English Qualifying Exam Reviewer:

Alibaba and the Forty Thieves: From A Thousand and One Nights

The story of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves is, after the tale of Aladdin and the Magic Lamp (which we
have analysed here), the best-known of the Arabian Nights stories. The words ‘Open, Sesame!’ are
famous even to people who have never read the story of the crafty thief and his adventures. But there
are a number of curious details about this story which are less well-known.

Characters: Kasim, Alibaba, Baba Mustafa, Morgiana

The epic of Gilgamesh: Mesopotamian mythology

Gilgamesh, the best known of all ancient Mesopotamian heroes. Numerous tales in the Akkadian
language have been told about Gilgamesh, and the whole collection has been described as an odyssey—
the odyssey of a king who did not want to die.

Uruk City

Characters: Gilgamesh, Enkidu, God Anu, Humbaba, Ishtar (the goddess of love), Utnapishtim (the
survivor of the Babylonian Flood)

Rostam and Sohrab:

Princess Tahmina

Nick Joaquin

- Nick Joaquin, byname of Nicomedes Joaquin, (born May 4, 1917, Paco, Manila, Philippines—
died April 29, 2004, San Juan), Filipino novelist, poet, playwright, essayist, and biographer whose
works present the diverse heritage of the Filipino people.
- Joaquin was awarded a scholarship to the Dominican monastery in Hong Kong after publication
of his essay “La Naval de Manila” (1943), a description of Manila’s fabled resistance to 17th-
century Dutch invaders. After World War II he traveled to the United States, Mexico, and Spain,
later serving as a cultural representative of the Philippines to Taiwan, Cuba, and China.
- He was well known as a historian of the brief Golden Age of Spain in the Philippines, as a writer
of short stories suffused with folk Roman Catholicism, as a playwright, and as a novelist. Joaquin
wrote his works in English.

Deathstars is a Swedish industrial metal band from Strömstad. Formed in 2000, the group are noted
for their dark horror-themed lyrics, pessimistic and misanthropic social commentary, distinctive
trademark face paint, dark stage uniforms and physical appearances that correspond to gothic
fashion. They have released five full-length studio albums; Synthetic Generation (2002 in Europe and
2003 in North and South America), Termination Bliss (2006), Night Electric Night (2009), The Perfect
Cult (2014), and Everything Destroys You (2023). Deathstars have supported live acts by bands such
as Korn and Cradle of Filth, the latter of which were part of the inspiration for Deathstars.
Deathstars also supported Rammstein on their Made In Germany 1995–2011 tour.

Edgar Allan Poe ( American Writer)

Edgar Allan Poe’s best-known works include the poems “To Helen” (1831), “The Raven” (1845), and
“Annabel Lee” (1849); the short stories of wickedness and crime “The Tell-Tale Heart” (1843) and
“The Cask of Amontillado” (1846); and the supernatural horror story “The Fall of the House of
Usher” (1839). Poe’s work owes much to the concern of Romanticism with the occult and the
satanic.

William Shakespeare (English author)

William Shakespeare is widely considered the greatest dramatist of all time as well as the most
influential writer in the history of the English language. He originated hundreds of words and
phrases that English speakers use to this day. His impact on literature is so massive that one could
make an argument that every one of his works deserves a spot on this list, but these seven plays
and one poetry collection are undoubtedly among his most important achievements.

Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets. The most famous include Sonnet 18, with opening lines "Shall I
compare thee to a summer's day?", and Sonnet 130, which begins "My mistress' eyes are nothing
like the sun."Other poets, such as Homer and Dante, and novelists, such as Leo Tolstoy and Charles
Dickens, have transcended national barriers, but no writer’s living reputation can compare to that of
Shakespeare, whose plays, written in the late 16th and early 17th centuries for a small repertory
theatre, are now performed and read more often and in more countries than ever before. The
prophecy of his great contemporary, the poet and dramatist Ben Jonson, that Shakespeare “was not
of an age, but for all time,” has been fulfilled.

Shakespeare's sonnets generally focus on the themes of love and life. Venus and Adonis was
Shakespeare's first-published work. Oedipus, in Greek mythology, the king of Thebes who
unwittingly killed his father and married his mother. Homer related that Oedipus’s wife and mother
hanged herself when the truth of their relationship became known, though Oedipus apparently
continued to rule at Thebes until his death. In the post-Homeric tradition, most familiar from
Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex (or Oedipus the King) and Oedipus at Colonus, there are notable differences
in emphasis and detail.

