monotheist bhakti saints, also rejected caste hierarchies
and preached in the local languages in his attempt to popularise the
cult.
• His followers are called Ramanandis, like Tulsidas.
• He put emphasis on bhakti and avoided both gyana marg and karma
marg.
• Gave rise to two schools of thought: (a) Orthodox school –
Represented by Nabhadas, Tulsidas (b) Liberal – Represented by
Kabir, Nanak, and others
Kabir • Among the disciples of Ramananda, one of the most famous was
Kabir.
• He was a 15th century Bhakti poet and saint, whose verses are found
in the Sikh holy scripture, Adi Granth.

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• He was born near Benares to a Brahman widow, but was brought up

by a Muslim couple who were weavers by profession.
• He possessed an inquiring mind, and while in Benares, learnt much
about Hinduism and became familiar with Islamic teachings also.
• He denounced idolatry and rituals and laid great emphasis on the
equality of man before God.
• He regarded devotion to God as an effective means of salvation and
urged that to achieve this one must have a pure heart, free from
cruelty, dishonesty, hypocrisy, and insincerity.
• Though familiar with yogic practices, he considered neither
asceticism nor book knowledge important for true knowledge.
• He strongly denounced the caste system, especially the practice of
untouchability.
• Kabir’s object was to reconcile Hindus and Muslims and establish
harmony between the two sects.
• He emphasised the essential oneness of all religions by describing
Hindus and Muslims “as pots of the same clay”. To him “Rama and
Allah, temple and mosque” were the same.
• He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints and his followers
are called Kabirpanthis.
• Among those who were influenced by Kabir were Raidas, who was a
tanner by caste, from Benares, Guru Nanak, who was a Khatri
merchant from Punjab, and Dhanna, who was a Jat peasant from
Rajasthan.
• Bijak is the best known of the compilations of the compositions of
Kabir.
Guru Nanak • The first Sikh Guru and founder of the Sikhism, who was also a
Nirguna Bhakti Saint and social reformer.
• He was born in a Khatri household in the village of Talwandi (now
called Nankana), on the banks of the river Ravi in c.1469 CE.
• His father was an accountant, and even Nanak was trained in Persian
to follow his father’s footsteps, but he was inclined towards
mysticism.
• He was opposed to all distinctions of caste as well as the religious
rivalries and rituals, and preached the unity of God and condemned
the formalism and ritualism of both Islam and Hinduism.
• He laid a great emphasis on the purity of character and conduct as
the first condition of approaching, God, and the need of a guru for
guidance.
• Like Kabir, he advocated a middle path in which spiritual life could
be combined with the duties of the householder.
Dadu Dayal • Dadu Dayal is one of the major representatives of the Nirguna Sant
traditions in Northern India.

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• He was a saint from Gujarat, who spent the best part of his spiritual
life in Rajasthan. ‘Dadu’ means ‘brother’, and ‘Dayal’ means ‘the
compassionate one’.
• Later, his followers came to be known as the Dadupanthis who set
up ashrams known as Thambas around the region.
• According to tradition, he was the foster son of an affluent
businessman who had found him floating on the river Sabarmati.
• It is believed that Emperor Akbar was one of his followers.
• Dadu believed that devotion to God should transcend religious or
sectarian affiliation, and that devotees should become non-sectarian
or nipakh.
Chaitanya • Well-known saint, ascetic Hindu monk, and social reformer of
Mahaprabhu Bengal, who popularised the Krishna cult in the 16th century.
• With him, the Bhakti Movement in Bengal began to develop into a
reform movement as it questioned social division on the basis of
caste– Popularised the Sankirtan/Kirtan system (group devotional
songs accompanied with ecstatic dancing).
• He renounced the world, became an ascetic, and wandered all over
the country preaching his ideas.
• He proclaimed the universal brotherhood of man and condemned all
distinction based on religion and caste, and emphasised love and
peace.
• He showed great empathy towards the suffering of other people,
especially that of the poor and the weak, and believed that through
love and devotion, song and dance, a devotee can feel the presence
of God.
• He accepted disciples from all classes and castes, and his teachings
are widely followed in Bengal even today.
• The biography of Chaitanya was written by Krishnadas Kaviraj.
Narsingh • Saint from Gujarat who wrote songs in Gujarati depicting the love of
Mehta Radha–Krishna.
• Author of Mahatma Gandhi’s favorite bhajan – “Vaishanava jan ko”
Saint Tyagaraja • Was one of the greatest composers of Carnatic music, who
composed thousands of devotional compositions, most in Telugu
and in praise of Lord Ram.
• He was a prolific composer and composed the famous Pancharatna
Kritis (meaning five gems).
• He was highly influential in the development of the classical
devotional music tradition.
Akkamahadevi • During the 12th century CE, Akkamahadevi, also known as Akka or
Mahadevi, belonging to the southern region of Karnataka,
established herself as an ardent devotee of Shiva whom she
addressed as Chennamallikarjuna.
Janabai • Was born around 13th century in Maharashtra in a low caste Sudra
family.

