Section A : 3 question (within 2 pages)

Q1: Norman’s design principle

● Norman’s idea is that devices, computers, and interfaces should function correctly and be
intuitive and easy to use.
● The six principles that revolve around this idea are:

Principle 1: Visibility
Users should know, just by looking at an interface, what their options are and how to access them.
This is particularly important in mobile applications because it is a challenge to make everything
visible within the limited screen space; hence, it is essential to include only the options that are
needed.
- For example, a log-in screen only needs information about logging in or signing up, so
cluttering it with other information would go against the visibility principle.
Principle 2: Feedback
The user must receive feedback after every action they perform to let them know whether or not their
action was successful.
- For example, changing the icon on the tab to a spinner to indicate that a web page is loading.

Principle 3: Affordance
Affordance is the link between how things look and how they’re used.
 - For example, a coffee mug has high affordance because you instantly know how to hold it just
by looking at it. The same is true for digital applications; the design should be intuitive enough
that the users know how to access their desired information just by looking at the interface.

Principle 4:Mapping
Mapping is the idea that, in a good design, the controls for something will closely resemble their
effect.
- This is best understood with the vertical scroll bar; it tells you where you currently are, and the
page moves down at the same pace and sensitivity as the vertical bar.
- A non-digital example is of a modern stovetop 炉灶 whose control knobs are arranged in the same
order as the burners. This way, you will know exactly which knob operates which burner.

Principle 5: Constraints
Constraints restrict a particular form of user interaction with an interface. This is essential because the
user could become overwhelmed with the range of possibilities available through an interface.
- An example of a constraint is an online form that does not allow users to enter letters into a
phone number field.

Principle 6: Consistency
People learn new things and manage better when they recognize patterns. Consistency is key for
these patterns to be recognized and learned by users. If similar-looking things do not produce a
similar output, the user is bound to become frustrated.
- For example, if a website’s buttons are protruding boxes with labels on them, then all of the
website’s buttons should look like that. Similarly, if a backward arrow denotes the back button,
then it should not be changed to something else because that would be inconsistent with what
the user has learned.

Principle 7: Discoverability

Q2: Situation Awareness (SA) (week 7)

Definition of SA
Developing and maintaining a dynamic awareness of the situation and the risks present in an activity,
based on gathering information from multiple sources from the task environment, understanding what
the information means and using it to think ahead about what may happen next.

1. Dynamic: Situation awareness is not a one-off or a snapshot, it is a continuous process,

hence the ‘dynamic awareness‘ phrase in the above definition. If what we expect to happen
does not align with what is actually happening in the real world, we may check our data,
gather new information, and revisit our decisions. This will help us to ‘regain control’. Situation
awareness is maintained by continually checking facts against our understanding. Often, we
use our expectations to influence how attention is directed, how information is perceived and
how it is interpreted.
2. Perception or gathering information by using our senses of vision, hearing and touch. In
many complex systems, people perceive the state of the system indirectly, through displays
and interfaces rather than through direct observation.
3. Understanding information by combining this data from the real world with existing
knowledge and experience from memory (and through this process, creating mental models
and story-building). Information gathered is given meaning. This includes developing an
accurate and complete picture of the world, informing our decisions. Comprehension is
formed by putting two and two together to get four.
4. Prediction and projection into the future, which includes thinking ahead, asking ‘what if?’,
updating mental models and anticipating the future state of our environment. This involves
predicting what to expect (as well as what not to expect).
5. Risks: The above definition also includes awareness of the current risk, and an evaluation of
the future risk.

Situation awareness is therefore about proactively staying ahead of the situation. It is strongly related
to decision making – it determines whether a good decision can be made. It is critical to understand
the bigger picture, before making decisions. Degraded situation awareness can lead to inadequate
decision making and inappropriate actions. When situation awareness is lost, even momentarily,
people may be slower to detect problems and require extra time to reorient themselves. This is a
greater concern where timely decisions are required. In fact, part of situational awareness is an
understanding of how much time is available until an event occurs, or some action to be taken.

THREE LEVELS OF SA

The formal definition of SA is often described as three ascending levels:

(1) Perception of the elements in the environment,
(2) Comprehension or understanding of the situation, and
(3) Projection of future status.

People with the highest levels of SA have not only perceived the relevant information for their goals
and decisions, but are also able to integrate that information to understand its meaning or
significance, and are able to project likely or possible future scenarios. These higher levels of SA are
critical for proactive decision making in demanding environments.

#Theoretical Model: Endsley’s Cognitive Model of SA

● Endsley's model describes the cognitive processes and mechanisms that are used by people
to assess situations to develop SA, and the task and environmental factors that also affect
 their ability to get SA. It describes in detail the three levels of SA formation: perception,
comprehension, and projection.

1. Perception (Level 1 SA): The first step in achieving SA is to perceive the status, attributes,
and dynamics of relevant elements in the environment. Thus, Level 1 SA, the most basic level
of SA, involves the processes of monitoring, cue detection, and simple recognition, which lead
to an awareness of multiple situational elements (objects, events, people, systems,
environmental factors) and their current states (locations, conditions, modes, actions).
2. Comprehension (Level 2 SA): The next step in SA formation involves a synthesis of
disjointed Level 1 SA elements through the processes of pattern recognition, interpretation,
and evaluation. Level 2 SA requires integrating this information to understand how it will
impact upon the individual's goals and objectives. This includes developing a comprehensive
picture of the world, or of that portion of the world of concern to the individual.
3. Projection (Level 3 SA): The third and highest level of SA involves the ability to project the
future actions of the elements in the environment. Level 3 SA is achieved through knowledge
of the status and dynamics of the elements and comprehension of the situation (Levels 1 and
2 SA), and then extrapolating this information forward in time to determine how it will affect
future states of the operational environment.

● Endsley's model shows how SA "provides the primary basis for subsequent decision making
and performance in the operation of complex, dynamic systems". Although alone it cannot
guarantee successful decision making, SA does support the necessary input processes (e.g.,
cue recognition, situation assessment, prediction) upon which good decisions are based.

● SA also involves both a temporal (time) and a spatial (space) component. Time is an
important concept in SA, as SA is a dynamic construct, changing at a tempo dictated by the
actions of individuals, task characteristics, and the surrounding environment. As new inputs
enter the system, the individual incorporates them into this mental representation, making
changes as necessary in plans and actions in order to achieve the desired goals. SA also
involves spatial knowledge about the activities and events occurring in a specific location of
interest to the individual. Thus, the concept of SA includes perception, comprehension, and
projection of situational information, as well as temporal and spatial components.

● In summary, the model consists of several key factors that describe the cognitive processes
involved in SA:
❖ Perception, comprehension, and projection as three levels of SA,
❖ The role of goals and goal directed processing in directing attention and interpreting the
significance of perceived information,
❖ The role of information salience in "grabbing" attention in a data-driven fashion, and the
importance of alternating goal-driven and data-driven processing,
❖ The role of expectations (fed by the current model of the situation and by long-term memory
stores) in directing attention and interpreting information,
❖ The heavy demands on limited working memory restricting SA for novices and for those in
novel situations, but the tremendous advantages of mental models and pattern matching to
prototypical schema that largely circumvent these limits,
❖ The use of mental models for providing a means for integrating different bits of information
and comprehending its meaning (relevant to goals) and for allowing people to make useful
projections of likely future events and states,
❖ Pattern matching to schema—prototypical states of the mental model—that provides rapid
retrieval of comprehension and projection relevant to the recognized situation and in many
cases single-step retrieval of appropriate actions for the situation.

● The model also points to a number of features of the task and environment that affect SA:
 - The capability of the system and the user interface for conveying 输送 important information to the
person in a way that is easy to integrate and process.
- Both high workload and stress can negatively affect SA. Information overload is a problem in
many situations.
- Underload (vigilance 警觉性 conditions) can also negatively affect SA.
- The complexity of the systems and situations a person is in can negatively affect SA by
making it difficult to form accurate mental models.
- Automation is a major factor reducing situation awareness in many environments (e.g.
aviation, driving, power operations). See out of the loop performance problems. This is due to
it creating situations where people are forced to become monitors which they are poor at (due
to vigilance problems), often poor system transparency with needed information not provided,
and an overall reduction in the level of cognitive engagement of people with automated
systems.

● Experience and training have a significant impact on people's ability to develop SA, due to
its impact on the development of mental models that reduce processing demands and help
people to better prioritize their goals. In addition, it has been found that individuals vary in
their ability to acquire SA; thus, simply providing the same system and training will not ensure
similar SA across different individuals. Research has shown that there are a number of
factors that make some people better at SA than others including differences in spatial
abilities and multi-tasking skills.

● Criticism of model
Early criticisms of the SA construct and the model have largely been unfounded and addressed.

(1) "...models of SA refer to cognitive processes in general terms, but do not specify exactly what
processes are involved and to what extent."However a detailed review by Parasuraman, Sheridan
and Wickens found it has a strong body of empirical research, is diagnostic with regard to human
states, is useful from a prescriptive standpoint, and has strong theoretical and empirical distinction
from performance and other mental constructs. The Endsley model is very detailed in describing the
exact cognitive processes involved in SA.

