ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 1

Notes Prepared For

ALL UG -I- Semester
Under CBCS System

SKILL ENHANCEMENT COURSE

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
(SEMESTER-I)

Prepared By:
MaheshM.Sc.,B.Ed.,(M.A.Tel.,M.Ed)
Lecturer in Botany
KIMS Degree&PG College
` Karimnagar

KIMS Degree & PG College, Karimnagar.

(Affiliated to Satavahana University)
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 2

SYLLABUS
U.G. I year Semester-I - (B.Sc/B.A./B.Com) CBCS
Environmental Studies AECC-2 (2 hrs./week) Credits – 2 (30 hours)
UNIT - I: Ecosystem, Biodiversity & Natural Resources (15 hrs.)
1. Definition, Scope & Importance of Environmental Studies.
2. Structure of Ecosystem – Abiotic & Biotic components Producers, Consumers,Decomposers, Food chains, Food webs,
Ecological pyramids)3. Function of an Ecosystem :Energy flow in the Ecosystem ( Single channel energy flowmodel)
4. Definition of Biodiversity , Genetic,Species & Ecosystem diversity , Hot-spots of
Biodiversity, Threats to Biodiversity , Conservation of Biodiversity (Insitu & Exsitu )
5. Renewable & Non – renewable resources, Brief account of Forest , Mineral & Energy
(Solar Energy & Geothermal Energy) resources
6. Water Conservation , Rain water harvesting & Watershed management.
UNIT – II: Environmental Pollution , Global Issues & Legislation (15 hrs.)
1. Causes, Effects & Control measures of Air Pollution, Water Pollution
2. Solid Waste Management 3. Global Warming & Ozone layer depletion.
4. Ill – effects of Fire- works
5. Disaster management – floods, earthquakes & cyclones
6. Environmental legislation :- (a) Wild life Protection Act (b) Forest Act (c) Water Act (d) Air Act
7. Human Rights
8. Women and Child welfare
9. Role of Information technology in environment and human health
+ Field Study: (5 hours) • Pond Ecosystem • Forest Ecosystem
REFERENCES:
• Environmental Studies - from crisis to cure – by R. Rajagopalan (Third edition) Oxford University Press.
• Text book of Environmental Studies for undergraduate courses (second edition) by Erach Bharucha
• A text book of Environmental Studies by Dr.D.K.Asthana and Dr. Meera Asthana
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 3

Prepared by: N.MaheshM.Sc.,B.Ed(M.A.,M.Ed)

Lecturer in Botany
KIMS Degree & PG College
Karimnagar

UNIT – I
Ecosystem, Biodiversity & Natural Resources

ECOLOGY
The term ecology is derived from two Greek words namely oikos and logos. Oikos means Home or
habitation or place to live in, logos means study or discourse. Hence Ecology is the study of organisms at
home.
Ecology id defined by ODUM (1969) as the study of the interrelationship between organisms and
environment. The ecology is broadly divided in to two main sub-divisions
Namely 1) Autecology 2) synecolgy
1) Autecology : - This term was coined by kirchner and schroter. It deals or individual species in relationship to
environment. It includes life history, behavior, home range,
population etc....
2) Synoecolgy :- This term was coined by kirhner and schroter. It deals with the study of group of Organism.
Which are associated together as a unit in relation to environment. It includes the study of community&
ecosystem.
SOPE OF ECOLOGY:-
1) Ecology provides knowledge for the proper maintenance of natural resources.
2) It helps to control the environmental pollutions.
3) It helps to discover new sources of food.
4) The study of the composition and ecological factors of habitats helps to determine their utility of mankind.
5) It provides possibilities to detect and to measure the rate of evolution in wild population.
6) It helps to bring rare genetic materials to domestic animal.
7) Many issues like threat of atomic energy, population exploration, safe disposal of radioactive waste
materials, global warming, can be understood.
ECOSYSTEM
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 4

The Ecosystem is a basic functional unit. It consists of living and non-living substances. It is an interacting
system where abiotic & biotic factors interact to produce and exchange of materials between the living & non-
living factors.
Pond is a suitable example for ecosystem. The word ecosystem is coined by A.G TANSLEY.
STRUCTURE:-
The ecosystem is formed of two components namely Abiotic factors, Biotic factors.
i) Abiotic factors:- The abiotic factors of an ecosystem includes the non-living substance of the environment
eg:- water, soil, air, light, temperature, minerals, climate, pressure etc....
ii) Biotic factors:- The biotic factors includes the living organisms of the environment eg:
Plants, Animals, Bacteria, Viruses, etc.....
The biotic factor of the ecosystem depends on the abiotic factors for their survival. The biotic factors are
classified in to 3 Groups 1) Producers 2) Consumers 3)
Decomposers.
1) Producers:- The organism which carries out photo synthesis constitute the producers. (Auto tropes) eg:
plants, algae& bacteria. The producers use inorganic substances of the abiotic factors and convert them in to
organic food materials. These are used by the producers for their growth and survival and the reaming food is
stored for future use.
2) Consumers:- Consumers are organisms which eat other organisms, all animals are consumers. These are
further divided in to 3 types. Tyey are primary, secondary, tertiary consumers.
a) Primary consumers:- They are herbivores and they eat the producers like plants, algae, bacteria. Eg: rabbit,
deer, cow, goat, etc...
b) Secondary consumers:- The are carnivores. They kill and eat the herbivores. As these carnivores directly
depends on herbivores. these animals are called as primary carnivores.
Eg: fox, wolf etc......
c) Tertiary consumers:- they kill and eat the secondary consumers. They are also called secondary carnivores.
Eg: lion, tiger etc...
3) Decomposers:- The decomposers are organisms that break up the dead bodies of plants and their waste
products. They include fungi and certain bacteria. They secrete enzymes. This enzyme digests the dead
organisms in to smaller molecules. These molecules are absorbed by the decomposers after taking energy. The
decomposers release molecules to
the environment as chemicals to be used again by the producers.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 5

ENERGY
The energy is the ability to do work. The main source of energy for an ecosystem is the radiant energy or light
derived from sun.
Energy flow:- The transfer of energy from one tropic level to another tropic level is called energy flow.
Producers synthesize and store energy in their body by photosynthesis. When consumer eats the producer,
energy is transferred to the consumer. The flow the energy is
an ecosystem is unidirectional. That is it flows from producer level to the consumer level and never in
reverse direction. Hence energy can be used only once in the ecosystem.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 6

FOOD CHAIN
The sequence of the consumers being eaten is called a food chain. Eg: the producers form the food for the
herbivores. the herbivores form the food for the carnivores.