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• She worked in the household of one of the most revered of the

bhakti poets, saint Namdeva.
• She wrote over 300 poems focusing on domestic chores and about
the restrictions she faced as a low caste woman.
Mirabai • She belonged to a high-class ruling Rajput family.
• Mirabai’s poetry speaks of her vision of Lord Krishna when she was
a child. From that point onwards, Mira vowed that she would forever
be his bride.
• However, against her wishes, she was married to the son of Rana
Sanga of Mewar at an early age.
• Central to these accounts are Mirabai’s struggles within the family
she had been married into, including unsuccessful attempts made by
her jealous husband to kill her, and her sisters-in-law’s efforts to
obstruct Mirabai in her desires to join the company of wandering
saints.
• Eventually, Mirabai left her husband and family and went on a
pilgrimage to various places associated with her divine husband,
Krishna.
• Here too she was rejected initially because she was a woman, yet
Mirabai’s reputation of devotion, piety, and intellectual astuteness
eventually led to her inclusion within the community of the saints of
Brindavan.
• Mirabai’s poetry portrays a unique relationship with Krishna as she
is not only being portrayed as the devoted bride of Krishna, but
Krishna is also portrayed as in pursuit of Mira.
Bahinabai • She was a poet-saint from 17th century Maharashtra, writing in the
form of abangas, women’s folk songs, that portray the working life
of woman, especially in the fields.

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SUFI MOVEMENT

Introduction • Sufism or tasawuf is the name for various mystical and movements
in Islam.
• It aims at establishing direct communion between God and man
through personal experience of mystery which lies within Islam.
• Every religion gives rise to mystical tendencies in its fold at a
particular stage of its evolution. In this sense, Sufism was a natural
development within
Islam based on the spirit of Quaranic Piety.
• The Sufis while accepting the Shariat did not confine their religious
practice to formal adherence and stressed cultivation of religious
experience aimed at a direct perception of God.
• There developed a number of Sufi orders of silsilah in and outside
India. All these orders had their specific characteristics. However,
there were a number of features which are common to all Sufi
orders.
• Sufism stressed the elements of love and devotion as effective
means of the realization of God. Love of God meant love of humanity
and so the Sufis believed service to humanity was tantamount to
service to God.
• In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to
gain knowledge of God by sense of perception.
• While orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct, the Sufis lay
stress on inner purity.
• While the orthodox believe in blind observance of rituals, the Sufis
consider love and devotion as the only means of attaining salvation.
• According to Sufis one must have the guidance of a pir or guru,
without which spiritual development is impossible.
• Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers.
• Other ideas emphasised by Sufism are meditation, good actions,
repentance for sins, performance of prayers and pilgrimages, fasting,
charity and suppression of passions by ascetic practices.
The Chisti • The Chisti Order was established in India by Mouinuddin Chishti who
Silsilah moved to India after the invasion of Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori
and subsequently to Ajmer in 1206.
• The fame of Khwaja Mouinuddin grew after his death in 1235.
• His grave was visited by Muhammad Tughlaq after which the mosque
and dome were erected by Mahmud Khalji of Malwa in the fifteenth
century.
• The patronage of this dargah peaked after the reign of the Mughal
emperor Akbar.
• The Chishtis believed in love as the bond between God and individual
soul and tolerance between people of different faiths.
• They accepted disciples irrespective of their religious beliefs.