(2) Others have questioned whether SA is circular, indistinguishable from performance. "The test of
situation awareness as a construct will be in its ability to be operationalized in terms of objective,
clearly specified independent (stimulus manipulation) and dependent (response difference)
variables ... Otherwise, SA will be yet another buzzword to cloak scientists' ignorance. This criticism
however neglected the extensive work done to develop and validate objective measures of SA as a
state of knowledge that are distinct from performance outcomes.[42] A recent review and meta-
analysis of objective SA measures found 171 studies that have successfully used these measures to
quantify SA to evaluate system designs, training programs and investigate the construct of SA.

(3) As a framework model, it draws on many constructs from cognitive science that need further
definition themselves. Endsley addressed this criticism by stating that the model is very specific in its
definitions and mechanisms, and that much subsequent research has supported the details of the
model, including research on the role of working memory and long term-memory, cognitive
mechanisms behind projection, individual characteristics affecting SA, the role of automation on SA,
and the relationship between SA and workload.

● Related concepts
Situational understanding
Situation awareness is sometimes confused with the term "situational understanding." In the context
of military command and control applications, situational understanding refers to the "product of
applying analysis and judgment to the unit's situation awareness to determine the relationships of the
factors present and form logical conclusions concerning threats to the force or mission
accomplishment, opportunities for mission accomplishment, and gaps in information".[49] Situational
understanding is the same as Level 2 SA in the Endsley model—the comprehension of the meaning
of the information as integrated with each other and in terms of the individual's goals. It is the "so
what" of the data that is perceived.

Situational assessment
In brief, situational awareness is viewed as "a state of knowledge," and situational assessment as "the
processes used to achieve that knowledge. " Endsley argues that "it is important to distinguish the
term situation awareness, as a state of knowledge, from the processes used to achieve that state.[1]
These processes, which may vary widely among individuals and contexts, will be referred to as
situational assessment or the process of achieving, acquiring, or maintaining SA." Note that SA is not
only produced by the processes of situational assessment, it also drives those same processes in a
recurrent fashion. For example, one's current awareness can determine what one pays attention to
next and how one interprets the information perceived.[50]

Mental models
Accurate mental models are one of the prerequisites for achieving SA.[51][52][53] A mental model can
be described as a set of well-defined, highly organized yet dynamic knowledge structures developed
over time from experience.[54][55] The volume of available data inherent in complex operational
environments can overwhelm the capability of novice decision makers to attend, process, and
integrate this information efficiently, resulting in information overload and negatively impacting their
SA.[56] In contrast, experienced decision makers assess and interpret the current situation (Level 1
and 2 SA) and select an appropriate action based on conceptual patterns stored in their long-term
memory as "mental models".[57][58] Cues in the environment activate these mental models, which in
turn guide their decision making process.

Sensemaking
Klein, Moon, and Hoffman distinguish between situation awareness and sensemaking as follows:

...situation awareness is about the knowledge state that's achieved—either knowledge of current data
elements, or inferences drawn from these data, or predictions that can be made using these
inferences. In contrast, sensemaking is about the process of achieving these kinds of outcomes, the
strategies, and the barriers encountered.[59]

In brief, sensemaking is viewed more as "a motivated, continuous effort to understand connections
(which can be among people, places, and events) in order to anticipate their trajectories and act
effectively",[60] rather than the state of knowledge underlying situation awareness. Endsley points out
that as an effortful process, sensemaking is actually considering a subset of the processes used to
maintain situation awareness.[61][62] In the vast majority of the cases, SA is instantaneous and
effortless, proceeding from pattern recognition of key factors in the environment—"The speed of
operations in activities such as sports, driving, flying and air traffic control practically prohibits such
conscious deliberation in the majority of cases, but rather reserves it for the exceptions." Endsley also
points out that sensemaking is backward focused, forming reasons for past events, while situation
awareness is typically forward looking, projecting what is likely to happen in order to inform effective
decision processes.[61][63]

MEASURING SITUATION AWARENESS

 1. Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT)
- A method of objectively and directly measuring SA during a team simulation using "freezes" at
predetermined points in time with participants reporting on "what is going on" from their
perspective on the situation.SAGAT

How to measure situational awareness using Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique
(SAGAT)?
The Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT) is a well-established methodology
for measuring situation awareness in various domains, such as aviation, military, and healthcare.
Here are the steps for measuring situational awareness using SAGAT:

1. Design the scenario: Create a realistic scenario that is relevant to the domain you are
interested in. The scenario should have multiple elements that are critical to the task, and
should require the participant to maintain a high level of situational awareness.

2. Identify critical events: Determine the key events or actions that the participant must be aware
of to successfully complete the scenario. These critical events should be identified ahead of
time, so that you know when to interrupt the participant with questions.

3. Develop questions: Create a set of questions that will interrupt the participant during the
scenario. The questions should be designed to assess the participant's awareness of the
critical events.

4. Administer the scenario: Have the participant perform the scenario while being interrupted
with the questions at the critical points. The participant should be given a task to complete
during the scenario that is relevant to the domain being tested.

5. Evaluate the responses: Evaluate the participant's responses to the questions. The
responses can be scored based on their accuracy and the speed with which they are
provided.

6. Analyze the results: The results of the SAGAT test can be analyzed to determine the
participant's level of situation awareness. Scores can be compared to established norms or to
previous assessments of the same individual.

There are three different versions of SAGAT, each with a different level of complexity and number of
questions. The most commonly used version is SAGAT II, which includes up to 100 questions.Overall,
SAGAT is an effective method for assessing situational awareness, as it allows for the measurement
of both cognitive and perceptual components of situation awareness in a realistic scenario.

Downsides of using SAGAT

While the Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT) is a widely used method for
measuring situational awareness, there are some potential downsides to using this technique:

1. Limited scope: SAGAT measures situational awareness based on a specific scenario, which
may not fully capture the complexity of real-world situations. Participants may have a high
level of situational awareness in the SAGAT scenario but may struggle in more complex or
dynamic real-world situations.

2. Interruption effect: Interrupting the participant during the scenario to ask questions may
disrupt their cognitive processes and attention, potentially affecting their performance and
situational awareness. This interruption effect may impact the validity of the results.
 3. Time-consuming: Administering the SAGAT test can be time-consuming, especially if the
scenario is complex and the number of questions is high. This may limit its practicality for
large-scale assessments.

4. Cost: Developing and implementing SAGAT can be costly, as it requires significant resources
and expertise. This may limit its accessibility for some organizations or domains.

5. Cultural and language barriers: The scenario and questions used in SAGAT may not be
culturally or linguistically appropriate for all participants, potentially affecting the validity of the
results.

Overall, while SAGAT is a well-established and effective method for measuring situational awareness,
it is important to consider these potential downsides and limitations when using this technique.

2. Situation Present Assessment Measure (SPAM)

How to measure situational awareness using Situation Present Assessment Measure (SPAM)?
The Situation Present Assessment Measure (SPAM) is a method for measuring situational awareness
that focuses on assessing the individual's perception of the current situation. Here are the steps for
measuring situational awareness using SPAM:

1. Develop the questionnaire: Create a set of questions that will assess the participant's
perception of the current situation. These questions should be relevant to the domain you are
interested in and should focus on the participant's understanding of the current situation.

2. Administer the questionnaire: Have the participant complete the questionnaire, which can be
done either before or after the task or scenario being evaluated. The questions should be
answered based on the participant's current perception of the situation.

3. Evaluate the responses: Evaluate the participant's responses to the questionnaire. The
responses can be scored based on their accuracy and completeness.

4. Analyze the results: The results of the SPAM test can be analyzed to determine the
participant's level of situational awareness. Scores can be compared to established norms or
to previous assessments of the same individual.

In general, the SPAM method assesses the participant's perception of the current situation, which can
be an important aspect of situational awareness. However, it may not capture the full range of
cognitive and perceptual processes involved in situational awareness, such as attention and decision
making.

Overall, SPAM is a relatively simple and straightforward method for measuring situational awareness
that can be useful in a variety of domains, including aviation, healthcare, and military.

Downsides of using SPAM

While the Situation Present Assessment Measure (SPAM) is a relatively simple and effective method
for measuring situational awareness, there are some potential downsides to using this technique:

1. Self-report bias: SPAM relies on self-report data, which may be subject to biases such as
social desirability bias or participant misunderstanding of the questions. This may affect the
accuracy of the results.
 2. Limited scope: SPAM measures situational awareness based on the participant's perception
of the current situation, which may not fully capture the complexity of real-world situations.
Participants may have a high level of situational awareness based on their perception of the
situation, but may not be aware of other critical elements or changes in the environment.

3. Difficulty in comparing across situations: It can be difficult to compare SPAM results across
different situations or scenarios, as each situation may have unique features and context that
may affect the participant's perception of the situation.

4. Limited insight into cognitive processes: SPAM may not provide insight into the cognitive and
perceptual processes that contribute to situational awareness, such as attention, perception,
and decision making. Therefore, it may not fully capture the underlying mechanisms of
situational awareness.