Producers Herbivores Carnivores

1Eg: Plants Mouse Snake Hawk (Grass land)
2Eg: plants Goat Man Lion (Forest)
Food chains are two types namely 1) Grazing food chain
2) Detritus food chain
1) Grazing food chain:-
This food chain starts from plants goes through herbivores and ends with carnivores.
Eg: Grass Grassphores Lizard Hawk
Producers Herbivores Carnivores

2) Detritus food chain:-

 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 7

It starts from dead organic matter and ends in inorganic compounds. These are certain groups of organisms
which feed exclusively on dead bodies of animals and plants. These organisms are called Detrivores. The
detrivores includes algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoan’s, and insects. These organisms ingest and digest the daed
organic materials.

FOOD WEB

In an ecosystem the various food chains are interconnected with each other to form a network called food web.
This is because each organism may obtain food from more than one tropic level.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 8

Ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, biomass and energy of organisms of the
successive tropic levels of an ecosystem.
A Tropic level is a step in a food chain. It explains the position of each organism in the food chain.
 The number, biomass and energy of organism gradually decrease from the producer level to the consumer
level. This can be represented in the form of a pyramid called ecological pyramid.
The pyramid has a broad base and narrow apex. It is divided in to many sections from the base to the top.
 The first tropic level is represented at the base of the pyramid and the consumer occupies the top of the
pyramid.
They are 3 types of pyramids namely. 1) the pyramid of number 2) the pyramid of biomass 3) the pyramid of
energy

1) The pyramid of Number:- In the pyramid of number the number of individual of each tropic level is
represented. The number of individual at the tropic level decreases from the producer level to the consumer
level.
Eg: Crop Grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk

2) The pyramid of biomass:-

In the pyramid of biomass the weight of living matter of each tropic level is represented.
The biomass refers to the total weight of matter per unit area. In an ecosystem the biomass decreases from
the producer level to the consumer level.
Eg: Grass Grasshopper Lizard Hawk
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 9

3) The pyramid of energy:-

In the pyramid of energy the energy content of tropic level is represented.
Eg: Deer Fox Tiger

BIO DIVERSITY:
The term biodiversity was coined as a contraction of biological diversity by E.O. Wilson in 1985.
Biodiversity may be defined as the variety and variability of living organisms and the ecological complexes in
which they exist. In other words, biodiversity is the occurrence of different types of ecosystems, different
species of organisms with the whole range of their variants and genes adapted to different climates,
environments along with their interactions and processes.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 10

Biodiversity includes the genetic variability (for which different varieties of spices have appeared in
the course of evolution) and diversity of life forms such as plants, animal microbes, etc. living in a wide range
of ecosystems.
The diversity may be interspecific (within species) and interspecific (in between the species) but these
are well supported by ecosystem. It is seen that the diverse living forms of the ecosystem are modulated with
the global environmental changes.
1. Types of Biodiversity:
There are three interrelated hierarchical levels of biodiversity namely, genetic diversity, species diversity and
community or ecosystem diversity.
1. Genetic diversity:
It describes the variation in the number and types of genes as well as chromosomes present in different species.
The magnitude of variation in genes of a species increases with increase in size and environmental parameters
of the habitat. The genetic variation arises by gene and chromosome mutation in individuals and in sexually
reproducing organisms and it is spread in the population by recombination of genetic materials during cell
division after sexual reproduction.
2. Species diversity:
It describes the variety in the number and richness of the spices with in a region. The species richness may be
defined as the number of species per unit area. The richness of a species tells about the extent of biodiversity of
a site and provides a means for comparing different sites.
The species richness depends largely on climatic conditions. The number of individuals of different species with
in a region represents species evenness or species equitability. The product species richness and species
evenness give species diversity of a region. When a species is confined entirely to a particular area, it is termed
as endemic species.
3. Ecosystem diversity:
It describes the assemblage and Interaction of spices living together and the physical environment a given area.
It relates varieties of habitats, biotic communities ecological processes in biosphere. It also tells about the
diversity within the ecosystem. It is referred as Land escape diversity because it includes placement and size of
various ecosystems. For example, the landscapes like grass lands, deserts, mountains etc. show ecosystem
diversity. The ecosystem diversity is due to diversity of niches, trophic levels and ecological processes like
nutrient cycling, food webs, energy flow, role of dominant species and various related biotic interactions. Such
type of diversity can generate more productive and stable ecosystems or communities capable of tolerating
various types of stresses e.g. drought, flood etc.
3. Importance of Biodiversity:
The living organisms on earth are of great diversity, living in diverse habitats and possessing diverse qualities
and are vital to human existence providing food, shelter, clothing’s, medicines etc.
The biodiversity has the following importance’s:
1. Productive values:
2. Consumptive value:
3. Social value:
4. Aesthetic value:
5. Legal values:
6. Ethical value:
7. Ecological value:
4. Uses of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity has the following uses for the development humanity:
(i) It provides food of all types.
(ii) It provides fibers, sources for the preparation of clothes.
(iii) It provides different types of oil seeds for the preparation of oils.
(iv) It provides new varieties of rice, potato etc. through the process of hybridization.
(v) It provides different drugs and medicines which are based on different plant products.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 11

(vi) It is very essential for natural pest control, maintenance of population of various species, pollination by
insects and birds, nutrient cycling, conservation and purification of water, formation of soil etc. All these
services together are valued 16.54 trillion dollars per year.
5. Threats to Biodiversity:
Biodiversity is considered as a reservoir of resources to be used for the manufacture of food, medicine,
industrial products, etc. But with an increased demand of rapid population growth, biodiversity is gradually
depleting. A number of plants” and animal species have already become extinct and many are endangered.
The different factors responsible for causing threat to biodiversity are as follows:
1. Habitat destruction:
The primary cause of loss of biodiversity is habitat loss or destruction which is resulted due to the large
industrial and commercial activities associated with agriculture, irrigation, construction of dams, mining, fishing
etc.
2. Habitat fragmentation:
With increased population, the habitats are fragmented into pieces by roads, fields, canals, power lines, towns
etc. The isolated fragment of habitats restricts the potential of species for dispersal and colonization. In addition,
the habitat fragmentation also brings about microclimatic changes in light, temperature, wind etc.
3. Pollution:
The most dreaded factor inducing loss of biodiversity is environmental pollution which include air pollution,
Water pollution, industrial pollution, pollution due to chemical Pastes, pesticides radioactive materials etc.
4. Over exploitation:
The natural resources are over exploited to meet growing rural poverty, intensive technological growth and
globalization of economy. All these factors together may be responsible for the extinction of a number of
species.