Romeo and Juliet (c. 1594–96)

Although not usually considered among his greatest plays, Romeo and Juliet remains one of
Shakespeare’s most popular works. This tale of two star-crossed lovers who both meet tragic ends
has been adapted countless times for the stage and screen. The universality of the story of young
people in love trying to be together in an uncaring world has resonated with audiences and readers
from across the globe for centuries.

Much Ado About Nothing (c. 1598–99)

While Shakespeare’s best-known plays are his tragedies, he also wrote a number of comedies,
including this tale of a woman falsely accused of being unfaithful. The plotline—centered on the
couple Claudio and Hero—involves humorous misunderstandings and bumbling supporting
characters. Much Ado About Nothing is also notable for its secondary plot, in which Hero’s cousin
Beatrice and her potential romantic interest, Benedick, trade witty insults and express skepticism
about love throughout the play. Their “merry war” ends with the two on equal footing, admitting
their love for one another.

Julius Caesar (c. 1599–1600)

The majority of Shakespeare’s history plays concern events that occurred in his native England, but
he did occasionally explore historical eras in other parts of the world. The most notable example of
this is Julius Caesar. In Shakespeare’s drama Caesar, the leader of Rome, is conspired against and
eventually assassinated by his former republican allies, including his trusted friend Brutus. The play
is famous for Mark Antony’s speech that begins “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.”
The speech is one of the best-known of Shakespeare’s monologues.

Hamlet (c. 1599–1601)

Hamlet is arguably the greatest drama ever written. In it Hamlet, the prince of Denmark, struggles
with the recent death of his father and with his mother having married Claudius, his father’s brother
and successor. Claudius is later revealed to have murdered Hamlet’s father. A visit from his father’s
ghost spurs Hamlet to seek revenge. One of the most notable aspects of the play are Hamlet’s
soliloquies, which beautifully express the character’s inner turmoil.

Macbeth (c. 1606–07)

Along with Hamlet and King Lear, Macbeth is the third of Shakespeare’s greatest tragedies. It is the
story of a Scottish nobleman who, following the prophecy of three witches, becomes the ruler of his
country after killing Duncan, the reigning king. Macbeth continues to kill potential political rivals.
The guilt drives his wife, Lady Macbeth, mad. Ultimately, Macbeth is killed as a consequence of his
political ambitions. The tragic rendering of Macbeth’s downward spiral and the iconic depiction of
Lady Macbeth’s descent into madness make this one of Shakespeare’s major works.

Prose is the most common form of everyday writing, and the style is straightforward without a great
deal of ornamentation.

Poetry serves mainly as artistic expressions of something special and its language tends to be more
expressive, with comparisons, rhymes, and rhythm adding to the overall feel and sound.

Prose includes pieces of writing like novels, short stories, novellas, and scripts. These kinds of writing
contain the kind of ordinary language heard in everyday speech. Poetry includes song lyrics, various
poetry forms, and theatrical dialogue containing poetic qualities, like iambic pentameter.
Figure of Speech: a form of expression (such as a simile or metaphor) used to convey meaning or
heighten effect often by comparing or identifying one thing with another that has a meaning or
connotation familiar to the reader or listener.

Language that uses figures of speech is known collectively as figurative language. You will find
examples of figurative language in novels, poems, essays, and plays. The opposite of figurative
language is literal language. Literal language is the type of straightforward writing you’ll find on road
signs, in office memos, and in research papers.

Alliteration

Alliteration is the repeating of consonant sounds right next to each other, which creates a
memorable or melodic effect.

Example: She sells seashells by the seashore.

2 Antithesis

Antithesis is a literary technique that places opposite things or ideas next to one another in order to
draw out their contrast.

Example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times . . .” —Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two
Cities

3 Apostrophe

Apostrophe as a figure of speech is when a character addresses someone or something that isn’t
present or cannot respond. The character might speak to someone deceased, an inanimate object,
or a concept.

Example: “O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?” —William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet

4 Circumlocution

Circumlocution is the use of a purposely wordy description. You can think of it as talking in circles.
Example: In the Harry Potter series, most characters don’t say Lord Voldemort’s name; instead, they
use this circumlocution: “He Who Must Not Be Named.”

5 Epigram

An epigram is a clever and memorable statement. You will find epigrams in speeches, poetry, and at
the front of a book.

Example: “No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.” —Eleanor Roosevelt

6 Euphemism

A euphemism is a way to say something in an understated manner, often to avoid difficult topics—
like money, death, or sex.

Example: Death can be an uncomfortable subject, so we’ve developed many euphemisms to avoid
confronting it head-on. Rather than telling a friend that a relative died, you might say they “kicked
the bucket,” “passed away,” or are “no longer with us.”