Overall, while SPAM is a useful and straightforward method for measuring situational awareness, it is
important to consider these potential downsides and limitations when using this technique. To obtain a
more comprehensive understanding of situational awareness, it may be beneficial to use SPAM in
combination with other assessment methods that measure other aspects of situational awareness.

SITUATION AWARENESS IN HUMAN FACTORS

Principles for designing for SA

What are the principles for designing for situation awareness in human factors?
Designing for situation awareness in human factors involves creating systems, products, and
interfaces that facilitate the development and maintenance of situational awareness. Here are some
general principles for designing for situation awareness:

1. Provide feedback: Systems should provide feedback that is timely, relevant, and
understandable to help users understand the consequences of their actions and the state of
the system.

2. Reduce workload: Systems should be designed to reduce the cognitive and physical workload
of users to allow them to focus on critical tasks and maintain situational awareness.

3. Support attention allocation: Systems should support users in allocating their attention to
critical information and reduce the risk of information overload.

4. Facilitate decision making: Systems should facilitate decision-making processes by providing

users with relevant and accurate information, as well as decision support tools.

5. Use standardization: Systems should use standardized formats, procedures, and terminology
to facilitate understanding and reduce cognitive workload.

6. Consider human limitations: Designers should consider the cognitive and physical limitations
of users and design systems that are consistent with human capabilities and limitations.

7. Anticipate errors: Designers should anticipate potential errors and design systems that are
resilient to errors and can recover from them.

8. Provide training: Systems should be designed to support effective training and skill
acquisition, to ensure that users can develop and maintain situational awareness.
Overall, designing for situational awareness involves a combination of designing systems that provide
relevant and timely information, reducing cognitive workload, and supporting decision-making
processes. By following these principles, designers can create systems that facilitate the development
and maintenance of situational awareness, improving performance, safety, and usability.

Q3: Decision making (week 8)

1. DECISION-MAKING APPROACHES
o Normative vs. Descriptive
o Naturalistic

What is the decision-making approach (normative, descriptive, naturalistic) in human factor?

The decision-making approach in human factors refers to how human decision-making
processes are studied and understood in different contexts. There are three primary
decision-making approaches in human factors:

1. Normative approach: The normative approach focuses on the ideal or optimal

decision-making process. It assumes that humans make rational decisions based on
complete and accurate information, and aims to identify the rules and principles that
should guide decision-making. This approach is often used in fields such as
economics and decision theory.

2. Descriptive approach: The descriptive approach focuses on how people actually

make decisions in practice, including the cognitive processes and biases that may
influence decision-making. This approach is often used in psychology and cognitive
science, and aims to understand how people make decisions in the real world.

3. Naturalistic approach: The naturalistic approach focuses on studying decision-

making in real-world contexts, such as in naturalistic decision-making (NDM)
settings. NDM refers to decision-making in complex and dynamic environments
where the decision-maker must integrate multiple sources of information, such as in
aviation or military operations. The naturalistic approach aims to understand how
people make decisions in these complex environments, and how decision-making
can be supported and improved.

Each of these approaches has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of approach
may depend on the specific research question and context. In general, a combination of
approaches may be used to provide a more comprehensive understanding of human
decision-making.

What are the strengths and weaknesses for each approach?

Here are some general strengths and weaknesses for each decision-making approach in
human factors:

1. Normative approach:
Strengths:
● Provides clear guidelines and principles for decision-making.
● Provides a benchmark for evaluating decision-making performance.
● Useful in contexts where there is a clear "correct" decision.
Weaknesses:
● Assumes that decision-makers have complete and accurate information, which may
not be the case in real-world contexts.
● Assumes that decision-makers are fully rational and do not experience cognitive
limitations or biases.
● May not account for individual differences in decision-making styles and preferences.

2. Descriptive approach:
Strengths:
● Provides a more realistic view of how people make decisions in practice.
● Helps identify cognitive processes and biases that may influence decision-making.
● Can provide insights into how decision-making can be improved in practice.
Weaknesses:
● May not provide clear guidelines for decision-making or a benchmark for evaluation.
● May be difficult to generalize findings from laboratory experiments to real-world
contexts.
● May not fully account for the complexity and context-dependence of decision-making.

3. Naturalistic approach:
Strengths:
● Provides insights into decision-making in complex, dynamic, and high-stakes
environments.
● Can identify strategies and techniques used by expert decision-makers.
● Can inform the design of decision-support tools and training programs.
Weaknesses:
● May be difficult to conduct research in real-world contexts due to ethical, logistical, or
safety concerns.
● May be difficult to generalize findings to other contexts or decision-makers.
● May not account for the limitations of human cognition and the potential for cognitive
overload.

Overall, each decision-making approach has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice
of approach may depend on the specific research question and context. In general, a
combination of approaches may be used to provide a more comprehensive understanding of
human decision-making.

PROBLEMS IN DECISION-MAKING
o Biases, anchoring, overconfidence

There are several problems in decision-making that can lead to errors and suboptimal
outcomes. Here are three common problems in decision-making:

1. Biases: Biases refer to systematic errors in judgment that can arise from cognitive or
social factors. Biases can lead to overconfidence, optimism, confirmation bias, or
other forms of irrational or suboptimal decision-making. Examples of cognitive biases
include the availability heuristic, where people rely on readily available information
rather than considering all relevant information, and the representativeness heuristic,
where people rely on stereotypes or prototypes to make judgments.

2. Anchoring: Anchoring refers to the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of
information received when making a decision, even if it is not relevant or accurate.
This can result in an over-reliance on the initial information and a failure to consider
other relevant information, leading to suboptimal decisions.
 3. Overconfidence: Overconfidence refers to the tendency to be overly confident in
one's own abilities, knowledge, or judgments. Overconfidence can lead to a failure to
recognize one's own limitations, a failure to seek out or consider feedback, or a
failure to adequately consider alternative options or viewpoints.

These problems in decision-making can lead to errors, suboptimal outcomes, or even

disasters in some contexts. It is important to be aware of these problems and to use
strategies to mitigate their effects, such as seeking out diverse viewpoints, using decision
support tools, and engaging in reflective and critical thinking.

4. Hindsight Bias: Hindsight bias, also known as the "knew-it-all-along" effect, refers to
the tendency for people to perceive past events as more predictable than they
actually were, after the events have occurred. It is the phenomenon where people
believe that they "knew it all along" or that they would have predicted the outcome
had they been asked beforehand.

This bias occurs because once we know the outcome of an event, our brains tend to
reconstruct the past to fit with the outcome we know. We may forget or downplay the
uncertainty or complexity of the situation before the outcome was known, and focus on the
facts that support the outcome. This can lead to an overconfidence in our own predictive
abilities and a failure to learn from past experiences.

Hindsight bias can have important implications in a number of fields, including psychology,
economics, and law. For example, in legal cases, jurors may be influenced by hindsight bias
when evaluating whether a defendant should have anticipated a particular outcome or taken
certain actions to prevent it.

To mitigate the effects of hindsight bias, it can be helpful to try to maintain an awareness of
the uncertainty and complexity of situations before the outcome is known, and to avoid
attributing too much credit or blame to individuals based on the outcome alone. It can also
be useful to focus on the process that led to the outcome, rather than just the outcome itself,
and to consider multiple possible outcomes or explanations for events.

What are the strategies to mitigate their effect (problem of DM)?

There are several strategies that can be used to mitigate the effects of biases, anchoring,
overconfidence, and other problems in decision-making:

1. Seek diverse viewpoints: One way to counteract biases and overconfidence is to

seek out diverse viewpoints and perspectives. This can help to identify blind spots,
challenge assumptions, and consider alternative options or viewpoints.

2. Use decision support tools: Decision support tools, such as decision trees,
simulations, or visualization tools, can help to structure the decision-making process
and ensure that all relevant factors are considered. These tools can also help to
identify potential biases or errors in judgment.

3. Engage in reflective and critical thinking: Engaging in reflective and critical thinking
can help to identify biases or assumptions that may be influencing decision-making,
 and to consider alternative options or viewpoints. This can involve asking questions
such as "What assumptions am I making?" or "What evidence supports my
decision?"

4. Consider the context and consequences: It is important to consider the broader

context and consequences of a decision, including the potential risks and benefits,
unintended consequences, and long-term effects. This can help to ensure that
decisions are aligned with broader goals and values, and are not influenced by short-
term biases or overconfidence.

5. Use decision-making processes that are designed to reduce biases: There are
several decision-making processes that are designed to reduce biases, such as the
Delphi method, which involves gathering input from multiple experts in a structured
and iterative process, or the nominal group technique, which involves gathering input
from individuals and then ranking or prioritizing options.

EXPERTS VS. NOVICES

Experts and novices differ in their decision-making processes and strategies. Generally,
experts are individuals who have extensive knowledge and experience in a particular field,
while novices are individuals who are new to that field or have less experience.

Experts tend to rely more on intuitive and heuristic decision-making strategies, drawing on
their extensive experience and knowledge to make quick and accurate judgments. They also
tend to be more flexible in their thinking, able to adapt to changing situations and recognize
patterns and trends that may not be immediately obvious to novices.