NATURAL RESOURCES
1. Renewable resources:
These resources are present in unlimited quantity in the nature and having the capacity to get replaced by quick
recycling through natural cycles. Oxygen, in air is renewable resource because it is replaced by the plants by the
process of photosynthesis. Some of the other renewable resources are solar radiation, water and atomic power.
However, these resources can be exhausted if used too rapidly by improper management and they do not get
enough time for renewal.
Wind energy
Wind power is using the energy of Wind has been used since ancient times to move ships, and for hundreds of
years to pump water or grind corn and grain into flour, now it is usually changed into electricity using wind
turbines.
Hydropower
Hydropower is changing the energy of moving water into more useful forms. Even in ancient history
hydropower was used for irrigating crops and milling of grain into flour, and later for textile manufacture
(making cloth) and running sawmills to cut wood.
Heat Energy
Geothermal energy uses the heat from deep underground to make electricity. It can be used to produce steam
which goes up a pipe, which then pushes a turbine. It is best used in places where the Earth's crust is not very
thick. In the United States, most of the western states have areas where this works. California makes the most
geothermal energy.[7] Iceland uses the most geothermal energy (per person) of any country in the world.[8]
Biomass
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 12

Biomass includes sawdust and other leftover parts of trees or lumber. It can also be grease and food waste,
straw, and plants grown for energy. Some of this is burned to make electricity, some is made into
biogas,biofuel, like ethanol as a replacement for gasoline.
2. Non- renewable resources:
The stock of these resources are limited in nature. These resources once used cannot be replaced within a
reasonable time. Some of non-renewable resources are soil, forests, wild animals, minerals, fossil fuel (coal,
petroleum) for example, mineral deposits of fossil fuels are formed slowly over millions of years, if they are
once used cannot be regenerated.
Nuclear Fuels
The use of nuclear technology relying on fission requires Naturally occurring radioactive material as fuel.
Uranium, the most common fission fuel, and is present in the ground at relatively low concentrations and mined
in 19 countries.[9] This mined uranium is used to fuel energy-generating nuclear reactors with fissionable
uranium-235 which generates heat that is ultimately used to power turbines to generate electricity.[10]
Coal
One of the most important natural fuels, coal was formed from plant life buried in the Earth millions of years
ago. Like petroleum and natural gas, it is a carbon-based fossil fuel.

Coal is most commonly used to produce electricity in power plants. It also is an important fuel for heating and
powering industrial and manufacturing facilities, and for making steel. The many chemicals derived from coal
are used in industrial processes and...
PETROLEUM
It is also known as crude oil or simply oil is a fossil fuel that was formed from the remains of ancient marine
organisms.
Crude oil is usually black or dark brown, but can also be yellowish, reddish, tan, or even greenish.
Variations in color indicate the distinct chemical compositions of different supplies of crude oil. Petroleum that
has few metals or sulfur, for instance, tends to be lighter (sometimes nearly clear).
Petroleum is used to make gasoline, an important product in our everyday lives. It is also processed and
part of thousands of different items, including tires, refrigerators, life jackets, and anesthetics.

WATER CONSERVATION
Many of us who live in big cities enjoy a carefree lifestyle with 24 hours of running taps, swimming pools,
Jacuzzis and decorative fountains. Sheltered by this layer of comfort, we remain unaware of the impact of these
water-intensive activities on our environment. Rapid urbanization and water pollution has widened the supply
and demand gap, putting enormous pressure on the quality of surface and groundwater bodies. Clean water is
destined to become one of the rarest commodities soon, if the general public is not educated about the
significance of storing, recycling and reusing water.
In India around 83% of available fresh water is used for agriculture. Rainfall being the primary source of fresh
water, the concept behind conserving water is to harvest it when it falls and wherever it falls. The importance of
storing rainwater through different techniques can be understood by an example of the desert city of Jaisalmer
in Rajasthan
which is water self-sufficient despite experiencing meager rainfall as against Cherrapunji, which is blessed with
the highest rainfall in the world, but still faces water shortage due to lack of water conservation methods.
Katta
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 13

Katta is a temporary structure made by binding mud and loose stones available locally. Built A across small
streams and rivers, this stone bund slows the flow of water, and stores a large amount (depending upon its
height) during the dry months. The collected water gradually seeps into ground and increase the water level of
nearby wells.

Sand Bores

Sand bores provide a safe alternative for farm irrigation without affecting groundwater. This technique uses the
concept of extracting water retained by sand particles. Sand particles act as great water filters by retaining the
salt content at bottom and gushing pure water out. White sand is believed to yield water clean enough for
drinking too.Sand deposits (as high as 15-30 feet) left along banks of rivers is dug using a manual soil cutter.
Casing PVC pipes is inserted to act as filter and an electric or diesel motor is used to pump sweet water out.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 14

The entire set-up costs around INR5,000-7,000 and requires less maintenance when sand deposits are fine and
clean. The sand bore technique has been used in Karnataka since decades. The only drawback is that it can only
be practiced in coastal areas or in areas with high sand deposits. The adjoining picture shows farmers preparing
the PVC pipe filter with
holes.
Bawdi/Jhalara

These step-wells are grand structures of high archaeological significance constructed since ancient times,
mainly in honor of kings and queens. They are typically square shaped step-wells with beautiful arches, motifs
and sometimes rooms on sides. Apart from storing water for basic needs, they at times also served for water
sports. Located away from residential areas, the water quality in these Bawdis is considered to be good for
consumption.
The typical lifespan of Jhalaras is around 20-30 years. Built with large investment of money and numerous
skilled laborers, these magnificent structures today stand discarded by society.
Many of these structures have been encroached and act as mere dumping sites. Renovation of few of them in
Rajasthan has restored their huge water storing capacity and with the use of electric pumps to draw water, it has
proved useful during dry periods. Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka have the maximum number of these structures,
which attract tourists from all over the world.
Bamboo Drip Irrigation
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 15

Innovated by tribes of north eastern states, this technique economically uses water during dry seasons. It is
practiced in hilly areas where construction of ground channels is not possible due to sloppy and stony terrain.
This arrangement taps spring water to irrigate fields. A network of channels made by bamboo pipes of various
diameters (to control flow), allows
downward flow of water by gravity. An efficient system can reduce around 20 liters of inflow water running
over kms to 20-80 drops per minute in agricultural fields.
Construction material such as bamboo and fiber is locally available. It is cost effective requiring less
maintenance and only 1-2 laborers, who use tools to create a network of bamboo pipes to irrigate one hectare of
land in 15 days. The system lasts for around three years after which the wood rots and decomposes to become
nutrient-rich soil.

