IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

Matter
Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter. It may be solid, liquid or gas.

Types of Matter
1. Pure Substance
2. Impure substance

Pure Substance: It may be defined as a material which contains only one kind of atoms or
molecules.

Pure substances are again of two types:

(a) Elements (b) Compounds

(a) Elements:
 Pure substances which are made up of only one kind of atoms are known as elements.
 They cannot be split up into two or more simpler substances by any of the usual chemical
methods.
 For example, Iron, gold, silver, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and sodium etc.

Elements are further grouped into the following three categories:

(i) Metals, for example: Iron, copper, gold, sodium, silver, mercury, etc.

(ii) Non – metals, for example: Carbon, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, etc.

(iii) Metalloids : Boron, silicon, germanium, etc.

Properties of Metals:
 These are lustrous (shine).
 They conduct heat and electricity.
 All metals are malleable and ductile.
 They are sonorous.
 All metals are hard except sodium and potassium.
 All metals are solids at room temperature except mercury which is a liquid.

Properties of Non-metals:
 These are dull in appearance.
 They are poor conductors of heat and electricity except diamond which is a good conductor of
heat and graphite which is a good conductor of electricity.
 They are neither malleable nor ductile.
 They are generally soft except diamond which is the hardest natural substance known.
 They may be solids, liquids
ids or gases at room temperature.

Metalloids: The elements that have properties intermediate between those of metals and non-
non
metals, are called metalloids.

(b) Compounds:
 It is a form of matter formed by combining two or more elements in a definite ratio by mass.
 It Can be decomposed into its constituent elements by suitable chemical methods
 For example: Water (H2O), oxygen (O2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), etc.

2. Impure Substance: It may be defined as a material which contains only one kind of atoms
or molecules.
It is also named as mixture.

Mixtures:
A mixture is a material which contains two or more different kinds of particles (atoms or
molecules) which do not react chemically but are physically mixed together in any proportion.

Types of mixture
(a) Homogeneous mixture (b) Heterogeneous mixture
 S. Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture
No.
1. All the components of the All the components of the mixture
mixture are uniformly mixed. are not thoroughly mixed.
2. No separation boundaries are Separation boundaries are visible.
visible.
3. It consists of a single phase. It consists of two or more phases.
4. Example: Sugar dissolved in Example: Air, sand and common
water salt.

Difference between mixtures and compounds:

S. No. Mixtures Compounds
1. Various elements just mix Elements react to form new
together to form a mixture and no compounds.
new compound is formed.
2. A mixture has a variable The compound has a fixed
composition. composition.
3. A mixture shows the properties of Properties of a compound are totally
its constituents. different from those of its
constituents.
4. They do not have a fixed melting They have a fixed melting point,
point, boiling point, etc. boiling point, etc.
5. The constituents can be seperated The constituents can be separated only
easily by physical methods by chemical processes.

Solution:
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. For example: Lemon water,
sugar solution, soda water, etc.

Components of Solution:
(1) Solvent: The component of the solution that dissolves the other component in it and is
usually present in larger amount, such component of solution is called the solvent.
For example: Water, alcohol etc.
(2) Solute: The component of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent and is usually present
in lesser quantity, such component is called the solute.For example: Salt, sugar, iodine etc.

Properties of solutions:
(i) It is a homogeneous mixture.
(ii) Particle size in a solution is less than 1 nm in diameter.
(iii) Particles of a solution cannot be seen even with a microscope.
(iv) A true solution does not scatter the light.
(v) Solution is stable.
(vi) The solute particles cannot be separated from the mixture by the process of filtration.

Types of solutions:
Various types of solutions are:
(i) Solid in a solid solution: Alloys.
(ii) Solid in a liquid solution: Sugar solution, salt solution, tincture of iodine (iodine is dissolved
in alcohol).
(iii) Liquid in a liquid solution: Lemon water, vinegar (acetic acid in water)
(iv) Gas in a gas solution: Air.
(v) Gas in a liquid solution: Soda water.
(vi) Liquid into gas: Carbon Dioxide and Water, clouds.
(vii) Liquid in Solid : - Like copper sulphate in dental amalgam.
(viii) Gas in Solid : - Gas is adsorbed over the surface of metal.
(ix) Solid in Gas : - Like camphor in air.

What is an alloy?
A material that has metallic properties and is composed of two or more chemical elements of
which at least one is a metal .

These cannot be separated into their components by physical methods. However, these are
considered as mixture because these show the properties of its constituents and can have variable
composition.

The benefit of alloys is that you can combine metals that have varying characteristics to create an
end product that is stronger, more flexible, or otherwise desirable to manufacturers.

 Aluminium alloys are extensively used in the production of automotive engine parts.

 Copper alloys have excellent electrical and thermal performance, good corrosion
resistance, high ductility and relatively low cost.

 Stainless steel alloys are used for many commercial applications such as watch straps,
cutlery etc.

 Titanium alloys have high strength, toughness and stiffness & are used in aerospace
structures .

For Example:
Brass – Copper with up to 50% zinc
Bronze – Copper with up to 12% tin

Solubility:
The maximum amount of the solute which can be dissolved in 100 grams of a solvent at a
particular temperature is known as its solubility in that particular solvent.
Conditions affecting solubility:
(i) Temperature: Solubility of solids in liquids increases with the increase in temperature,
whereas solubility of gases in liquids decreases on increasing the temperatur
temperature.
(ii) Pressure: Solubility of gases in liquids increases on increasing the pressure, whereas the
solubility of solids in liquids remains unaffected by the change in pressure.