On the other hand, novices tend to rely more on analytical and rule-based decision-making
strategies, as they have not yet developed the extensive knowledge and experience that
experts possess. They may also be more cautious in their decision-making, as they may lack
the confidence or expertise to make quick decisions.

However, both experts and novices can be susceptible to biases and errors in decision-
making. Experts may be prone to overconfidence or confirmation bias, while novices may be
more susceptible to anchoring or framing effects. It is important for both experts and novices
to be aware of these potential biases and to engage in reflective and critical thinking to
mitigate their effects.

Overall, experts and novices have different strengths and weaknesses in decision-making,
and the best approach may depend on the specific context and goals of the decision. A
combination of both intuitive and analytical decision-making strategies, along with a focus on
reflective and critical thinking, can help to improve decision-making outcomes.

IMPROVING DECISION-MAKING
Methods:
1. Rational decision-making model: This model involves a systematic approach to
evaluating alternatives based on criteria such as feasibility, effectiveness, and cost.
The process involves several steps, including identifying the problem, gathering
information, generating alternatives, evaluating alternatives, selecting the best
alternative, and implementing the decision. The rational decision-making model is
useful when the decision requires a logical and objective approach.

2. Intuitive decision-making model: This model involves relying on intuition and past
experience to make decisions. Intuitive decision-making can be useful when time is
limited or when the decision involves complex or ambiguous information. The
process involves recognizing the situation, recalling similar situations, evaluating
alternatives, and selecting the best alternative. Intuitive decision-making can be
enhanced through experience and feedback.

3. Prospect theory: This theory involves considering the potential gains and losses
associated with each alternative. According to prospect theory, people are more
likely to take risks to avoid losses than to achieve gains. The theory suggests that
people use mental shortcuts or heuristics to simplify the decision-making process.
For example, people may overweight the importance of small probabilities or rely on
recent experiences to make decisions. Prospect theory can be useful in situations
where the decision involves risk or uncertainty.

Bias in Use of Decision Aids

1. Confirmation bias: This occurs when decision-makers tend to look for information that
confirms their pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses, and ignore information that
contradicts them. When using decision aids, this bias can lead decision-makers to
selectively interpret or search for information that supports their preferred alternative.

2. Overconfidence bias: This occurs when decision-makers are too confident in their
abilities or the accuracy of the information they are using to make a decision. This
can lead to overestimating the chances of success, and underestimating the risks or
potential negative outcomes associated with a decision.

3. Anchoring bias: This occurs when decision-makers rely too heavily on the first piece
of information they receive when making a decision, and use it as a reference point
or anchor for all subsequent information. This can lead to a narrow focus on a single
aspect of the decision, and ignoring other important factors.

4. Framing bias: This occurs when the way a decision or problem is presented can
influence the decision-maker's choice. For example, the same information presented
in different ways (such as positive versus negative language) can lead to different
decisions. Decision aids can inadvertently frame the decision problem in a certain
way that influences the decision-maker's choice.

5. Escalation of commitment bias: This occurs when decision-makers continue to

pursue a failing course of action, rather than cutting their losses and changing
 course. This can be particularly problematic when using decision aids, as the
decision-maker may become overly invested in a particular alternative, and be
reluctant to switch to a different option.

It's important to be aware of these biases and take steps to mitigate their impact when using
decision aids. This can include seeking out alternative perspectives, considering multiple
sources of information, and regularly reevaluating the decision as new information becomes
available.

Section B essay : 3 question ( 1 page each question)

Q1. Case study, 4 level of failure (Week 9: Human error 1), plane, 4 joint matrix (week
10. Human error II) and respond bias (week 10. Human error II)

HUMAN FACTORS ANALYSIS & CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (4 levels of failure)

The Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) is a framework used to
analyze and classify the contributing factors of accidents and incidents in aviation,
healthcare, and other industries. It is based on the same four levels of failure as mentioned
earlier:

1. Unsafe acts: This level corresponds to the individual level of failure, and includes
errors or violations committed by individuals, such as pilot error, medical errors, or
maintenance errors.

2. Preconditions for unsafe acts: This level corresponds to the team level of failure,
and includes factors that can lead to unsafe acts, such as fatigue, stress,
communication breakdowns, and inadequate teamwork.

3. Organizational influences: This level corresponds to the organizational level of

failure, and includes factors that can influence the behavior and performance of
individuals and teams, such as management policies, procedures, and culture.

4. Unsafe supervision: This level corresponds to the societal level of failure, and
includes factors that can influence the oversight and regulation of organizations, such
as inadequate training, inadequate oversight, or lack of accountability.

The HFACS framework allows investigators to systematically analyze the various factors that
contributed to an accident or incident, and identify specific areas for improvement. By
addressing the underlying causes at each level of failure, organizations can develop more
effective strategies for preventing similar incidents in the future.

Example 1: how the four levels of failure might be applied to analyze a hypothetical aviation accident.
假设的航空事故

1. Unsafe acts: The pilot of a small plane attempted to take off from a runway that was
too short for the plane's weight and speed, resulting in a crash. The pilot had not
properly calculated the required takeoff distance and had not followed proper
procedures for weight and balance.

2. Preconditions for unsafe acts: The pilot had been under significant stress due to
personal issues and had not slept well the night before the flight. The pilot was also
distracted during pre-flight preparations due to a communication breakdown with
ground personnel, who were unfamiliar with the pilot's aircraft.

3. Organizational influences: The flight school that the pilot had trained at did not have
adequate resources to provide proper training and oversight for students. The flight
school also had a culture of pressuring students to complete training quickly, which
may have contributed to the pilot's lack of preparation and attention to detail.

4. Unsafe supervision: The aviation regulatory agency responsible for overseeing the
flight school had not provided sufficient oversight or enforcement of regulations
related to training and safety. The agency had also not provided adequate resources
 to support the flight school's operations, contributing to the lack of resources
available for proper training and oversight.

By analyzing this hypothetical accident using the four levels of failure, it becomes apparent
that there were multiple contributing factors at each level of failure. This underscores the
importance of addressing all levels of failure when attempting to improve safety and prevent
similar accidents in the future.

Example 2: how the four levels of failure might be applied to analyze a hypothetical aviation accident.
假设的航空事故

1. Unsafe acts: During a routine maintenance check, a mechanic failed to properly torque a bolt
on the aircraft's engine mount 拧紧飞机发动机支架上的一个螺栓. During a subsequent
flight, the bolt came loose and caused the engine to detach from the wing, resulting in a crash.

2. Preconditions for unsafe acts: The mechanic had been working long hours and was fatigued at
the time of the maintenance check. The mechanic had also been recently reprimanded 斥责
by their supervisor for taking too long to complete another maintenance job, leading to
pressure to complete the current job quickly.

3. Organizational influences: The aircraft maintenance company had not provided

sufficient training or oversight for the mechanic. The company also did not have
adequate quality control procedures in place to ensure that maintenance work was
performed correctly.

4. Unsafe supervision: The aviation regulatory agency responsible for overseeing the
maintenance company had not provided sufficient oversight or enforcement of
regulations related to maintenance and safety. The agency had also not provided
adequate resources to support the maintenance company's operations, contributing
to the lack of resources available for proper training and oversight.

By analyzing this hypothetical accident using the four levels of failure, it becomes apparent
that there were multiple contributing factors at each level of failure. This highlights the
importance of addressing all levels of failure when attempting to improve safety and prevent
similar accidents in the future.

SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY (SDT) JOINT EVENTS MATRIX

Signal Detection Theory (SDT) is a theoretical framework used to analyze the ability of an
observer to detect the presence of a signal within a noisy environment.

The Joint Events Matrix (JEM) is a tool used within SDT to help researchers analyze and
visualize the observer's responses to a set of stimuli.

The JEM is a table that displays the number of "hits," "misses," "false alarms," and "correct
rejections" for each combination of signal presence/absence and observer response. These
four categories are defined as follows:
 1. Hits: Occur when the observer correctly detects the presence of a signal.
2. Misses: Occur when the observer fails to detect the presence of a signal.
3. False alarms: Occur when the observer reports the presence of a signal when none
is actually present.
4. Correct rejections: Occur when the observer correctly reports the absence of a
signal.

By recording the number of responses in each category, researchers can use the JEM to
calculate a variety of measures that provide insight into the observer's ability to detect
signals. For example, researchers can calculate the observer's sensitivity (d') and bias (c)
using the following formulas:

● Sensitivity (d') is a measure of how well the observer can distinguish between signal
and noise. It is calculated as the difference between the z-scores of the hit rate and
false alarm rate: d' = z(H) - z(FA).
● Bias (c) is a measure of the observer's tendency to respond "signal" or "no signal"
regardless of the actual presence of a signal. It is calculated as the negative of half
the sum of the z-scores of the hit rate and false alarm rate: c = -0.5 * [z(H) + z(FA)].

Overall, the JEM provides a useful tool for analyzing and visualizing the observer's
responses to stimuli in a signal detection experiment, and for calculating measures of
sensitivity and bias that can provide insight into the observer's ability to detect signals in
noisy environments.