UNIT – II

Environmental Pollution, Global Issues & Legislation

Air Pollution - causes, effects and control measures
Air pollution - Air pollution may be defined as the presence of one or more contaminants like dust, mist, smoke
and colour in the atmosphere that are injurious human beings, plants and animals.
1. Rapid industrialization
2. Fast urbanization
3. Rapid growth in population
4. Growth of vehicles on the roads and
5. Activities of human beings have disturbed the natural balance of the atmosphere.
The composition of Air is given below:
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon less than 1%
Carbondioxide 0.037%
Water vapour Remaining
Ozone, Helium and ammonia Trace amount
Sources of Air pollution
Sources of air pollution are of two types.
Natural sources and Artificial sources
Natural sources of pollution are those that are caused due to natural phenomena. Ex: Volcanic eruptions, Forest
fires, Biological decay, Pollen grains, Marshes, Radioactive materials. Artificial sources are those which are
created by man. Ex: Thermal power plants, Vehicular
emissions, Fossil fuel burning, agricultural activities etc.
Classification of Air Pollutants
Depending on the form of pollutants present in the environment, they are classified as:
1. Primary pollutants and
2. Secondary pollutants
Primary pollutants are those that are directly emitted in the atmosphere in the harmful form
Ex: CO, NO, CO2, SO2 etc.
Secondary pollutants are those that are formed by reacting with other components or some basic component of
the atmosphere to form new pollutants.
Ex: Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2 or NO3) react with moisture in the atmosphere to give Nitric
acid
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 16

SOURCES AND COMMON EFFECTS OF COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS

Carbonmonoxide: It is a colourless, odourless gas that is poisonous animals. It is formed by incomplete
combustion of Source of carbonmonoxide is cigarette smoking and incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
(more than 77% comes from motor vehicle exhaust) Health effects include reduced ability of red blood cells to
carry oxygen to body cells and tissues. This leads to headache and anemia. At high levels it causes coma,
irreversible brain damage and death.
Nitrogen Dioxide: It is a reddish-brown irritating gas that causes photochemical smog. In the atmosphere, it gets
converted into nitric acid (HNO3). It is caused by burning fossil fuels in industries and power plants. Health
effects include lung irritation and damage. Environmental effects involve acid deposition leading to damage of
trees, lakes, soil and ancient monuments. NO2 can damage fabrics.
Sulphur Dioxide: It is a colourless and irritating gas that is formed by combustion of sulphur containing fossil
fuels such as coal and oil. In the atmosphere it is converted into Sulphuric acid which is a major component of
acid deposition. Health effects involve breathing problems for healthy people.
Environmental effects involve reduced visibility and acid deposition on trees, lakes, soils and monuments
leading to their deterioration and adverse effect on aquatic life.
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): Includes a variety of particles and droplets (aerosols) that can be
suspended in atmosphere for short to long periods. Human sources for SPM include burning coal in power and
industrial units, burning diesel and other fuels in vehicles, agriculture, unpaved roads, construction, etc.
Health effects include nose and throat irritation, ling damage, bronchitis, asthama,
reproductive problems and cancer.
Environmental Effects include reduced visibility and acid deposition. Acid deposition may lead to damaged
trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.
Ozone is a highly reactive gas with an unpleasant odour occurring in the stratosphere where it protects mankind
from the harmful ultra-violet rays from the Sun. However on earth, it is a pollutant.
It occurs on earth due to reaction between Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and Nitrogen Oxides. It
moderates the climate
Photochemical smog is a browinsh smoke that frequently forms on clear, sunny days over large cities with
significant amounts of automobile traffic.It is mainly due to chemical reactions among nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight.
Health effects include breathing problems, cough, eye, nose and throat irritation, heart diseases, reduced
resistance to colds and pneumonia.
Environmental effects involve damage to plants and trees. Additionally, Smog reduces visibility. Lead is a
solid and highly toxic metal. Its compounds are emitted into the atmosphere as particulate matter.
Human Sources: Paint, Smelters (metal refineries), lead manufacture, storage batteries, leaded petrol, etc
Health effects: Lead accumulates in the body and brain leading to nervous system damage and mental
retardation (especially in children), digestive and other health problems. Lead containing chemicals are known
to cause cancer in test animals.
Environmental Effects: It can harm wildlife.
Hydrocarbons Lower haydrocarbons accumulate due to decay of vegetable matter.
Human effects: They are carcinogenic
Chromium: It is a solid toxic metal emitted into the atmosphere as particulate matter.
Human sources: Paint, Smelters, Chromium manufacture, Chromium plating.
Health Effects: Perforation of nasal septum, chrome holes, etc.
CONTROL MEASURES
The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational settling,
flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However, control of contaminants at their
source level is a desirable and effective method through preventive or control technologies.
Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are:
1. Using unleaded petrol
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 17

2. Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content

3. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to private vehicles
4. Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located on busy streets
5. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb noise
6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the city preferably on the downwind of
the city.
7. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons

Water pollution - types, effects, sources and control of water pollution

Water pollution may be defined as “the alteration in physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water
which may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic life.” Pollutants include:
1. Sewage
2. Industrial effluents and chemicals
3. Oil and other wastes
Chemicals in air dissolve in rain water, fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides leached from land pollute water.
TYPES, EFFECTS AND SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is any chemical, biological or physical change in water quality that has a harmful effect on
living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses. Infectious agents
Ex: Bacteria, Viruses, Protozoa, and parasitic worms.
Human sources
Human and animal wastes
Effects: Variety of diseases.
Oxygen demanding wastes (Dissolved oxygen): This degradation consumes dissolved oxygen in water.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity of water at a particular pressure
and temperature.
The saturated point of DO varies from 8 to 15 mg/L Ex: Organic wastes such as animal manure and plant debris
that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygen-requiring) bacteria.
Human sources: Sewage, Animal feedlots, paper mills and food processing facilities.
Effects: Large populations of bacteria decomposing these wastes can degrade water quality by depleting water
of dissolved oxygen. This causes fish and other forms of oxygen- consuming aquatic life to die.