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• They associated with Hindu and Jain yogis, and used simple language.
• The Chishti presence in Delhi was established by Qutbuddin
Bakhtiyar Kaki who settled in Delhi from his homeland in Trans-
oxiana in 1221. This was at the time of the Mongol invasions when
there was a steady flow of people from central Asia fleeing from the
Mongols.
• Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki presence in Delhi was a threat to the
Suhrawardis who sought to force him to leave by levelling charges
against him. The Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish, dismissed these attempts
eventually forcing the Suhrawardis to relent.
• The Chishtipirs laid great emphasis on the simplicity of life, poverty,
humility and selfless devotion to God.
• The renunciation of worldly possessions was regarded by them as
necessary for the control of the senses that was necessary to
maintain a spiritual life.
• Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti argued that highest form of devotion to
God was to redress the misery of those in distress, fulfilling the need
of the helpless and to feed the hungry.
• Chisti’s refused to accept any grant for their maintenance from the
Sultans.
• The other important Chishti Baba Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar,
established himself at Hansi (in Haryana) on the route between
Multan and Lahore.
• Nizamuddin Auliya, was the best-known Chishti saint of the Sultanate
period. He lived in the fourteenth century, during a period of political
change and turmoil. During his lifetime he was witness to the
establishment of the Khalji rule after the death of Balban and
subsequently the establishment of the Tughlaq’s.
• There are numerous stories surrounding the life of Nizamuddin
Auliya, famous among them were stories of his confrontations with
the Sultans of Delhi. The Khwaja is said to have maintained a strict
policy of not involving himself with the various groups and factions
of the Sultan’s court in Delhi earning him the respect of many.
• Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlvi was another of the Chishti saint of Delhi.
He played an active role in the political affairs of the period.
• In the 13th century the Chishti Order was established in the Deccan
by Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib.
• Between the 14th and 16th centuries many Chishti Sufis migrated to
Gulbarga. This was accompanied with a change where some of the
Chishtis began accepting grants and patronage from the ruling
establishment.
• Muhammad Banda Nawaz was among the famous pirs in the region.
• The Deccan city of Bijapur emerged as an important centre for Sufi
activity.

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The Suhrawardi • This Silsilah was founded by Shihabuddin Suhrawardi in Baghdad.

Silsilah • It was established in India by Bahauddin Zakariya who founded the
Suhrawardi Order, based in Mutan, which was under the control of
Qubacha.
• Bahauddin Zakariya was critical of Qubacha and openly favored
Iltutmish over his rival.
• Bahauddin Zakariya’s ways were different from that of the Chishtis.
• The Suhrawardis, unlike the Chishtis, accepted, maintenance grants
from the Sultans.
• They believed that a Sufi should possess the three attributes of
property, knowledge and hal or mystical enlightenment.
• Suhrawardi saints argued that this was necessary to ensure that they
served the poor better.
• Bahauddin Zakariya stressed on the observance or external forms of
religious belief and advocated a combination of ilm (scholarship)
with mysticism.
• Practices like bowing before the sheikh, presenting water to visitors
and tonsuring the head at the time of initiation into the Order that
the Chishtis had adopted were rejected. After his death the silsilah
continued to play an important role in Punjab and Sindh.
The • In India this order was established by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi.
Naqshbandi • From the beginning the mystics of this Order stressed on the
Silsilah observance of the Shariat and denounced all innovations or biddat.
• Sheikh Baqi Billah the successor to Khawaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi
settled near Delhi, and his successor Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
attempted to purge Islam from all liberal and what he believed were
‘un-Islamic’ practices.
• He opposed the listening of sama (religious music) and the practice
of pilgrimage to the tombs of saints.
• He opposed interaction with Hindus and Shias.
• He criticised the new status accorded by Akbar to many non-
Muslims, the withdrawal of the Jizyah and the ban on cow slaughter.
• He believed that he was the mujaddid (renewer) of the first
millennium of Islam.
• He maintained that the relationship between man and God was that
between the slave and the master and not the relation of a lover and
beloved.
• He emphasized the individual’s unique relation of faith and
responsibility to God as creator.
• He tried to harmonize the doctrines of mysticism and the teachings
of orthodox Islam.
The Qadri • The Quadiriyya silsilah was popular in Punjab.
Silsilah • Sheikh Abdul Qadir and his sons were supporters of the Mughals
under Akbar.
• The pirs of this Order supported the concept of Wahdat al Wajud.