7 Hyperbole

Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration that adds emphasis, urgency, or excitement to a statement.

Example: If I don’t eat soon, I’m going to die of hunger.

8 Irony

Irony is a situation that subverts a reader’s expectations.

Example: One of the characters in your story is a hypochondriac, always convinced that they have an
exotic and uncurable disease. An ironic ending for that character would be if they died of a common
cold.

9 Litotes

Litotes use a double negative to create a positive.

Example: You’re not wrong.

10 Metaphor

A metaphor is the direct comparison of dissimilar things to create more vivid imagery or
understanding.

Example: He was an onion; to understand him, she had to peel back the layers.

11 Metonymy

Metonymy is a literary device in which a word or object stands in for a closely related word or
object. Metonymy gives a writer more variability with descriptions.

Example: I thought his movies were better when they weren’t so Hollywood.

12 Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a word that sounds like what it means.

Example: When a character is exasperated, they might exclaim, “Sheesh!” That’s both a word to
show exasperation and a sound that happens when you sigh loudly.
13 Oxymoron

An oxymoron is a phrase that uses two contradictory words to create a new meaning.

Example: That strawberry cake was awfully good.

14 Paradox

A paradox is a statement that appears to contradict itself but contains some truth, theme, or humor.

Example: “All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.” —George Orwell,
Animal Farm

15 Personification

Personification is assigning human attributes to nonhuman things.

Example: The floorboards groaned under the weight of each step.

16 Pleonasm

Pleonasm is the use of more words than necessary to convey meaning. A writer might use pleonasm
for humor or emphasis, or they might not realize they’re using extra words at all.

Example: The burning fire warmed the whole house.

17 Pun

A pun is a form of wordplay that purposely substitutes words that sound similar but have different
meanings.
 Example: “‘Mine is a long and a sad tale!’ said the Mouse, turning to Alice and sighing. ‘It is a long
tail, certainly,’ said Alice, looking down with wonder at the Mouse’s tail; ‘but why do you call it
sad?’” —Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland

18 Simile

A simile compares two dissimilar things using “like” or “as.” The goal of simile is to give the reader a
more vivid understanding of something.

Example: It was the first real day of summer, and by the time she came back indoors, she was as red
as a tomato.

19 Synecdoche

Synecdoche is when a smaller unit is used to signify a larger unit or vice versa.

Example: New England won the game by a touchdown. (Here, New England means New England’s
football team.)

20 Understatement

Understatement is the intentional downplaying of a situation. This can create a humorous or

deadpan effect in writing.

Example: “I have to have this operation. It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the
brain.” —J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye

There are hundreds of figures of speech, which can be divided into schemes and tropes. Schemes are
figures of speech that rearrange word order for a certain effect, while tropes use words in a way that
differs from their literal meaning.

literature, a body of written works. The name has traditionally been applied to those imaginative works
of poetry and prose distinguished by the intentions of their authors and the perceived aesthetic
excellence of their execution. Literature may be classified according to a variety of systems, including
language, national origin, historical period, genre, and subject matter.

An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the author's own argument, but the definition is
vague, overlapping with those of a letter, a paper, an article, a pamphlet, and a short story.
Greek mythology, body of stories concerning the gods, heroes, and rituals of the ancient Greeks. That
the myths contained a considerable element of fiction was recognized by the more critical Greeks, such
as the philosopher Plato in the 5th–4th century BCE. In general, however, in the popular piety of the
Greeks, the myths were viewed as true accounts. Greek mythology has subsequently had extensive
influence on the arts and literature of Western civilization, which fell heir to much of Greek culture.

Greek Gods and Goddesses

At the center of Greek mythology is the pantheon of gods and goddesses who were said to live on
Mount Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. From their lofty perch, they ruled every aspect of
human life. Olympian deities looked like men and women (though they could change themselves into
animals and other things) and were — as many myths recounted — vulnerable to human foibles and
passions.

The twelve main Olympians are:

Zeus (Jupiter, in Roman mythology): the king of all the gods (and father to many) and god of weather,
law and fate

Hera (Juno): the queen of the gods and goddess of women and marriage

Aphrodite (Venus): goddess of beauty and love

Apollo (Apollo): god of prophesy, music and poetry and knowledge

Ares (Mars): god of war

Artemis (Diana): goddess of hunting, animals and childbirth

Athena (Minerva): goddess of wisdom and defense

Demeter (Ceres): goddess of agriculture and grain

Dionysus (Bacchus): god of wine, pleasure and festivity

Hephaestus (Vulcan): god of fire, metalworking and sculpture

Hermes (Mercury): god of travel, hospitality and trade and Zeus’s personal messenger

Poseidon (Neptune): god of the sea

Other gods and goddesses sometimes included in the roster of Olympians are:

Hades (Pluto): god of the underworld

Hestia (Vesta): goddess of home and family

Eros (Cupid): god of sex and minion to Aphrodite

Past tense

A past tense verb indicates that the identified action already occurred. When the action took place in the
past depends upon the following:

Simple past tense: Details an action that has already happened

John entered himself into the limbo contest.