Inorganic chemicals
Ex: Water soluble inorganic chemicals:
1. Acids
2. Compounds of toxic metals such as lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and selenium (Se)
3. Salts such as NaCl in oceans and fluoride (F-) found in some soils
Human sources: Surface runoff, industrial effluents and household cleansers Effects:Inorganic chemicals can:
1. Make freshwater unusable for drinking and irrigation
2. Cause skin cancer and neck damage
3. Damage nervous system, liver and kidneys
4. Harm fish and other aquatic life
5. Lower crop yields
6. Accelerate corrosion of metals exposed to such water
Organic chemicals
Ex: Oil, Gasoline, Plastics, Pesticides, Cleaning solvents and Detergents.
Human Sources: Industrial effluents, household cleansers and surface runoff from farms.
Effects:
1. Can threaten human health by causing nervous system damage and some cancers.
2. Harm fish and wildlife.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 18

Plant nutrients
Ex: Water soluble compounds containing nitrate, Phosphate and Ammonium ions.
Human sources: Sewage, manure and runoff of agricultural and urban fertilizers.
Effects:
1. Can cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants, which die, decay, deplete dissolved
oxygen in water thereby killing fish
2. Drinking water with excessive levels of nitrates lower the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and
can kill urban children and infants.
Sediment
Ex: Soil, silt, etc.
Human Sources: Land erosion
Effects:
1. Causes cloudy water thereby reducing photosynthetic activity
2. Disruption of aquatic food chain
3. Carries pesticides, bacteria and other harmful substances
4. Settles and destroys feeding and spawning grounds of fish
5. Clogs and fills lakes, artificial reservoirs, stream channels and harbours.
Radioactive materials:
Ex: Radioactive isotopes of:
1. Iodine
2. Radon
3. Uranium
4. Cesium and
5. Thorium
Human sources: Nuclear power plants, mining and processing of uranium and other ores, nuclear weapon
production and natural sources.

Effects: Genetic mutations, birth defects and certain cancers.

Heat (Thermal pollution)
Ex: Excessive heat
Human sources: Water cooling of electric power plants and some types of industrial plants. Almost half of
whole water withdrawn in United States each year is for cooling electric power plants.
Effects
1. Low dissolved oxygen levels thereby making aquatic organisms more vulnerable to disease, parasites
and toxic chemicals.
2. When a power plant starts or shuts down for repair, fish and other organisms adapted to a particular
temperature range, can be killed by an abrupt temperature changeknown as thermal shock.
Control measures of water pollution
1. Administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or central government
2. Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of
catchment areas of rivers, ponds or streams
3. Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent disposal of wastes into
natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.
4. Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners.
5. Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hence more trees should
be planted.
6. No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into any natural water
body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply schemes and domestic sewage must be used
for irrigation.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 19

7. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for effective control of water
pollution.
8. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution using the media.
9. Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and these laws should
be modified from time to time based on current requirements and technological advancements.
10. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.

Solid waste management - sources, effects and methods of disposal

Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries has led to people generating enormous
quantities of solid waste and consequent environmental degradation. The waste is normally disposed in open
dumpscreating nuisance and environmental degradation. Solid wastes cause a major risk to public health and the
environment. Management of solid wastes is important in order to minimize the adverse effects posed by their
indiscriminate disposal.
Types of solid wastes: Depending on the nature of origin, solid wastes are classified into
1. URBAN OR MUNICIPAL WASTES
2. INDUSTRIAL WASTES and
3. HAZARDOUS WASTES
SOURCES OF URBAN WASTES
Urban wastes include the following wastes:
Domestic wastes containing a variety of materials thrown out from homes
Ex: Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles, Polythene bags, Waste metals, etc. Commercial wastes: It
includes wastes coming out from shops, markets, hotels, offices, institutions, etc.
Ex: Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene bags, etc. Construction wastes: It includes wastes
of construction materials.
Ex: Wood, Concrete, Debris, etc.
Biomedical wastes: It includes mostly waste organic materials
Ex: Anatomical wastes, Infectious wastes, etc.
Classification of urban wastes
Urban wastes are classified into:
Bio-degradable wastes - Those wastes that can be degraded by micro organisms are called bio-degradable
wastes
Ex: Food, vegetables, tea leaves, dry leaves, etc.
Non-biodegradable wastes: Urban solid waste materials that cannot be degraded by micro organisms are called
non-biodegradable wastes.
Ex: Polythene bags, scrap materials, glass bottles, etc.
SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES
The main source of industrial wastes are chemical industries, metal and mineral processing industries.
Ex:
Nuclear plants: It generated radioactive wastes
Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities
Chemical Industries: It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.
Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials, rubbish, organic wastes, acid, alkali, scrap metals,
rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, dyes, etc.

EFFECT OF IMPROPER SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and immediate surroundings,
biodegradable materials undergo decomposition producing foul smell and become a breeding ground for
disease vectors.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 20

2. Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and hazardous wastes that affect soil
characteristics and productivity of soils when they are dumped on the soil
3. Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the groundwater.
4. Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides, plastics, radioactive materials and
batteries) produce furans, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls that are harmful to human beings.
Solid waste management involves waste generation, mode of collection, transportation, segregation of wastes
and disposal techniques.
STEPS INVOLVED IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:
Two important steps involved in solid waste management are:
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of Raw Materials
Discarding wastes
Reduce - If usage of raw materials is reduced, the generation of waste also gets reduced
Reuse - Refillable containers that are discarded after use can be reused Rubber rings can be made from
discarded cucle tubes and this reduces waste generation during manufacture of rubber bands.
Recycle- Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products
Ex: Old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and bottles Preparation of
cellulose insulation from paper Preparation of automobile body and construction material from steel cans This
method (Reduce, Reuse & Recycle), i.e, 3R's help save money, energy, raw materials and reduces pollution.
DISCARDING WASTES:
The following methods are adopted for discarding wastes:
1. Landfill
2. Incineration and
3. Composting
LANDFILL: Solid wastes are placed in a sanitary landfill in which alternate layers of 80 cm thick refuse is
covered with selected earth-fill of 20 cm thickness. After 2-3 years solid waste volume shrinks by 25-30% and
land is used for parks, roads and small buildings. This is the most common and cheapest cheapest method of
waste disposal and is mostly employed in Indian cities.