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• Among the famous Sufis of this order was Miyan Mir who had
enrolled the Mughal princess Jahanara and her brother Dara as
disciples.
• The influence of the sheikh’s teachings is evident in the works of the
prince Dara.
• Shah Badakhshani another pir of this silsilah while dismissing
orthodox elements, declared that, the infidel who had perceived
reality and recognised it was a believer and that a believer who did
not recognise reality was an infidel.
• During medieval period there was constant tension between the
liberal and orthodox views in Islam.
• The sufis featured on both sides, while there were those like the
Chishtis who held a liberal view and argued in favour of assimilation
of local traditions there were others like Sheikh Abdul Haqq of the
Qadiriyya silsilah who held the view that the purity of Islam was being
diluted.
• This Orthodox view was represented by the ulema that argued from
the perspective of being upholders of the Shariat.
• The liberal opinion found its voice among many sufis who argued
against the narrow definition of Islamic laws by the ulema.

SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

The Hindu philosophy is categorized into six Orthodox and three Heterodox philosophies.
The classification is based on the acceptance of the authority of the Vedas. The Orthodox
school of philosophy also called the Aastika school believes in the authority of Vedas, while
the Heterodox school of philosophy, popularly known as Nastika school rejects the principle
of authority of Vedas.

The six orthodox schools are called as shatdarshanas and include Nyaya, Sankhya, Yoga,
Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta Philosophy). Most of these
schools of thought believe in the theory of Karma and rebirth. Moksha (salvation) is
believed to be the liberation from the cycle of birth and death and is the ultimate goal of
human life.

1. Nyaya Philosophy - Nyaya school follows a scientific and a rational approach. Sage
Gautama is the founder of this school. Nyaya school banks upon various pramanas
(mechanism of attaining knowledge). It believes that gaining knowledge through
the five senses is the sole way of attaining liberation from the cycle of birth and
death.
2. Sankhya Philosophy - Sankhya is the oldest of all philosophies put forth by the sage
Kapila. It is a dualistic philosophy with Purusha (soul) and Prakriti (nature) in it.
Advaita Vedanta derives its base from Sankhya School. Sankhya also devolves

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philosophical basis for Yoga. It emphasizes the attainment of knowledge of self

through meditation and concentration.
3. Yoga Philosophy - Yoga school introduces the methods of the discipline of body and
mind. Sage Patanjali is the founder of Yoga. Emancipation of Purusha from Prakriti
by self-awareness through the discipline of body and mind is conceptualized by
Yoga. It is believed that practising Ashtanga Yoga is the way to relieve oneself from
past sins in order to make way for liberation.
4. Vaisheshika - Vaisheshika school deals with metaphysics. It was founded by the
sage Kanada. It is an objective and realistic philosophy of the Universe. According
to the Vaisheshika school of philosophy, the universe is reducible to a finite number
of atoms, Brahman being the fundamental force causing consciousness in these
atoms.
5. Purva Mimamsa - Purva Mimamsa school believes in the complete authority of
Vedas. It is based on sage Jaimini’s Mimamsa Sutras. It emphasizes the power of
yajnas and mantras in sustaining the activities of the universe. It states that a human
being can attain salvation only by acting in conformity with the principles of Vedas.
6. Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta) - Vedanta school is a monoistic school of philosophy
that believes that the world is unreal and the only reality is Brahman. The three sub
branches of Vedanta are Advaita of Shankaracharya, Vishishta Advaita of
Ramanujacharya and Dvaita of Madhwacharya. Uttara Mimamsa is based on
Upanishads (the end portions of Vedas).

Three Heterodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

Schools that do not accept the authority of vedas are by definition unorthodox (nastika)
systems. The schools belonging to heterodox schools of Indian Philosophy are Carvaka,
Buddhism & Jainism.

Carvaka - It is characterised as a materialistic and aesthetic school of thought. Accepted

direct perception as the surest method to prove the truth of anything. Insists on joyful
living. Also known as Lokayata, Carvaka is a materialistic school of thought. Its founder was
Carvaka, author of the Barhaspatya Sutras in the final centuries B.C.