Can you use the Joint Events Matrix (JEM) to analyse the hypothetical aviation accident that
you mentioned above - Example 1

Yes, the Joint Events Matrix (JEM) can be used to analyze the hypothetical aviation accident
that was described earlier. Here is an example of how it could be applied:

In this hypothetical accident, the pilot failed to notice that the fuel gauge 燃油表 was
malfunctioning, and as a result, the plane ran out of fuel and crashed. We can use the JEM to
analyze the situation and identify the contributing factors that led to the accident.

First, we need to define the signal and the response in this scenario. The signal is the
malfunctioning fuel gauge, and the response is the pilot's decision to continue flying the
plane despite the malfunction.

Next, we can use the JEM to plot the possible outcomes of the signal and the response.
Here is an example of what the JEM might look like:

In this example,
● A true positive outcome would occur if the pilot notices the malfunctioning fuel gauge
and takes appropriate action.
● A false negative outcome would occur if the pilot fails to notice the malfunctioning
fuel gauge and continues to fly the plane.
 ● A false positive outcome would occur if the pilot notices a malfunctioning fuel gauge
when there isn't one and takes unnecessary action.
● A true negative outcome would occur if the pilot does not notice a properly
functioning fuel gauge and continues to fly the plane.

By using the JEM, we can identify the contributing factors that led to the false negative
outcome in this scenario. For example, we might identify factors such as the design of the
fuel gauge, the pilot's level of fatigue or distraction, or the communication between the pilot
and other members of the flight crew. By analyzing these factors, we can develop strategies
to improve situational awareness and reduce the likelihood of similar accidents in the future.

Can you use the Joint Events Matrix (JEM) to analyse the hypothetical aviation accident that
you mentioned above - Example 2

In this example, the pilot failed to notice that the plane's altitude 飞机的高度 was decreasing
rapidly, and as a result, the plane crashed into a mountain. Again, we can use the JEM to
analyze the situation and identify the contributing factors that led to the accident.

The signal in this scenario is the rapidly decreasing altitude, and the response is the pilot's
decision to continue flying the plane without taking corrective action.

In this example,
● A true positive outcome would occur if the pilot notices the rapidly decreasing altitude
and takes appropriate action.
● A false negative outcome would occur if the pilot fails to notice the rapidly decreasing
altitude and continues to fly the plane.
● A false positive outcome would occur if the pilot notices a rapidly decreasing altitude
when there isn't one and takes unnecessary action.
● A true negative outcome would occur if the pilot does not notice a stable altitude and
continues to fly the plane.

By using the JEM, we can identify the contributing factors that led to the false negative
outcome in this scenario. For example, we might identify factors such as the pilot's level of
fatigue, distraction, or cognitive workload, as well as the design of the cockpit instruments or
the communication between the pilot and other members of the flight crew. By analyzing
these factors, we can develop strategies to improve situational awareness and reduce the
likelihood of similar accidents in the future.

SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY (SDT) RESPONSE BIAS

In SDT, response bias refers to an individual's willingness to respond in a certain way to

a signal, even in the absence of clear evidence that the signal is present. This bias can be
influenced by various factors, such as the individual's past experiences, expectations,
motivations, and attitudes.
There are two types of response bias in SDT: liberal and conservative bias.
1. A liberal bias occurs when an individual is more likely to respond "yes" or detect a
signal even if it is weak or uncertain. This type of bias is typically associated with a
higher rate of false alarms, where the individual incorrectly detects a signal that is not
actually present.
2. On the other hand, a conservative bias occurs when an individual is more likely to
respond "no" or withhold a response, even when the signal is strong or clear. This
type of bias is typically associated with a higher rate of misses, where the individual
fails to detect a signal that is actually present.

Both types of bias can have negative consequences in situations where accurate detection
of a signal is critical. For example, in airport security screening, a liberal bias could result in
frequent false alarms and long lines, while a conservative bias could result in missed threats
and security breaches.

To mitigate response bias in SDT, researchers and practitioners use various techniques,
such as adjusting the decision criterion, providing feedback on performance, or manipulating
the signal-to-noise ratio. These techniques aim to encourage a balanced approach to signal
detection that is based on the available evidence and the costs and benefits of different
responses.

Can you apply response bias in the hypothetical aviation accident as well (example 1)

Yes, response bias can also be applied to the hypothetical aviation accident scenario.

For example, let's say that one of the air traffic controllers had a liberal response bias, meaning they
were more likely to detect a signal even if it was weak or uncertain. In this case, the controller might
have detected the ambiguous blip 模糊的突发事件 on their radar as a potential threat and responded
accordingly, perhaps by issuing a warning or initiating evasive maneuvers 启动回避机动装置.
However, if the blip was actually caused by a harmless bird or weather anomaly, this response would
have been unnecessary and could have led to wasted resources or even a dangerous situation if other
aircraft were in the area.

On the other hand, if the air traffic controller had a conservative response bias, meaning they were
more likely to withhold a response even if the signal was strong or clear, they might have failed to
detect the blip as a potential threat and taken no action. If the blip was actually caused by another
aircraft that was on a collision 碰撞 course, this response would have been disastrous and could have
led to a mid-air collision.

Therefore, it is important for air traffic controllers and other aviation personnel to be aware of
their response biases and take steps to mitigate them in order to make accurate and timely
decisions in high-pressure situations. Techniques such as decision-making training,
feedback on performance, and simulation exercises can help individuals identify and correct
their biases and improve their decision-making abilities.

Can you apply response bias in the hypothetical aviation accident as well (example 2)
Sure, here's another hypothetical aviation accident scenario to illustrate how response bias
can affect decision-making:

Imagine that an air traffic controller is monitoring a busy airport during a heavy thunderstorm.
The controller is responsible for directing incoming and outgoing flights and ensuring they
maintain safe distances from one another.

During a particularly intense thunderclap, the controller hears a loud noise in their headset that sounds
like an alarm. Due to the noisy environment and the suddenness of the sound, the controller
experiences a momentary lapse 片刻的失误 in attention and becomes disoriented.

In this situation, the controller may be more likely to exhibit a response bias depending on
their individual tendencies. If the controller has a liberal response bias, they may be more
likely to perceive the sound as a signal of a potential problem and react accordingly. They
might initiate evasive maneuvers or issue warnings to nearby aircraft, even if there is no
evidence to suggest a problem.

On the other hand, if the controller has a conservative response bias, they may be more
likely to disregard the sound as a false alarm or a result of the thunderstorm. They might fail
to take appropriate action, such as rerouting aircraft or initiating emergency protocols, even if
there is a real threat.

Both response biases could lead to dangerous outcomes, as they may result in unnecessary
or inadequate responses to the situation at hand. Therefore, it is important for air traffic
controllers to be aware of their individual biases and take steps to minimize their impact,
such as through regular training and simulation exercises. This can help to improve decision-
making and promote safety in high-stress environments like aviation.

Q2. signal detection theory (week 10. Human error II), concept of sensitivity

What is SDT
Signal Detection Theory (SDT) is a psychological framework used to analyze the ability of an
individual to detect the presence or absence of a signal within noisy or ambiguous
environments. SDT aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of perception by taking
into account not just sensitivity to stimuli, but also individual biases and decision-making
processes.

At its core, SDT proposes that a person's ability to detect a signal can be influenced by a
number of factors, including the quality of the signal, the level of background noise, and the
individual's internal threshold for detecting a signal. SDT also considers the potential
consequences of both correctly and incorrectly identifying a signal, such as missing a
dangerous event or overreacting to a false positive.

In order to measure the accuracy of signal detection, SDT introduces the concepts of hits,
misses, false alarms, and correct rejections. A hit occurs when a signal is correctly detected,
a miss occurs when a signal is present but goes undetected, a false alarm occurs when a
signal is perceived when none is present, and a correct rejection occurs when a signal is
correctly determined to be absent.

Overall, SDT provides a useful framework for analyzing and understanding the factors that
contribute to perception and decision-making in a variety of contexts, including aviation,
medicine, and security.

Sensitivity in SDT
Sensitivity is a fundamental concept in Signal Detection Theory (SDT) that refers to an
individual's ability to detect a signal within a noisy or ambiguous environment. Sensitivity is
typically measured using a statistic called d-prime (d'), which takes into account both hits
and false alarms.

D-prime represents the distance between two distributions: the distribution of sensory input
when a signal is present, and the distribution of sensory input when a signal is absent. The
greater the distance between these distributions, the more sensitive an individual is to the
presence of a signal.

For example, imagine a pilot is trying to detect the presence of another aircraft on their radar
screen. A high level of sensitivity means that the pilot is able to detect even small blips on
the radar screen, indicating the presence of another aircraft. Conversely, a low level of
sensitivity means that the pilot may miss important signals, potentially leading to a collision
or other dangerous situation.

Sensitivity is just one of several factors that influence signal detection, however. SDT also
takes into account individual decision-making processes and biases that can affect
perception and accuracy. By considering both sensitivity and decision-making processes,
SDT provides a more complete picture of the factors that influence perception and decision-
making in noisy or ambiguous environments.