INCINERATION:
It is a hygenic way of disposing solid waste. It is suitable if waste contains more hazardous material and organic
content. It is a thermal process and very effective for detoxification of all combustible pathogens. It is expensive
when compared to composting or land-filling. In this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace
called incinerator. Combustibe substances such as rubbish, garbage, dead organisms and non-combustibe matter
such as glass, porcelain and metals are separated before feeding to incinerators. The non-combustible materials
can be left out for recycling and reuse. The leftover ashes and clinkers may account for about 10 to 20% which
need further disposal by sanitary landfill or some other means.
The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of refuse is used in the form of steam power for generation
of electricity through turbines. Municipal solid waste is generally wet and has a high calorific value. Therefore,
it has to be dried first before burning. Waste is dried in a preheater from where it is taken to a large incinerating
furnace called "destructor" which can incinerate about 100 to 150 tonnes per hour. Temperature normally
maintained in a combustion chamber is about 700 C which may be increased to 1000 C when electricity is to be
generated.
COMPOSTING
It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our country. In this method, bulk organic waste is
converted into fertilizer by biological action.
Separated compostible waste is dumped in underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and finally covered with
earth of 20cm and left for decomposition. Sometimes, actinomycetes are introduced for active decomposition.
Within 2 to 3 days biological action starts. Organic matter is destroyed by actinomycetes and lot of heat is
liberated increasing the temperature of compost by 75C and the refuse is finally converted into powdery brown
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 21

coloured odourless mass called humus that has a fertilizing value and can be used in agriculture. Humus
contains lot of Nitrogen essential for plant growth apart from phosphates and other minerals.
Global warming - Definition, Effects, Control and Remedial measures
Global warming is defined as the increase in temperature of Earth, that causes change in
climate
The last few centuries have seen an increase in industrial, agricultural and other human activity resulting in
release of more green house gases in the atmosphere. These gases cause the atmosphere to trap increasing
amounts of heat energy in the Earth's surface making the planet warmer than usual.
The global temperature is now 1C higher than in 1900. Predictions of future climate indicate that by the middle
of the next century, the Earth's global temperature may be 1C to 3C higher than what it is today.

Researchers have checked through indirect evidence (tree rings, coral growth, ice cores) and confirmed that the
warmest decade in the past 1000 years was from 1990 to 1999. The warmest year of the millenium was 1998.
` The International Red Cross and Red Crescent have analyzed the past 33 years of natural disasters and 90% of
them were weather related. Moreover, the occurrence of these disasters has increased in the past three decades.
Effects of Global Warming
Following are the effects of global warming:
1. More heat waves
2. Expansion of desert area
3. Natural fires in forest lands
4. More evaporation of water from oceans and water bodies
5. Melting of Ice caps in Arctic and Antarctic regions
6. More cloud formation in the atmosphere
7. Shorter and warmer winters coupled with longer and hotter summers
8. Changes in rainfall pattern
9. Rise in sea level
10. Flooding and submergence of low lying coastal areas
11. Disruption in farming
12. More drought
13. Impact on plants, animals and humans
Control and remedial measures:
Some of the remedial and control measures of global warming are listed below:
1. Reduction in consumption of fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum
2. Use of bio-gas plants
3. Use of nuclear power plants
4. Increasing forest cover
5. Use of unleaded petrol in automobiles
6. Installation of pollution controlling devices in automobiles (catalytic converter) and industries
(Electro Static Precipitators, Bag filters, Wet scrubbers etc)
Ozone layer depletion process
Ozone is a colourless, odorless gas composed of three atoms of oxygen (O3). Ozone has the same chemical
structure regardless of where it occurs and can be useful or harmful depending on where it occurs in the
atmosphere. Ozone is formed naturally in the upper stratosphere when wavelengths less than 240nm are
absorbed by normal oxygen molecules which dissociate to give O atoms. The O atoms in combination with
other oxygen molecules produce ozone.
In the stratosphere, about 19 to 30 km above the Earth's surface, ozone is constantly being produced and
destroyed naturally. This production and destruction makes stratosphere with ozone layer that filters the Ultra-
Violet radiation from the Sun and protects life on Earth. Normally there is a fine balance between production
and destruction of ozone thereby safeguarding life on Earth.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 22

Man-made chemicals called Chloro Fluoro Carbons(CFCs) are used as aerosol sprays, refrigerants and
coolants etc destroy ozone molecules in the stratosphere. The CFCs themselves do not destroy ozone molecules
but they decay ozone molecules at low temperatures. A small amount of chlorine atom and chlorine mono-oxide
function as catalyst in the process of destruction of ozone. The equations involved are:
Cl + O3 = ClO + O2
ClO + O = Cl + O2
Hence, net effect:
O3 + O = 2O2
Chlorine atom in the above reaction functions as a catalyst and is not consumed in the reaction. Chlorine atom
used in the reaction remains as chlorine atom even at the end of the reaction. Once chlorine has broken one
ozone molecule, it is free to repeat the process until it is removed by another reaction in the atmosphere.
Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons are very stable molecules and can live upto 100 years.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT:
“A serious disruption of the functioning of society which poses a significant, widespread threat to human life,
health, property or the environment, whether arising from accident, nature or human activity, whether
developing suddenly or as the result of long term processes, but excluding armed conflict.”
Hazards:
Natural:
Geophysical-earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis and volcanic activity
Hydrological-avalanches and floods
Climatological-extreme temperatures, droughts, wildfires
Meteorological-cyclones and storms/wave surges
 Biological-disease epidemics and insect/animal plagues
Man-made:
Complex emergencies /conflicts
Famine
Displaced populations
Industrial accidents and transport accidents
Disaster management relies heavily on the use of maps and mapping techniques for control of disasters and
managing response. The maps used vary from topographic maps, land-use maps, hazard maps, geologic maps,
vegetation maps, population distribution rods, seismic maps and hurricane tracking maps.
Electronics communications are very important in disaster management. They are used for coordination and
control, assessment, reporting, monitoring, scheduling logistics, reunification and tracing separated families.