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LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Sanskrit • Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian languages. The Vedas, Upanishads,
Puranas and Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit. There is also a variety
of secular and regional literature.
• Sanskrit is the most ancient language of our country. It is one of the twenty-
two languages listed in the Indian Constitution.
• It was Sanskrit that gave impetus to the study of linguistics scientifically
during the eighteenth century. The great grammarian Panini, analysed
Sanskrit and its word formation in his unrivalled descriptive grammar
Ashtadhyayi.
• The Buddhist Sanskrit literature includes the rich literature of the Mahayana
school and the Hinayana school also.
• The most important work of the Hinayana school is the Mahavastu which is
a storehouse of stories. While the Lalitavistara is the most sacred Mahayana
text which supplied literary material for the Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa.
• Sanskrit is perhaps the only language that transcended the barriers of
regions and boundaries.
• Kalhan’s Rajatarangini gives a detailed account of the kings of Kashmir
whereas with Jonaraja we share the glory of Prithviraj.
• The writings of Kalidasa have added beauty to the storehouse of Sanskrit
writings.
• Other great literacy works, which marked the golden era of Indian literature
include ‘Abhijanam Shakuntalam’ and ‘Meghdoot’ by Kalidasa,
‘Mricchakatika’ by Shudraka, ‘Swapna Vasavadattam’ by Bhasa, and
‘Ratnavali’ by Sri Harsha. Some other famous works are Chanakya’s
‘Arthashastra’ and Vatsyayana’s ‘Kamasutra’.

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• The Kushana kings patronised Sanskrit scholars. Ashvaghosha wrote the

Buddhacharitra which is the biography of the Buddha. He also wrote
Saundarananda, which is a fine example of Sanskrit poetry.
• India produced great literary works on subjects like Maths, Astronomy,
Astrology, Agriculture and Geography etc. Books on medicine were written
by Charak and on surgery by Sushruta. Madhava wrote a book on pathology.
• Books written on astronomy by Varahamihira and Aryabhatta and on
astrology by Lagdhacharya had all achieved prominence. There is none that
can compete with Varahamihiras Bhrihatsamhita, Aryabhatia and Vedanga
Jyotisha.
• The post-medieval period in northern India saw the rise of Sanskrit
literature in Kashmir. Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar and Kalhan’s
Rajatarangini are of historical importance. It gives a vivid account of the
Kings of Kashmir.
• The Geeta Govinda of Jaidev is the finest poem of Sanskrit literature of this
period, besides numerous works on different aspects of art and
architecture, sculpture, iconography and related fields.
Pali and • Pali and Prakrit were the spoken languages of Indians after the Vedic period.
Prakrit • Prakrit in the widest sense of the term, was indicative of any language that
in any manner deviated from the standard one, i.e. Sanskrit.
• Pali is archaic Prakrit. In fact, Pali is a combination of various dialects.
• These were adopted by Buddhist and Jain sects in ancient India as their
sacred languages. lord Buddha (500 B.C.) used Pali to give his sermons.
• All the Buddhist canonical literature is in Pali which includes Tipitaka
(threefold basket).
• The Jataka Kathas are non-canonical Buddhist literature in which stories
relating to the former births of the Buddha (Bodhi-sattva or the would-be
Buddha) are narrated. These stories propagate Buddhist religious doctrines
and are available in both Sanskrit and Pali.
• Buddhist literature is also abundantly available in Sanskrit, which includes
the great epic Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha (78 A.D.).
• Like the Buddhist stories, the Jain tales in general are didactic in character.
They are written in some forms of Prakrit.
• Jain canonical literature by Jain saints, as well as a large number of works
on lexicography and grammar by Hemachandra (1088 A.D.-?), is well
known.
• However, Prakrit is well known for Gathasaptashati (700 verses) by Hala
(300 A.D.), the best example of erotic literature. It is a compilation of 700
verses along with his own contribution of 44 poems.
• It is interesting to note that quite a few poetesses like Pahai, Mahavi, Reva,
Roha and Sasippaha are included in the anthology.
• The vast Katha (story) literature of Prakrit, written with a conspicuous
religious overtone, even by Jain saints, is full of erotic elements.