Sensitivity is a key concept in Signal Detection Theory (SDT) and refers to an individual's
ability to distinguish between a signal and noise. More specifically, sensitivity measures how
well an individual can detect a signal in the presence of noise or other distractors.

In SDT, sensitivity is typically measured using a statistical measure called d' (pronounced "d-
prime"). D' is calculated as the difference between the mean of the signal distribution (i.e.,
when a signal is present) and the mean of the noise distribution (i.e., when a signal is
absent), divided by the standard deviation of both distributions.

The resulting d' value can range from negative infinity (indicating that the individual is no
better than chance at detecting the signal) to positive infinity (indicating perfect sensitivity).

For example, imagine a radiologist interpreting a chest X-ray for signs of lung cancer.
Sensitivity in this context would refer to the radiologist's ability to accurately detect
cancerous nodules in the presence of other visual cues, such as blood vessels or bones. A
radiologist with high sensitivity would be able to accurately detect most nodules, while a
radiologist with low sensitivity may miss many of the nodules, leading to missed diagnoses
and delayed treatment.

Overall, sensitivity is a crucial factor in many real-world situations, particularly those where
detecting important signals is necessary for safety or accuracy. Understanding and
measuring sensitivity using SDT can help individuals and organizations identify areas for
improvement in perception and decision-making.

Applications of signal detection theory

Signal Detection Theory (SDT) has a wide range of applications in various fields, including
psychology, neuroscience, engineering, and medicine. Here are some of the applications of
SDT:

1. Perception research: SDT is widely used in perception research to understand how

individuals make decisions based on sensory input. It is used to study how people
detect and recognize stimuli in noisy and ambiguous environments.

2. Sensory neuroscience: SDT is also used in sensory neuroscience to study the

mechanisms of sensory perception. It is used to understand how sensory information
is processed and integrated in the brain.

3. Medical diagnosis: SDT is used in medical diagnosis to analyze the accuracy of

diagnostic tests. It is used to calculate the sensitivity and specificity of medical tests,
which are important measures of the test's accuracy.

4. Airport security: SDT is used in airport security to train security officers to detect
potential threats. It is used to understand the factors that influence the ability of
security officers to detect dangerous items in baggage and carry-on luggage.

5. Marketing research: SDT is used in marketing research to understand how

consumers make decisions. It is used to study how consumers perceive and evaluate
products, and how they make decisions based on product features, price, and other
factors.

Overall, SDT is a powerful tool for analyzing and understanding decision-making processes,
and it has a wide range of applications in various fields.
How to improve sensitivity in SDT?
Improving sensitivity in Signal Detection Theory (SDT) typically involves optimizing an
individual's ability to detect a signal in the presence of noise or other distractors. Here are a
few strategies that can be used to improve sensitivity:

1. Training and practice: One of the most effective ways to improve sensitivity is to
provide training and practice on the task at hand. For example, if an individual is
trying to detect faint sounds in a noisy environment, they may benefit from practicing
listening to similar sounds in quieter environments, gradually building up to more
challenging scenarios.

2. Modifying the environment: Sometimes, modifying the environment can improve

sensitivity. For example, if an individual is trying to detect a visual signal in a busy
environment, reducing the amount of visual clutter or changing the lighting conditions
may help improve sensitivity.

3. Using technology: Certain technologies, such as noise-cancelling headphones or

specialized sensors, can help reduce or eliminate noise or other distractors, allowing
individuals to focus more on the signal of interest.

4. Managing fatigue and stress: Sensitivity can be negatively impacted by fatigue and
stress. Taking breaks, getting adequate rest, and managing stress can help improve
sensitivity.

5. Optimizing decision-making criteria: In SDT, the decision-making criteria used to

determine whether a signal is present or absent can impact sensitivity. Optimizing
decision-making criteria can involve adjusting the threshold for determining whether a
signal is present or absent, based on the individual's specific goals and the
consequences of missing or detecting a signal.

Overall, improving sensitivity in SDT often requires a combination of strategies tailored to the
specific situation and individual involved.

Factor that will affect sensitivity in SDT

1. Signal strength: The strength of the signal itself can affect sensitivity. A stronger
signal will generally be easier to detect than a weaker signal.

2. Background noise: The presence of background noise or other distractors can

reduce sensitivity. The more noise or distractors present, the harder it is to detect the
signal.

3. Individual differences: Some individuals may have inherently better sensory abilities
than others, which can impact sensitivity. For example, individuals with better vision
or hearing may be more sensitive to visual or auditory signals.

4. Attentional factors: Attention plays a key role in sensitivity. If an individual is

distracted or not paying attention to the relevant stimuli, they may miss the signal.
 5. Fatigue and stress: Sensitivity can be negatively impacted by fatigue and stress.
When individuals are tired or stressed, they may be less sensitive to signals and
more prone to errors.

6. Decision criteria: The decision criteria used by an individual can also impact
sensitivity. For example, if an individual is hesitant to declare a signal present, they
may be less sensitive overall.

What are some real-life example that show good and bad sensitivity in SDT
Good sensitivity:

1. Radiologists examining medical images: Radiologists are trained to detect even the
smallest anomalies in medical images, such as tumors or fractures. They need to
have high sensitivity in order to detect these abnormalities, as missing them can
have serious consequences for patients.

2. Airport security screeners: Airport security screeners need to be highly sensitive in

detecting potential threats, such as weapons or explosives, in passengers' luggage
or on their person. Their ability to detect these threats can prevent potentially
dangerous incidents from occurring.

Bad sensitivity:

3. False alarms in airport security: Although airport security screeners need to be highly
sensitive, they can also be prone to false alarms. This can occur when they mistake
harmless items, such as water bottles or cell phones, for potential threats, leading to
unnecessary disruptions for passengers.

4. Inattentional blindness in driving: Inattentional blindness is a phenomenon where

individuals fail to notice unexpected events in their visual field because they are too
focused on another task. For example, a driver who is focused on a GPS navigation
system may fail to notice a pedestrian crossing the road. This can lead to accidents
and injuries, highlighting the importance of sensitivity in driving.

Q3. Technology usage

WEEK 11: Physical ergonomics

PHYSICAL ERGONOMICS 人体工程学
- A branch of ergonomics that focuses on the design of workspaces, equipment, tools,
and physical tasks to optimize human performance and reduce the risk of
musculoskeletal disorders and other physical injuries.
 - The goal of physical ergonomics is to create a comfortable, safe, and efficient
working environment that supports the physical capabilities and limitations of
workers. This can include designing workstations and tools to reduce awkward
postures, repetitive motions, excessive force, and vibration, as well as optimizing
lighting, noise levels, and temperature to minimize discomfort and fatigue.
- Physical ergonomics is an important consideration in a wide range of industries,
including manufacturing, healthcare, construction, transportation, and office work.

Anthropometry 人体测量学
- Anthropometry is a branch of ergonomics that focuses on the measurement and
study of human body dimensions, proportions, and physical characteristics.
- Anthropometry provides important information on the size, shape, and movement
capabilities of different population groups, which is used to design equipment, tools,
and workspaces that can accommodate a wide range of body sizes and shapes.
- Anthropometric data is collected through various methods such as measuring body
segments and proportions using anthropometric instruments, taking photographs and
performing three-dimensional scans. Anthropometric data can then be used to create
ergonomic products, such as chairs, tables, and other tools, that fit the needs of the
user.
- Anthropometry is applied in a range of industries, such as healthcare, transportation,
and product design, to ensure that products and spaces are designed to fit the needs
of diverse populations.

o Human variability
o Anthropometric data in design
o Workspace design

Anthropometry plays a crucial role in designing products and workspaces that accommodate
human variability.

1. Human variability refers to the differences in size, shape, and movement

capabilities among individuals, and it is a critical consideration in ergonomics design.

2. Anthropometric data provides essential information on the range of human body

sizes, proportions, and physical characteristics, which is used to design products and
workspaces that can accommodate a wide range of users.
- For example, using anthropometric data, manufacturers can design chairs
and desks that are adjustable to fit individuals of varying heights and body
shapes, ensuring that everyone can work comfortably and safely.

3. In workspace design, anthropometric data is used to create workstations that can

accommodate different types of tasks and users.
- For example, anthropometric data can be used to determine the optimal
height for work surfaces, the distance between workstations, and the
placement of tools and equipment within the workspace. By designing
workspaces that accommodate human variability, employers can improve
 safety, comfort, and productivity, and reduce the risk of musculoskeletal
disorders and other ergonomic injuries.

Overall, anthropometric data is essential in designing products and workspaces that can
accommodate human variability. By considering human variability and designing products
and workspaces accordingly, employers can create environments that are safe, comfortable,
and productive for all users.

How Anthropometry plays a role in technology usage?

Anthropometry plays a significant role in technology usage because devices and interfaces
need to be designed to fit a wide range of body sizes and shapes in order to ensure usability
and accessibility for all users. By using anthropometric data in the design process, engineers
and designers can create products that accommodate the diverse needs of the user
population.