IMPACT OF DISASTERS ON ENVIRONMENT, INFRASTRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT

Disasters are now recognized as one of the major contributors to underdevelopment, and underdevelopment is
one of the major contributors to disaster. It has also been recognized that if disaster response is mishandled,
many years of progress can be wiped out and the chances for further progress set back. Disasters can alter
agricultural patterns, settlement patterns, patterns of migration, work habits, diets, and even basic family
structures. If disaster management is well planned and development oriented, a disaster can provide
opportunities for accelerating the pace of development. Constructive changes can then be made.
All disaster-related activities are divided in-to distinct time periods.
TYPES OF DISASTERS
A disaster is a natural or man-made hazard resulting in an event of substantial extent causing significant
physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment. A disaster can be defined as
any tragic event stemming from events such as earthquakes, floods, catastrophic accidents, fires, or explosions.
It is a phenomenon that can cause damage to life and property and destroy the economic, social and cultural life
of people.
Hazards are divided into natural or human-made.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 23

A natural disaster is a consequence when a natural hazard affects humans and/or the built environment. Various
phenomena like earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, floods and cyclones are all natural hazards that kill
thousands of people and destroy crores of rupees of living environment and property each year. Developing
countries suffer more
or less chronically by natural disasters. Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural disasters.
Man-made disasters are the consequence of technological or human hazards. Examples are stampedes, fires,
transport accidents, oil and chemical spills, nuclear radiations and wars.
Disaster management - Floods
Increased rainfall or rapid snow melting causes more flow of water in the streams. This excess water flow in a
stream covering the adjacent land is called a flood. Floodplain is defined in terms of a flood frequency. Flood
frequency is referred as 10-year flood, 100- year flood, etc. A 10-year flood at any point in a stream is that
discharge of water which may be expected to occur on average once in 10 years. Floodplains are generally
fertile, flat and easily formed.

CAUSES OF FLOOD
Heavy rainfall
Construction of buildings in a flood plain
Removing vegetation
Paving roads and parking areas
Deforestation
Urbanisation
Earthquakes
EFFECTS OF FLOOD
Erosion of top soil and vegetation
Damage and loss to land, house and property
Spread of endemic waterborne diseases
Interruption of basic facilities of community such as highways, railways, telephone,
electricity and day-to-day essentials
Silting of reservoirs and dams
FLOOD CONTROL
Construction of flood control dam
Deepening, widening and straightening of streams
Lining of streams
Banning of construction of buildings in floodplains
Converting flood-plains into wildlife habitat, parks, and recreation areas.
Disaster management - Landslides
Landslides occur when mass of earth material move downward. It is also called mass wasting or mass
movement. A sudden landslide occurs when unconsolidated sediments of a hillside are saturated by rainfall or
water logging. Many landslides take place in coincidence with earthquakes. The most common form of
landslides are earthquake induced landslides or more specifically rock falls and slides of rock fragments that
form on steep slopes.
The size of area affected by earthquake induced landslides depends on the magnitude of the earthquake, its focal
depth, the topography and geologic conditions near the causative fault, the amplitude, frequency, composition
and duration of ground shaking.
CONTROL MEASURES FOR LANDSLIDES
Avoid construction activity in landslide occurring areas.
Reducing slope of hilly side
Stabilising the slope portion
Increasing plantation of deep rooted vegetation on the slope.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 24

Disaster management - Earthquakes

An earthquake occurs when rocks break and slip along a fault in the earth. Earthquakes occur due to
deformation of crust and upper mantle of the earth. Due to heating and cooling of the rock below these plates,
movement of adjacently overlying plates and great stresses, deformation occurs. Tremendeous energy can
build-up between neighbouring plates. If accumulated stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, the rocks break
suddenly releasing the stored energy as an earthquake.
The earthquake releases energy in the form of waves that radiate from the epicenter in all directions. The 'p'
wave or primary wave alternately compresses and expands material in the same direction it is travelling. This
wave can move through solid rocks and fluids. These are the fastest waves. The 's' wave or secondary wave is
slower and shake the ground up, down, back and forth perpendicular to the direction in which it is travelling.
Surface waves follow both the 'P' and 'S' waves. The magnitude of an earthquake is measured in richter scale.
The richter scale is logarithmic.
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE:
Groundshaking
Liquefaction of ground
Ground displacement
Landslides
Flood
Fire
Tsunami

CONTROL OF EARTHQUAKE
There is virtually no technique to control the occurrence of earthquake. However, certain preventive measures
can be taken to minimise the damage.
Minimizing development activity (especially construction, mining, construction of dams and reservoirs) in areas
known to be active seismic zones.
Continuously monitoring seismic activity using 'seismographs' and alerting people regarding any recorded
disturbance in advance.
THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT, 1986
INTRODUCTION.....
In 1980, the Deptt. of Environment was established in India. Later on it became the Ministry of Environment
and Forests in 1985. EPA,1986 came into force soon after the
Bhopal Gas Tragedy.
OBJECTIVE......
Objective is, to provide the protection and improvement of environment. In EPA, article 48A, specify that the
State shall protect and improve the environment.
Also, to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country. Acc. to sec 51(A) every citizen shall protect the
environment. EPA is applicable to whole India, including J&K.

Air (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981

Objectives of this act are:
-Prevention, control and abatement of air pollution
-Maintaining the quality of air
-Establishing boards for prevention and control of air pollution
Important features of this act:
-Central board may lay down standards for quality of air
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 25

-Central board coordinates and settles disputes between state boards in addition to providing technical
assistance and guidance to state boards
-State boards may lay down standards for emissions of air pollutants from industrial units, automobiles or other
sources
-State boards should collect and disseminate information related to air pollution and function as inspectorates of
air pollution
-State boards should examine manufacturing process and pollution control equipment to verify if they meet
standards prescribed.
-State board can advise the state government to declare heavily polluted areas as pollution control areas and
advise avoidance of burning waste products that can increase air pollution.
-The directions of central board are mandatory on state boards.
-Operation of Industrial unit is prohibited in heavily polluted areas without the consent of the central board.
-Violation of this law is punishable with imprisonment a term which may extend to three months or fine upto
Rs. 10,000 or both.
Water (prevention and control of pollution) act, 1974
Objectives of this act:
-To prevent and control water pollution
-To maintain or restore the wholesomeness of water
To establish boards for the prevention and control of water pollution
To confer on and assign to the boards, the power and functions relating to the above mentioned.
Salient features of this act:
-Establishment of central and state boards for pollution control
-Provision of joint boards for two or more states
-Prohibition of the use of streams and wells for the disposal of pollutants.
-Consent of pollution control board to open new outlets and discharges into streams and wells.
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
This act is aimed to protect and preserve wildlife. Wildlife refers to all animals and plants that are not
domesticated. India has a rich wildlife heritage. It has 350 species of mammals, 1200 species of birds and
around 20,000 known species of insects. Some of them are listed as 'endangered species' in wildlife protection
act. Wildlife is an integral part of our ecology and plays an essential role in its functioning. Decline in wildlife
is mostly due to human actions. Animals have been hunted since ages for their skins, furs, feathers, ivory, etc.
Wildlife populations are monitored regularly and management strategies are formulated to protect them.
The important features of this act are:
-This act covers the rights and non-rights of forest dwellers
-It provides restricted grazing in sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks
-It also prohibits collection of non-timber forest
-The rights of forest dwellers recognised by forest policy of 1988 are taken away by the
amended wildlife act of 1991.
Forest conservation act, 1980
Forest conservation act, 1980
This act provides conservation of forests and related aspects. This act covers all types of forests such as
reserved forest, protected forest and any forested land. This act was enacted in 1980 and it aims to arrest
deforestation.
Important features of this act are:
-The reserved forests shall not be diverted or dereserved without prior permission of the central government.

