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Study Notes of Basics of Thermodynamics - Study Notes of Basics of EXIT

Thermodynamics
Day 10 | Basics Of Thermodynamics | Study Notes on Basics of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a science dealing with Energy and its transformation and its effect on the
physical properties of substances.
It deals with equilibrium and feasibility of a process.

Deals with the relationship between heat and work and the properties of systems in equilibrium.
Thermodynamics System
It is de ned as the quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

The mass and region outside the system is called surrounding.
Real or imaginary surface (mathematically thickness zero) that separates the system from the
surrounding is called the boundary.
Closed System (Control Mass):
It consists of a xed amount of mass and no mass can cross its boundary or leave or enter a
closed system.
Energy in the form of heat or work can cross the boundary and the volume of closed system
does not have to be xed
Example: piston cylinder device.
Open System (Control Volume):
It is a properly selected region in the space and both mass and energy region can cross the
boundary. NEXT
The boundary of a control volume is called a control surface and they can be real or imaginary.
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Example: Compressor, turbine, nozzle.
A control volume can be xed, in size and shape as in case of nozzle or it may involve moving
boundaries as shown in Fig. (b).
Most control volume, however have xed boundaries and thus do not involve any moving boundaries.
Properties of a System: Any characteristic of a system is called a property. It can be independent or

dependent.
Intensive properties: Which are independent of the size of system such as temperature,
pressure and density.
Extensive properties: Whose values depend on the size or extent of the system such as mass m,
volume V and total energy E.
Divide the system into two equal parts with a partition to determine whether the property is intensive
or extensive.
Generally, upper case letters are used to denote extensive properties (exception m) and lower case
letters are used for intensive properties (exception P, T).
Extensive Property
Intensive Property
Extensive properties are dependent on the mass of a system
Intensive properties are independent of the mass of a system
Extensive properties are additive
Intensive properties are not additive
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Its value for an overall system is the sum of its values for the parts into which the system is divided
Its value remains the same whether one considers the whole system or only a part of it.
Example:mass(m),volume(V),Energy(E),Enthalpy(H) etc
Example:Pressure(P),Temperature(T),Density etc
Uppercase letters are used for extensive properties except mass
Lowercase letters are used for intensive properties except pressure(P) and temp.(T)
Speci c Properties of a System: Extensive properties per unit mass are called speci c properties.
Speci c volume:
Speci c energy:
Speci c gravity (or relative density): It is used to de ne the density of a substance with respect
to density of some standard substance at a speci ed temperature. (Usually, water at 4oC, =

1000 kg/m3)
Continuum:
Continuum is de ned as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes.

The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point function.
To assume properties to vary continually in space with no jump discontinuities.
State:
State of system is described by its properties.

At a given state, all the properties of a system have xed values.
However, there is no need to specify all the properties in order to x a state.
The number of properties required to x the state of a system is given by the state postulates.
It property varies, other should be held constant.
In other words, the condition of a system at any instant of time is called its state.
Equilibrium:
The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.

In an equilibrium state, there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
A system in equilibrium experience has no changes when it is isolated from its surrounding.
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
A system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is same throughout the entire system.
In mechanical equilibrium, there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time.
In chemical equilibrium, no chemical reactions occur.
Processes: Any change that a system goes from one equilibrium state to another equilibrium state is
called a process and series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the
path of the process.
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Quasi-Equilibrium Process: When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains
in nitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi-static or quasi equilibrium
process.
Quasi equilibrium is an idealized process and is not a true representation of an actual process.
Quasi equilibrium processes are easy to analyze.
Quasi equilibrium processes are work producing devices deliver the maximum work when they
operate on quasi equilibrium processes.
Quasi equilibrium processes as standards to which actual processes can be compared.
Difference between Point Function Vs Path Function
Point Function
Path Function
Any quantity whose change is independent of the path is known as point function
Any quantity, the value of which depends on the path followed during a change of state is known as
path function
The magnitude of such quantity in a process depends on the state.
The magnitude of such quantity in a process is equal to the area under the curve on a property
diagram
These are exact differential
These are inexact differential. Inexact differential is denoted by δ NEXT
Properties are the examples of point function like pressure(P), volume(V), Temp.(T),Energy etc.
Ex: Heat and work
Cycle: A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the end of process
i.e., for a cycle the initial and nal states are identical.
Steady Flow Process: Steady ow process is de ned as a process during which a uid ows through a
control volume steadily.
Temperature: The temperature is a measure (degree) of hotness or coldness. (freezing cold, warm
hot)
Temperature Scales:
They are related to absolute temperature scales.

The temperature scales used in the SI and English system are the celsius scale and the
Fahrenheit scale, respectively.
A scale of temperature independent of the thermometric substance is called a thermodynamic
temperature scale.
Kelvin scale is related to Celsius scale by
T(K) = T(C) + 273.16
Rankine scale is related to Fahrenheit scale by
T(K) = T(C) + 459.67
The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by
Pressure
Pressure is de ned as the force exerted by a uid per unit area.