Past perfect tense: Specifies an action completed before a specific point in the past

Stan was excited that John had entered the limbo contest.

Past perfect tense: Specifies an action completed before a specific point in the past

Stan was excited that John had entered the limbo contest.

Past progressive tense: Indicates a continuing action that was happening in the past

Shauna was making the limbo stick for the contest.

Past perfect progressive tense: Conveys that an ongoing past event has been completed

Lisa had been looking forward to the limbo contest.

Present tense
Present tense verbs indicate that the action is currently happening or ongoing.

Simple present tense: Indicates the present condition or an action taking place right now or
regularly/continuously

Kelly practices soccer every day after school.

Present perfect tense: Refers to an action that began in the past and finishes or continues in the present

Kelly has practiced soccer all year.

Present progressive tense: Identifies a present action that is in progress or repeating

Tyler is waiting for Kelly to finish practice.

Present perfect progressive tense: Indicates something started in the past and is continuing into the
present

Kelly has been playing soccer since she was 5 years old.

Future tense
A future tense verb indicates an action is going to or will continue to happen.

Simple future tense: Details an action that has yet to happen

Jessica will play the piano at next week's recital.

Future perfect tense: Indicates an action that is expected to be completed in the future

By next week, Tim will have attended two of Jessica's recitals.

Future progressive tense: Identifies something that will happen in the future and continue for a length of
time

Erin will be attending the rest of Jessica's recitals.

Future perfect progressive tense: Refers to an action that will continue until a certain point

By the end of the year, Jessica will have been playing the piano for 10 years.
Verb tense examples
The following sentences incorporate the use of the past, present, and future tenses:

Past
Simple Past

Tina walked into the house.

The team picked Wendy as their captain.

Mike and Grace graduated last summer.

Past Perfect

Ophelia had left the supermarket before the blizzard hit.

The family had stopped by the park late last week.

After I had finished my work, I helped Tony with his.

Past Progressive

Rita was leaving the house when she heard the phone ring.

Antonio and Mario were driving when a deer raced in front of the car.

James was trying to fall asleep, but thunder kept him awake.

Past Perfect Progressive

Ken had been practicing for weeks to prepare for tryouts.

Erica had been waiting all year to visit the beach.

The family had been saving for a vacation in Hawaii.

Present
Simple Present

His dad works for the government.

Ian enjoys watching baseball under the lights.

We see the Smith family every summer.

Present Perfect

Ophelia has wanted to be a doctor since she was young.

They have lived in San Francisco their entire lives.

Kevin has published two books in the last five years.

Present Progressive

I am thinking of moving to New York.

Wendy is leaving for Ireland in the morning.

Habitat for Humanity is building three new houses in town.

Present Perfect Progressive

We have been waiting in line for over two hours.

Trent has been working here for three years.

Stacey has been staying late so she could finish the project.

Future
Simple Future

Sally will leave after the fireworks.

Lucas and Brayden will visit the zoo tomorrow.

Lena and Matthew will arrive before dinner.

Future Perfect

After next month, we will have finished restoring the kitchen.

By the end of the week, we will have completed five interviews.

Ryan will have fixed the car by the time we need it.
Future Progressive

The group will be performing at venues along the east coast.

Soon enough all cars will be driving themselves.

At next week's meeting, we will be asking for more help.

Future Perfect Progressive

We will have been flying for 12 hours by the time we land in London.

Troy will have been working here for 15 years come next October.

This June, Liza and Paul will have been married for 10 years.

Morphology - Morphology is the study of how things are put together, like the make-up of animals and
plants, or the branch of linguistics that studies the structure of words.

In morphology, the word part morph- means "form" and -ology means "the study of." So, those who
study how something is made or formed are engaged in morphology. In biology, the morphology of fish
might investigate how the gills work as part of the respiratory system. In language morphology, you might
study how prefixes and suffixes added to a word change its meaning.

noun the branch of biology that deals with the structure of animals and plants
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noun studies of the rules for forming admissible words

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noun the admissible arrangement of sounds in words
synonyms:sound structure, syllable structure, word structure
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noun the branch of geology that studies the characteristics and configuration and evolution of rocks and
land forms