-The land that has been notified or registered or forest land may not be used for non- forest purposes.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 26

-Any illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped under the act.
Important amendments:
-Forest departments are forbidden to assign any forest land for re-afforestation
-Clearance of any forest land of naturally grown trees for the purpose of re-afforestation is forbidden.
-Diversion of forest land for non-forest uses is a cognizable offence and the violator is punishable under law.

Human Rights in india

Human being is born with certain natural rights. Those rights basic to humanity are termed as 'Human Rights'.
Broadly speaking they may include right to life, liberty, property and security of an individual. Social scientists
from time immemorial have argued in favour of giving these rights to human beings.
Rights give expression to how all humans participate fully in civil society, defining the idealized norms against
which a society may be measured. As expressions of the civic values that operate within any society, rights
derive from the marriage of religious, philosophical, and legal principles that address social justice in the
context of worldwide
struggles to combat oppression and inequity, they do so out of an underlying, deep-rooted respect for human
life, dignity, and diversity.
Rights cannot be thought of in isolation from each other. They are part of an integrated vision of what it means
to participate in diverse human experiences. These run from the most basic interaction with the environment to
the ways in which people live day-to-day to catastrophic events like war, genocide, or pandemics. Rights affect
local and intimate human relationships and the global relations that govern the ways human capital and energy
are exchanged, manipulated, and exploited.
Rights: As in the Indian Constitution
The provisions of Part III of our Constitution which enumerate the fundamental fights are more elaborate than
those of any other existing written constitution relating to fundamental rights, and cover a wide range of topics.
The Constitution itself classifies the fundamental rights under seven groups as follows:
(a) Right to equality (b) Right to freedom (c) Right against exploitation (d) Right to freedom of religion
(e) Cultural and educational rights (f) Right to property (g) Right to constitutional remedies.
Of these the Right to Property has been eliminated by the 44th Constitutional Amendment Act (1978) so
that only six rights now remain as fundamental rights.

(i) Equality before law

(ii)Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of Religion, race, caste or place of birth
(iii) Equality of opportunity in Matters of Pubic Employment
(iv) Abolition of Untouchability
(v) Protection in respect or conviction for offences

Article 19(1)
In the original Constitution, there were seven freedoms in Articles 19(1) but that one of them, namely, 'the right
to acquire, hold and dispose of property' has been omitted by the Constitution (44th Amendment) Act, 1978,
leaving only six freedoms in that article.
These are:
(a) Freedom on Speech and Expression (b) Freedom of Assembly (c) Freedom of Association (d)
Freedom of Movement (e) Freedom of Residence and Settlement (f) Freedom of Profession, Occupation, Trade
of Business.
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 27

Women and Child Care in India:

According to Jawaharlal Nehru, the condition of a nation well reflected by looking at the status of its women.
The country, in which higher attention has been paid towards women and Child care, becomes more developed
than others.
The necessity of women and child care is due to the following reasons:
(i) Women shoulder a greater part of the household work and toil for longer hours.
(ii) Women are exposed to dangerous levels of indoor pollution from burning of biomass fuel.
(iii) Women are more influenced by environmental degradation than men.
(iv) Women have special problems with regard to water supply and sanitation.
(v) Children are more vulnerable toward environmental impacts and child labours are exposed to hazardous
occupations.
Considering the above facts, the objective of women and child welfare is:
(i) To improve the social, economical, health and nutritional status of women.
(ii) To improve the physical, mental, intellectual, and nutritional status of children.
(iii) To safeguard the constitutional rights of women and children.
(iv) To create awareness regarding different women and child development programmes amongst the rural
peoples.
Some important developmental programmes relating women and child welfare are
discussed below:
(1) Support to Training-cum-Employment Programme (STEP):
The women are given training in sectors like agriculture, dairying, small animal husbandry, fisheries, khadi and
village industries etc. and subsequently engaged.
(2) Women’s Development Corporation:
In 1986, Women’s Development Corporations are installed in the states. The objective the scheme is to identify
women entrepreneurs, providing them with them with technical consultancy, arranging training facilities,
favoring availability of credits, promoting marketing of products, strengthening women’s cooperatives etc.
(3) Socio-economic Programme:
Under this programme, financial assistance is provided by Central Social Welfare Board to different voluntary
organisation for income generating activities, thereby providing service to needy women.
(4) Swa-Shakti Project:
Swa-Shakti Project is a centre sponsored project (sanctioned on 16th October 1998) having the following
objectives:
(i) Establishment of self reliant women’s self-help group (SHQs).
(ii) Sensitising and strengthening the institutional capacity of support agencies to fulfil women’s need.
(iii) Establishing relation between SHQs and credit lending institutions.
(iv) Favoring Women’s access to resources for better life.
(5) Advocacy and Sensitisation:
Awareness should be created against constantly declining sex ratio, the growing incidence of female feticide,
the prevalence of female infanticide and high rates of infant and maternal mortality. Steps should be taken to
prevent the above issues from our society.
(6) Support through legislation:
To safeguard constitutional rights of women, there exist a number of legislations which include Equal
Remuneration Act, Commission of Sati Act, Maternity Benefit Act, Immoral Traffic Act, Dowry Prevention
Act etc. In April 1994, women are provided with one third reservation in the panchayats and local urban
bodies, under 73rd Amendment to the constitution.
(7) National Commission for Women:
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 28

In 1992, National Commission for Women was constituted which protects constitutional and legal rights
of women, recommends remedial measures, facilitates redressal of grievances, participates and advises
the Government on all matters of policy affecting the welfare and development of women.
(8) National Institute of Public Cooperation and CM Development:
National Institute of Public Cooperation and CTM Development was established to develop and promote
voluntary action in social development, take comprehensive view of child development and develop
measures for coordination of government and voluntary action in social development.
The Department of Women and Child Development (under the Ministry of Human Resource
Development) was established in 1985, to give impetus to holistic development of women and children.

Prepared by: N.MaheshM.Sc.,B.Ed(M.A.,M.Ed)

Lecturer in Botany
KIMS Degree & PG College
Karimnagar