For example, anthropometric data can inform the design of computer interfaces and input
devices, such as keyboards and mice, to ensure that they are comfortable and efficient for
users of different sizes and shapes. Similarly, wearable technologies, such as fitness
trackers and smartwatches, need to be designed with anthropometric considerations in mind
to ensure that they fit comfortably and securely on the user's wrist or body.

Anthropometry also plays a role in the design of workspaces and environments that
incorporate technology. For example, office workstations and computer labs need to be
designed with appropriate desk and chair heights to accommodate users of different heights
and sitting postures. Similarly, the placement of computer monitors and other displays needs
to be adjusted to account for differences in eye height and viewing distance among users.

In summary, anthropometry is an essential consideration in the design of technology

products and environments to ensure that they are comfortable, safe, and efficient for users
of diverse sizes and shapes.

More real life example:

1. Smartphone Design: Smartphone manufacturers consider anthropometric data when

designing their products to ensure that they fit comfortably in users' hands. For
example, the size and shape of the phone, as well as the placement of buttons and
ports, are all influenced by anthropometric data.

2. Automotive Design: Anthropometric data is also used in the design of car interiors to
ensure that drivers and passengers can sit comfortably and operate the vehicle
safely. For example, seat height, angle, and distance from the pedals are all
influenced by anthropometric data.

3. Virtual Reality: Anthropometric data is becoming increasingly important in the design

of virtual reality systems. VR headsets and controllers must fit comfortably on a wide
range of head and hand sizes to ensure an immersive and comfortable experience.
 4. Workstation Design: Anthropometric data is used in the design of workstations to reduce the
risk of musculoskeletal disorders 肌肉骨骼疾病. The height of the desk and chair, as well as
the placement of computer monitors and keyboards, are all influenced by anthropometric
data.

5. Clothing Design: Anthropometric data is used in the design of clothing to ensure that
it fits comfortably and looks good on a wide range of body types. For example,
designers may use anthropometric data to determine the optimal sleeve length or
waistband height for a particular garment.

Biomechanics 生物机械学
- Biomechanics is the study of mechanical and physiological principles related to the
movement and structure of living organisms, particularly humans.
- It involves the application of physics, mechanics, engineering, and other sciences to
understand the behavior of the human body during various activities, such as
walking, running, lifting, throwing, and other physical tasks.
- Biomechanics also examines the impact of external factors, such as equipment,
environment, and ergonomic design, on human performance and safety. The field of
biomechanics is used in many areas, including sports, rehabilitation, ergonomics,
and injury prevention.

o Musculoskeletal disorders
- Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are a group of conditions that affect the
musculoskeletal system, which includes the muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves,
and bones of the body.
- These disorders can cause pain, discomfort, and limited mobility and may result from
repetitive or prolonged physical work activities, awkward postures, forceful exertions,
and vibration.
- Some common examples of MSDs include carpal tunnel syndrome, tennis elbow,
trigger finger, and back pain. MSDs are a significant cause of work-related injury and
illness, and they can lead to lost productivity, disability, and reduced quality of life.
Proper ergonomic design, training, and work practices can help prevent MSDs in the
workplace.

o Hand tool design

- Hand tool design is the process of creating and developing tools that are comfortable
and efficient for human use.
- The design process considers the user's hand anatomy, grip strength, and other
ergonomic factors to ensure that the tool is not only effective in performing its
intended task but also safe and comfortable to use.
- The design may include features such as grip materials, shape, size, weight, and
texture that can minimize the risk of hand fatigue, repetitive motion injuries, and other
musculoskeletal disorders associated with prolonged tool use. The goal of hand tool
design is to maximize user productivity, minimize the risk of injuries and enhance
overall user experience.
Example of using hand tool design in technology usage

● One example of using hand tool design in technology usage is the design of
computer mouse. The design of computer mouse should take into account ergonomic
principles to reduce the risk of developing musculoskeletal disorders such as carpal tunnel
syndrome 腕管综合征. This includes the size and shape of the mouse to fit comfortably in the
user's hand, the position of buttons and scroll wheel to minimize reach and strain, and the
weight and texture of the mouse to provide comfortable and stable grip. By designing
computer mouse with ergonomic principles, users can use the mouse for long periods of time
without experiencing discomfort or pain in their hands, wrists, and arms.

● Smartphone stylus 智能手机手写笔: Many smartphones are designed to be used with

a touch screen, but sometimes users prefer the precision and control of a stylus. A
well-designed stylus should be comfortable to hold, lightweight, and easy to
maneuver on the screen.

● Power drill 电钻: Power drills are used in a variety of industries, from construction to
woodworking to metalworking. A well-designed power drill should be easy to hold
and maneuver, have a comfortable grip, and reduce the risk of hand and wrist
injuries for the user.

WEEK 6: Human-computer Interaction

Human-computer interaction
- Human-computer interaction (HCI) is the study of the design and use of computer
technology, focusing particularly on the interaction between humans and computers.
- It is concerned with understanding how humans interact with technology, and
designing computer systems, software, and user interfaces that are intuitive, easy to
use, and meet the needs and preferences of users.
- HCI draws on a variety of disciplines, including computer science, psychology,
engineering, design, and ergonomics, to create user-centered technology that
supports human needs and goals.

o HCI principles in UI design

what are the human-computer interaction (HCI) principles in UI design?

1. Visibility: The user should be able to easily see the elements and controls that are
available to them.
- For example, a video player should clearly display the play/pause button and
the volume controls on the interface.

2. Feedback: The system should provide feedback to the user so that they can see the
results of their actions.
 - For example, when a user clicks on a button, the system should display a
visual cue such as a change in color or an animation to confirm that the action
was registered.

3. Consistency: The design should be consistent across the interface, so that users
know what to expect and where to find things.
- For example, using the same icon to represent a particular function across all
screens and menus.

4. Error prevention and recovery: The system should be designed to prevent errors and,
when errors do occur, it should be easy for the user to recover from them.
- For example, requiring users to confirm their selection before permanently
deleting a file.

5. Flexibility and efficiency of use: The interface should be designed to accommodate

both novice and expert users, allowing them to work at their own pace.
- For example, providing the option to adjust the font size or color scheme to
improve readability for users with visual impairments.

6. Aesthetics and minimalist design: The interface should be visually appealing and
designed to minimize distractions and clutter.
- For example, a search engine should have a clean and minimalist interface
with a simple search bar and minimal distractions.
- For example, using a color scheme that is visually appealing and consistent
throughout the interface.

7. Accessibility: The interface should be designed to accommodate users with

disabilities, such as those with visual impairments.

8. User control and freedom: The user should be able to control the interface and
navigate it in a way that makes sense to them.
- For example, providing a clear and accessible way for users to cancel or
undo an action.

9. Recognition over recall: The system should be designed to help the user recognize
options and actions, rather than requiring them to recall specific details.
10. Efficiency: The interface should be designed to minimize the user's effort and time
required to complete a task. For example, a checkout process should be streamlined
and require the minimum number of steps to complete the purchase.

11. Learnability: The system should be easy to learn and use, even for first-time users.
For example, using clear and concise language and providing helpful tooltips and
tutorials.

12. Help and documentation: The system should provide help and documentation to
assist the user when needed.

what psychology theory can use to explain the function and effectiveness of these principle?
 1. Gestalt psychology: This theory explains how humans perceive and organize visual
information. Many of the HCI principles, such as proximity, similarity, and closure, are
based on the principles of Gestalt psychology.

2. Information processing theory: This theory explains how humans perceive,

process, and remember information. Many of the HCI principles, such as chunking,
consistency, and feedback, are based on the principles of information processing
theory.

3. Fitts' law: This theory explains the relationship between the size and distance of a
target and the speed and accuracy of movement. The principle of target size in HCI
design is based on Fitts' law.

4. Cognitive load theory: This theory explains how the amount of mental effort
required to complete a task affects learning and performance. The principle of
simplicity in HCI design is based on the principles of cognitive load theory.

Can you give me some real life example that apply HCI principle and explain with
psychology theory

Here are some examples of real-life applications of HCI principles along with explanations of
the underlying psychology theories:

1. Consistency: Consistency is the principle that the interface should be consistent with
the user's mental model of how it should work, as well as with other interfaces that
the user interacts with. For example, the placement of common UI elements such as
menus and buttons should be consistent across different pages or screens. The
psychological theory that underlies consistency is cognitive consistency theory,
which states that people have a strong preference for consistency and will seek to
resolve any inconsistencies in their mental models.

2. Feedback: Feedback is the principle that the interface should provide feedback to the
user about their actions, such as when a button is clicked or when an error occurs.
This feedback helps the user to understand what is happening and to correct any
mistakes. The psychological theory that underlies feedback is operant conditioning,
which states that behavior is reinforced by feedback, whether positive or negative.

3. Error prevention and recovery: This principle aims to prevent errors from occurring in
the first place, but if they do occur, to provide easy and effective ways for the user to
recover from them. For example, providing confirmation dialogs before performing
destructive actions, or allowing users to undo their actions. The psychological theory
that underlies error prevention and recovery is human memory limitations, which
show that people have limited working memory capacity and are prone to forgetting
things or making mistakes.
 4. Minimalism: The principle of minimalism aims to keep the interface simple and
uncluttered, reducing cognitive load and making it easier for the user to focus on the
task at hand. This can be achieved through techniques such as using clear and
concise language, avoiding unnecessary graphics or animations, and organizing
content in a logical and intuitive way. The psychological theory that underlies
minimalism is cognitive load theory, which states that people have limited cognitive
resources and that overloading these resources can lead to reduced performance
and errors.