We speak of pressure only when we deal with gas or liquid.
The counterpart of pressure is stress i.e., force per unit area.
1 pascal = 1N/m2
1 bar = 105
Pa = 0.1
MPa = 100 kPa
atm = 101325
Pa = 101.325
kPa = 1.01325 bar
1 kg f/cm2 = 9.807 N /cm2
1 kg f/cm2= 9.807 × 104 Pa
1 kg f/cm2= 0.9807 bar
1 kg f/cm2= 0.96788 atm
The actual pressure at a given position is called absolute pressure and it is measured relative to
absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure)
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Pgauge = pabs – patm (for pressures above patm)

pvac = patm - pabs (for pressures below patm)
where, Pgauge = gauge pressure, pabs = absolute pressure, and patm = atomic pressure

Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is said to exist in a state of Thermodynamic Equilibrium when no changes in

macroscopic property is observed if the system is isolated from its surrounding.
At the state of equilibrium, the properties of the system are uniform and only one value can be
assigned to it.
A system will be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium if the condition for following three
types of equilibrium are satis ed
Thermal Equilibrium (Equality of Temperature): A state of thermal equilibrium can be
described as one in which the temperature of the system is uniform.
Mechanical Equilibrium(Equality of Pressure): In the absence of any unbalanced force
within the system itself and also between the system and the surroundings, the system is
said to be in a state of mechanical equilibrium.
Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure.
A system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any point
of the system.
Chemical Equilibrium(Equality of chemical potential): A system is in chemical equilibrium
when its chemical composition does not change with
time, that is no chemical reaction occurs .It is related to chemical potential
QUASI-STATIC PROCESS
A quasi-static process is one in which the deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is

in nitesimal.Characteristics:
In nite slowness is the characteristic feature of this process.
A quasi-static process is thus a succession of equilibrium states.
It can be represented as a continuous line on the property diagram.
It is also known as a reversible process.
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REVERSIBLE PROCESS
A reversible process is one which is performed in such a way that at the end of the process both
the system and surrounding may be restored to their initial state without producing any changes
in rest of the Universe.
A Reversible process is carried out in nitely slowly with an in nitesimal gradient so that every
state pass through by the system is in equilibrium.
It is possible to execute the process in either of the direction.
No dissipative effect such as friction, loss in a resistor, etc are present.
Heat and work interactions of the system and the surroundings in the reverse process are equal
and opposite in direction to the same in the forward process.
Eg of Reversible Process are
Frictionless isothermal expansion or compression of a uid.
Frictionless adiabatic expansion or compression of a uid.
Elastic stretching of a solid.
Electric current with zero resistance.
IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
An irreversible process is one that is carried out in such a way that the system and surrounding
can not be exactly restored to their respective initial state at the end of the reverse process, that
a net change occurs in the Universe.
In an irreversible the surrounding would always be affected by loss of work and gain of low
temperature heat, which can be considered as waste heat for the surrounding.
The irreversibility of a process may be due to either one or both of the following.
Lack of Equilibrium: between the system and the surroundings or between the two
systems causes a spontaneous change which makes the process irreversible such as Free
expansion or Unrestrained expansion and Heat transfer through a nite temperature
difference
Involvement of Dissipative effects: Dissipation results in the transformation of work into
molecular energy of the system such as Paddle wheel work transfer.
Heat & Work Transfer
Thermodynamic Work: Work is said to be done by a system if the sole effect on things external
to the system can be reduced to the raising of a weight.
Displacement (or) pdV Work
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Expression for pdV Work:
Sign Convention for work transfer:Work done by the system is positive and Work done on the
system is negative
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Work done during various Quasi-static Processes:

Constant Pressure Proces:
Constant Volume Process:
Constant Temperature Process:
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Polytropic Process: pVn =C , where n is a constant

Heat Transfer
Energy transfer by virtue of temperature difference is called Heat Transfer.

Heat Transfer is also a boundary phenomenon.
Speci c Heat:
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance by unit
degree.
For Solids and Liquids
cp = cv = c
For Gases
cp – speci c heat capacity at constant pressure
cv – speci c heat capacity at constant volume
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12/11/2018 Gradeup Play

Study Notes of Basics of Thermodynamics - Study Notes of Basics of EXIT

It deals with equilibrium and feasibility of a process.

It is de ned as the quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

Closed System (Control Mass):

Open System (Control Volume):

Example: Compressor, turbine, nozzle.

Properties of a System: Any characteristic of a system is called a property. It can be independent or

to density of some standard substance at a speci ed temperature. (Usually, water at 4oC, =

Continuum is de ned as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes.

State of system is described by its properties.

The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.

Difference between Point Function Vs Path Function

They are related to absolute temperature scales.

T(K) = T(C) + 273.16

Rankine scale is related to Fahrenheit scale by

T(K) = T(C) + 459.67

The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by

Pressure is de ned as the force exerted by a uid per unit area.

Pgauge = pabs – patm (for pressures above patm)

where, Pgauge = gauge pressure, pabs = absolute pressure, and patm = atomic pressure

A system is said to exist in a state of Thermodynamic Equilibrium when no changes in

A quasi-static process is one in which the deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is

Heat & Work Transfer

Displacement (or) pdV Work

Expression for pdV Work:

Work done during various Quasi-static Processes:

Constant Volume Process:

Constant Temperature Process:

Polytropic Process: pVn =C , where n is a constant

Energy transfer by virtue of temperature difference is called Heat Transfer.

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