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• The author of the Vasudevahindi ascribes this changed approach of the Jain
authors to the fact that it is easy to teach religion cloaked by erotic
episodes, like sugar-coated medicine.
• The characteristic of Prakrit poetry is its subtlety; the inner meaning
(Hiyaali) is its soul. Jain literature is available in Sanskrit too, like the
Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha of Siddharasi (906 A.D.).
Telugu • The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature.
• Nachana Somanatha, a court poet of Bukka I, produced a poetical work
titled Uttaraharivamsam.
• Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the greatest of the Vijayanagara emperors,
was a poet of great merit. His work Amukta Malyada is regarded as an
excellent prabandha in Telugu literature.
• Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as ashtadiggajas adorned
his court.
• Among them, Allasani Peddana, the author of Manucharitram, was the
greatest. He was known as Andhra kavitapitamaha.
• The other seven poets of the group were Nandi Timmana, the author of
Parijathapaharanam, Madayagari Mallana, Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju
Ramabhadra Kavi, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushana and Tenali
Ramakrishna.
Kannada • Apart from Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers extended their patronage to
Kannada and Sanskrit writers as well.
• Many Jain scholars contributed to the growth of Kannada literature.
• Madhava wrote Dharmanathapurana on the fifteenth tirthankara.
• Another Jain scholar, Uritta Vilasa, wrote Dharma Parikshe.
• The Sanskrit works of the period include Yadavabhyudayam by Vedanatha
Desika and Parasara Smriti Vyakhya of Madhavacharya.
• Kannada language developed fully after the tenth century AD.
• The earliest known literary work in Kannada is Kavirajamang written by the
Rashtrakuta King, Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I.
• Pampa, known as the father of Kannada wrote his great poetic works Adi
Purana and Vïkramarjiva Vijaya in the tenth century AD. Pampa lived in the
court of Chalukya Arikesari.
• In his poetic skill, beauty of description, delineation of character and
development of rasa, Pampa is unrivalled.
• Ponna and Ranna were two other poets who lived during the reign of
Rashtrakuta Krishna III.
• Ponna wrote an epic named Shanti Purana and Ranna wrote Ajitanatha
Purano.
• Together Pampa, Ponna and Ranna earned the title ratnatraya (the three
gems).
Malayalam • Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas.
• The language of Malayalam emerged around the eleventh century AD. By
fifteenth century Malayalam was recognised as an independent language.

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• Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra and Kokasandisan are two

great works.
• Rama Panikkar and Ramanujan Ezhuthachan are well known authors of
Malayalam literature.
• Though it developed much later compared to other South Indian languages,
Malayalam has made a mark as a powerful medium of expression.
Tamil • From the 6th to 12th century AD, the Tamil devotional poems written by
Nayanmars (saints who sang in praise of Shaivism) and Alvars herald the
great Bhakti movement which engulfed the entire Indian sub-continent.
• During this period, Kambaramayanam and Periya Puranam were two Tamil
literary classic writers.
Urdu and • Urdu emerged as an independent langauge towards the end of the 4th
Persian century AD.
• Arabic and Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the Turks
and the Mongols.
• Persian remained the court langage for many centuries.
• Urdu as a language was born out of the interaction between Hindi and
Persian.
• Urdu was given its pride of place by a large number of poets who have left
inimitable poetry for posterity.
• The earliest Urdu poet is supposed to be Khusrau (1253-1325). He started
writing as a poet in the reign of Sultan Balban and was a follower of Nizam
ud-din Auliya. He is said to have composed ninty-nine works on separate
themes and numerous verses of poetry. Among the important works
composed by him are Laila Majnun and Ayina-I-Sikandari dedicated to Alau-
din-Khalji.
• Among other well-known poets are Ghalib, Zauq, and Iqbal. Iqbal’s Urdu
poetry is available in his collection called Bang- i - dara. His Sarejahan se
achcha Hindostan hamara is sung and played at many of the national
celebrations in India.

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• As Persian was the language of the court, much of the literature produced
in this period was written in Persian.
• Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Dehelvi wrote superb poetry in Persian.
• Historians like Minhas-us-Siraj and Zia Barani and Ibn Batuta who came to
India during those days wrote accounts of rulers, important political events
and incidents in this language.
• In the medieval period, Persian was adopted as the court language. Several
historical accounts, administrative manuals and allied literature in this
language have come down to us.
• The mughal rulers were great patrons of leaning and literature.
• Babar wrote his tuzuk (autobiography) in Turkish language, but his grandson
Akbar got it translated into Persian.
• Akbar patronized many scholars. He got Mahabharata translated into
Persian.
• Jahangir’s autobiography (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri) is in Persian and is a unique
piece of literature. It is said that Noorjahan was an accomplished Persian
poetess. Quite a fair amount of Persian literature has been produced by the
courtiers of the Mughals.
• Abul Fazl’s Akbarnamah and Ain-e-Akbari is a fine piece of literature. From
there we get a good deal of information about Akbar and his times.
• Faizi wrote beautiful Persian poetry.
• Another name in prose and history writing is that of Chandra Bhan, a writer
of Shahjahan’s days. Tabqat-i-Alamgïri, sheds light on Aurangzeb.
• Badauni was another writer who belonged during Akbar’s time.
• In the twentieth century, Iqbal wrote good Persian poetry.

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