5. User control: The principle of user control aims to give the user control over the
interface and the tasks they perform, allowing them to customize their experience to
suit their needs and preferences. For example, allowing users to adjust the font size,
color scheme, or keyboard shortcuts. The psychological theory that underlies user
control is self-determination theory, which states that people have a basic need for
autonomy and control over their environment.

6. One real-life example of an application of HCI principles is the design of the

iPhone's interface, which has been praised for its simplicity and ease of use. The
consistency principle is evident in the placement of common UI elements such as the
home button and settings icon, which are located in the same place across different
screens. The feedback principle is evident in the use of visual and auditory cues to
indicate when a button has been pressed or an error has occurred. The error
prevention and recovery principle is evident in the use of confirmation dialogs and
the ability to undo actions. The minimalism principle is evident in the use of clean
and uncluttered design, with minimal use of graphics and animations. Finally, the
user control principle is evident in the ability to customize the home screen layout,
wallpaper, and other settings.

7. Another real-life example is the design of the Google search engine interface,
which has been praised for its simplicity and ease of use. The consistency principle is
evident in the placement of the search box and search button, which are located in
the same place across different pages. The feedback principle is evident in the use of
real-time search suggestions and auto-corrections. The error prevention and
recovery principle is evident in the use of error messages and suggested corrections
for misspelled search terms. The minimalism principle is evident in the use of a clean
and uncluttered design, with minimal use of graphics and animations. Finally, the
user control
WEBSITE & APPLICATION DESIGN
From psychology human factor persepctive, what are some guideline and practices
for website and application design

From a human factors perspective, there are several guidelines and practices for website
and application design. Here are some examples:

1. User-centered design: This approach involves designing products based on the

needs and preferences of the users. It requires understanding the users' goals,
tasks, and behaviors, as well as their physical and cognitive abilities and limitations.
 User-centered design helps to create products that are easy to use, efficient, and
satisfying for the users.

2. Consistency and standardization: Consistency and standardization are important

principles in UI design. They involve using the same design elements, such as
colors, fonts, and icons, throughout the product, and following established design
patterns and conventions. This helps users to understand how to interact with the
product and reduces the cognitive load required to learn new interfaces.

3. Feedback and error prevention: Providing feedback to users when they perform
actions is important for helping them to understand the consequences of their actions
and to correct errors. Error prevention techniques, such as disabling or hiding options
that are unavailable or irrelevant, can also reduce the likelihood of users making
errors.

4. Simplicity and clarity: Keeping the design simple and clear can make the product
more usable and understandable for users. This involves avoiding unnecessary
complexity, using clear and concise language, and providing visual cues that help
users to understand the interface and its features.

5. Accessibility: Accessibility is an important consideration in UI design, as it ensures

that the product can be used by people with disabilities or limitations. This involves
using design elements that are easy to see, hear, and use, as well as providing
alternative modes of interaction, such as keyboard shortcuts or voice commands.

From a psychological perspective, these guidelines and practices are based on theories and
principles of cognitive psychology, such as perception, attention, memory, and problem-
solving. By understanding how users process information and interact with the product,
designers can create interfaces that are intuitive, efficient, and satisfying to use.

Can you give me more context/ information about HCI principle in wearable technology

HCI principles also apply to wearable technology, which includes devices that are worn on
the body, such as smartwatches, fitness trackers, and augmented reality headsets. When
designing wearable technology, it is important to consider the user's physical comfort, the
design of the user interface, and the functionality of the device.

One important aspect of wearable technology design is ensuring that the device is
comfortable to wear for extended periods of time. This can involve selecting materials that
are soft and breathable, designing the device to fit different body types, and minimizing any
pressure points or friction that could cause discomfort or irritation.

Another key consideration is the user interface design, which should be optimized for the
small screen size and limited input options of wearable devices. Designers may use
principles such as simplicity, minimalism, and consistency to ensure that the interface is
easy to understand and navigate.
Finally, wearable technology should be designed with the user's goals and needs in mind,
whether that is tracking fitness goals, providing notifications, or enhancing productivity. This
involves understanding the user's context of use, such as their environment and daily
routine, as well as their preferences and behaviors.

Overall, the goal of HCI principles in wearable technology design is to create devices that
are not only functional and effective but also comfortable, convenient, and intuitive to use.

AUTOMATION

Benifits of automation
● Automation can bring a number of benefits in technology usage, including:

● Increased efficiency: Automation can perform tasks faster and more consistently than
humans, reducing the time and effort needed to complete a task.

● Improved accuracy: Automation can reduce errors and mistakes, leading to improved
quality and reliability.

● Cost savings: Automation can help reduce labor costs and increase productivity,
leading to overall cost savings.

● Increased safety: Automation can be used to perform tasks that are dangerous or
difficult for humans to do, reducing the risk of injury or accidents.

● Enhanced decision-making: Automation can provide real-time data and analysis,

allowing for better decision-making and improved outcomes.

● Increased capacity: Automation can allow for increased production and scalability,
enabling organizations to handle larger volumes of work.

● Improved job satisfaction: Automation can remove repetitive or mundane tasks from
human workers, allowing them to focus on more complex or creative work.

● Overall, automation can lead to increased efficiency, accuracy, cost savings, safety,
decision-making, capacity, and job satisfaction in technology usage.

Real life example of benefit of automation in technology usage

1. Manufacturing: Automation in manufacturing can improve production efficiency,

reduce costs, and increase product quality. For example, car manufacturers use
robots to assemble vehicles, resulting in faster and more consistent production.

2. Healthcare: Automation in healthcare can improve patient outcomes, reduce costs,

and increase efficiency. For example, medical devices that automate certain tasks
such as monitoring vital signs, administering medication, or assisting with surgery
can improve patient care and reduce the risk of errors.
 3. Finance: Automation in finance can improve accuracy, reduce costs, and increase
efficiency. For example, algorithms can analyze financial data to make investment
recommendations or detect fraudulent activity, saving time and money compared to
manual analysis.

4. Transportation: Automation in transportation can improve safety, reduce costs, and

increase efficiency. For example, self-driving cars have the potential to reduce
accidents caused by human error, while also improving traffic flow and reducing fuel
consumption.

5. Customer service: Automation in customer service can improve response times,

reduce costs, and increase customer satisfaction. For example, chatbots can quickly
and efficiently respond to customer inquiries, freeing up human customer service
representatives to handle more complex issues.

Problems with automation

● Overreliance on automation: People may become too reliant on automated systems,

and may fail to properly monitor or supervise them, leading to errors or failures.

● Reduced situational awareness: Automated systems can lull people into a false
sense of security and reduce their awareness of the situation, making it harder to
respond effectively to unexpected events.

● Lack of flexibility: Automated systems are designed to perform specific tasks, and
may not be able to adapt to changing circumstances or handle unexpected events.

● Loss of skills: As automation takes over certain tasks, people may lose the skills
needed to perform those tasks manually, making them less versatile and less able to
respond to unexpected situations.

● Complexity and maintenance: Automated systems can be complex and require

regular maintenance, which can be time-consuming and costly.

● Job displacement: Automation can also lead to job displacement, as machines and
algorithms take over tasks previously performed by humans.
real life example of problem of automation in technology usage

One real-life example of a problem of automation in technology usage is the 2018 Uber self-
driving car accident in Tempe, Arizona. The autonomous car hit and killed a pedestrian who
was crossing the road. The car had a safety driver behind the wheel, but the driver was
reportedly distracted and did not react in time to prevent the accident. The incident raised
concerns about the safety of self-driving cars and the reliance on automation technology. It
highlighted the need for better testing, regulation, and safety protocols in the development
and deployment of automated systems.
● Autonomous vehicle accidents: In recent years, there have been several high-profile
accidents involving autonomous vehicles, such as the 2018 Uber self-driving car
crash that resulted in the death of a pedestrian. These accidents highlight the risks of
relying too heavily on automation in complex and unpredictable environments.

● Automation bias in aviation: Pilots and air traffic controllers can become overly reliant
on automation systems in aviation, leading to a phenomenon known as automation
bias. This can result in errors and accidents when the automation fails or when the
human operator fails to intervene in a timely manner.

● Automation-related job loss: Automation can lead to the displacement of human

workers as machines and software take over tasks that were once performed by
people. This can result in significant job loss and economic disruption, particularly in
industries such as manufacturing and transportation.

● Social isolation: As more tasks become automated and people spend more time
interacting with machines rather than other humans, there is a risk of increased
social isolation and loneliness. This can have negative effects on mental and physical
health.

● Cybersecurity risks: As automation becomes more prevalent in technology systems,

there is a growing risk of cybersecurity breaches and attacks. Automated systems
may be vulnerable to hacking or other forms of cyberattack, which can result in
serious consequences such as data theft or system failures.