Research Methodology

by Mr O. Dube
Course outline
 Course outline
• AIM
• This course introduces trainees to the basics of scientific inquiry, a blend of social and
natural science research methods albeit with more emphasise on the later. It prepares the
trainee to carry out research activities and other enquiries on problems in their work
environment and situation commensurate with opportunities.
• Specific objectives
• Describe a scientific approach to research
• Distinguish the various types of research
• Present an overview of the research process
• Review literature that is relevant to the problem / opportunity that is the subject of an enquiry
• Develop and test hypothesis on a problem/ opportunity
• Research on a problem /opportunity and present their findings, conclusion and recommendations
• Formulate a research design/ proposal
• Select, explain and justify a research methodology
• Analyse and present research findings
• Apply statistical techniques in research
• Orally present and defend/ explain the methodology, findings and recommendations of a research
• Discuss the characteristic of research report
 Outline continued
• Define research and explain purpose of research
• Distinguish scientific and non scientific enquiries
• Strategies for discovery:
• The paradigm & theory in research:
• Scientific research
• Literature review
• Ethics in research
• Research strategies/methods Survey, experiment, descriptive, causative,
modelling, ethnography, case study
• Sampling
• Data collection techniques
• Data analysis techniques
• Parametric and non parametric testing
• Writing a research report
Definition of science and research
• Definition of Science and research: a way of
learning and knowing things about the world around
us using logic, observation, and theory :Scientific
thinking makes sense based on logic, has a reference to
a point which means it is based on observed evidence
and gives a supported explanation for the observed
pattern, which is theory element
• research means to look at something again and in social
and natural science we are taking another look at social
and natural events through a careful and planned study.
We call this research. Therefore scientific research
means to systematically examine and think about a
question
• Therefore according to Leedy (1985) this is a systematic
collection, recording analysis and interpretation of data
to yield information that can be put to various use,
depending on the need for and type of research
 Research methodology and
methods
• Research methodology are the rules that
govern the process of doing research, in fact it
explains the methods by which you may
proceed with your research.
• On the other hand research methods are the
means by which one conducts research into a
subject or a topic
 Non scientific sources of
knowledge/enquiry
1. Tradition: knowledge accumulates and we base our knowledge on previous
generation and to think traditionally means that we do not find out how the
knowledge was obtained in the first instance by not questioning the source of this
knowledge
2. Authority: This is the reliance on the status of discoverer and unquestioningly
accept knowledge as the truth obviously curtailing quest for new knowledge. Expert
knowledge can be wrong. Therefore take an inquisitive stance and try to recheck
the expert knowledge by assessing how that knowledge was obtained.
3. Mysticism and religion: This knowledge is based on the undisputed authority of
the sacred books such as the bible or the qur’an and some other supernatural
belief system and this is in sharp contrast with the scientific knowledge
4. Common sense: this is ordinary reasoning which relates to what people know
intuitively through instincts eg trusting someone/stranger
5. Media myths: Mass Media such as TV have the power to influence thinking and
perception. Film makers and story writers are there to entertain not to educate
hence in majority of cases newspapers tend to distort reality but spin it to individua/
public liking or reinforce certain belief system or political affiliation.
 Deduction and induction reasoning
• Deduction and induction are two reasoning processes that are
used to develop theories
• Deduction: this refers to going from the general to the specific,
using general principles to suggest specific outcomes
• For instance if we observe that all ravens are black and we
observe a raven that is not black then we have successfully
disproved our theory and this constitutes a logically valid
deduction. In deduction we try to disprove ideas in what is
named the null hypothesis
• Induction: this refers to using a number of specific
observations to formulate general principles. according to
Chalmer (1999) if a large number of As have been observed
under a wide variety of conditions and if all those As without
exception possesses the property B, then all As have the
property B . Then we would have established a theory
 Methods of acquiring knowledge
• Tenacity; similar to superstition
• Intuition: synonyms include premonition, hunch,
feeling, clue, anticipation, prescience,
presentment
• Authority: statement given by an authority
accepted as correct
• Rationalism; applying logic
• Empiricism: using our past knowledge but this
does not amount to science
 Deduction and Induction
diagram
• diagram

Laws and Theories

Induction
Deduction

Facts acquired Prediction and

through observation explanation
 Errors in human inquiry and how
this is resolved by Scientist
1. Inaccurate observation: Before we talk about the why of a happening we need to
understand the what. In contrast to our ordinary observation science observation is
a conscious activity were events are observed deliberately using simple and
complex measurement devices to help human being avoid inaccurate observations.
2. Overgeneralisation: This occurs when we arrive at a general conclusion when we
have just observed few cases on that thing. When we use few, similar events to
arrive at conclusion is unnecessary as this means that we disregard the possibility
that if we observe few more cases our conclusion might be different or we might
disapprove our earlier observation. This occurs when we are under pressure or
sometimes just merely lazy to do more work then opting to over generalise
conclusion. Sometimes overgeneralisations result from prejudice
Overgeneralisation can be avoided when we use (1) sufficiently large sample –(2)
replication of enquiry
3. Selective observation; as a result of noticing a certain pattern one then close out anything
else
4. Premature closure: eg cases involving claim for an AIDS cure in the 90s
5. Ego involvement in understanding
 Norms of scientific community
• Universalism: research must be judged on the basis of merit irrespective
of who carries out the research.
• Organised scepticism: as a scientist one should not accept evidence at
face value but be critical and challenge the evidence but making sure this
does not attack the persona of the research rather the research work to
prove its validity
• Disinterestedness: Scientist must always take an impartial and neutral
stance and be receptive to unexpected observations
• Communalism: Scientific knowledge is not reclusive entity but must be
shared with others, for creating knowledge is a public act and finding
should be treated as public property, made available for legitimate use and
accessibility. Therefore the way research is carried out must be described
in detail to allow replication and effective scrutiny.
• Honest; scientist are very particular about cheating and all research work
must be a product of honest and dishonesty is passionately repudiated and
negatively sanctioned
 Observation on norms
• Kuhn(1970) observes that scientist find it difficult to reject their theories and always
try to explain them off by formulating ad hoc explanation sometimes to the degree of
violating the norm of disinterestedness but justify their action on the ground of
organised scepticism. This leads to a period of conflict between the old guards and
the new scientist until the new thinking gains more converts to repudiate the old.
• Problem of Relativism: a position that refutes absolute truth, in other word universal
truth is to be reduced to only individual truth which varies accordingly
• Financial and other agendas eg botanic garden during the colonial era, danger of
smoking and tobacco co, pharmaceutical companies
• Feminist arguments that male scientist have repeatedly undermined woman as
typified by the famous Botanist/Zoologist Linnaeus renown for his taxonomy,
classifying plants and animals which was very beneficial to the study of plants
(Botany) and of the study of animals (Zoology), for coining the concept ‘mammals’
which he described as animals that suckle their young ones and this is believed was
influenced by his masculine perception of woman role in breastfeeding and the
practice of wet nursing in the rearing of children hence woman were perennially
condemned to that sector not the public domain of science Therefore women’s voice
must be affirmed in science but this violates the universalism notion
• These argument are very controversial but it suffice to say that scientist usually
check on one another by:
– By publishing scientific finding in journals and books to subject then to scrutiny of other
scientist
– Giving no room to dishonesty
– Acknowledging the tentativeness of knowledge, that is accepted until disapproved
– Criticism of report in journal to be impartial regardless of the author’s status