Concentration of a Solution
It is defined as the mass of the solute in grams pr
present
esent in 100 grams of the solution.

Mathematical expression for concentration of solution:

In case of liquid solute in liquid solvent concentration can be expressed as:

Mass by volume percentage of a solutio

solution = ×100

What is a stable solution?

A stable solution is a solution in whose particles do not settle down if we leave the solution
undisturbed for some time. This is because the particles of a stable solution are homogeneously
spread.

Different Types of Solutions

Aqueous solution The solution in which the solvent is wa

water.

Non-Aqueous solution
The solution in
n which the solvent is other than water (ether, alcohol or aceton) known as non-
non
aqueous solution.

Concentrated Solution
A concentrated solution is one that has a relatively large amount of dissolved solute.

Dilute Solution
A dilute solution is one that has a relatively small amount of dissolved solute
solute.

Saturated Solution
A solution in which no more quantity of solute can be dissolved at a particular temperature, is
called saturated solution.

Unsaturated Solution
A solution in which more quantity of solute can be dissolved without raising its temperature, is
called unsaturated solution.

Suspension:
The heterogeneous mixture in which solids are dispersed in a liquid are called suspensions. For
example, chalk-water
water mixture, muddy water, flour in water, etc.
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but remain
suspended throughout the bulk of the medium.

Properties of a Suspension:
(i) It is a heterogeneous mixture.
(ii) The particles of a suspension can be seen by naked eyes.
(iii) The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its path
visible.
(iv) A suspension is unstable.
(v) Constituents of a suspension can be separated by the process of filtration.
 Colloid or Colloidal solution:
Solutions in which the size of particles lies in between those of true solutions and suspensions
are called colloidal solutions or simply colloids. For example, Milk, smoke and starch solution,
etc.

Properties of Colloids:
(i) A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture.
(ii) The size of particles of a colloid is too small to be individually seen by naked eyes.
(iii) The particles of a colloidal
olloidal solution are big enough to scatter a beam of light passing through
it.
(iv) A colloid is quite stable.
(v) Colloidal particles cannot be separated by the process of filtration.

• Particles in a colloidal solution follow zigzag path It is normally not possible to see the
colloidal particles because of their very small size. However, their path can be seen under
und a
microscope. These particles follow a zig zig-zag
zag path. You can observe this motion while watching a
film in a theater. The beam of light which falls on the screen from behind has dust particles
present in it. They follow zigzag path. Such type of movement of the colloidal particles was
noticed for the first by Robert particles was noticed for the first by Robert Brown, English
scientist in 1828. This is known as Brownian motion.

Tyndall Effect: The scattering of light by the colloidal particles is known as Tyndall effect.
It can be observed when:

 A fine beam of light enters a room through a small hole.

 Sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest.
Note: The colloidal particles are not the true solutions as their particles are big
enough to show the Tyndall effect, whereas the particles of a true solution do no
show Tyndall effect.

The components of a colloidal solution:

(i) Dispersed Phase: The solute-like component or the dispersed particles in a colloid form the
dispersed phase.
(ii) Dispersion Medium: The component in which the dispersed phase is suspended is known as
the dispersing medium.

Types of Colloids:
Different types of colloids are discussed in the table given below:

Example Dispersing Medium Dispersed Substance Colloid Type

Fog, Aerosol sprays Gas Liquid Aerosol

Smoke, Airborne bacteria Gas Liquid Aerosol

Whipped cream, Soap suds Liquid Gas Foam

Milk, Mayonnaise Liquid Liquid Emulsion

Paints, Clays, Gelatin Liquid Solid Sol

Marshmallow, Styrofoam Solid Gas Solid foam

Butter, cheese Solid Liquid Solid emulsion

Ruby glass Solid Solid Solid sol

Physical Changes
Those changes in which only physical properties of the substances change but no new substances
are formed are called physical changes.
For example - Melting of ice to form water, breaking of glass, preparing a solution etc.

Chemical changes
Those changes in which new substances are formed are called chemical changes and chemical
properties of a substance gets changed in a chemical change.
For example - Rusting of iron, burning a piece of paper etc.

Difference between Physical and Chemical changes:

S. Physical Change chemical change
 No.
1. Here only the physical properties It brings about a change in the
like state, shape or size of a chemical properties of a substance.
substance change.
2. There is no change in chemical There is always a change in chemical
composition of a substance. composition of a substance.
3. No new substance is formed. A new substance is always formed.
4. It is temporary and hence It is permanent and hence irreversible.
reversible.

The
he separation of components of a Mixture:
Some of the important methods used to separate differen
differentt mixtures are explained below:

(1) Evaporation:
Evaporation is a process which is used to separate a solid substance dissolved in liquid. It is
based on the fact that liquids vaporize easily whereas solids do not.

Applications of Evaporation:
 Obtaining salt from see water.

Method:
Mix some ink into water and heat it. After some time the water will evaporate leaving behind the
coloured substance.

(2) Centrifugation:
It is a method of separating the suspended particles of a substance from a liquid in which the
mixture is rotated at high speed in a centrifuge.
 This method is useful in case the suspended particles in a liquid are too small too be retained by
filter paper.

Method:
Milk is put in a centrifuging machine or milk churner and the cream thus separates from milk.

Principle of Centrifugation:
When a mixture is rotated very fast, the denser particles are forced to go to the bottom of the
centrifuge and the lighter particles stay at the top.

Applications of Centrifugation:
 Used in dairies to separate cream from milk.
 Used in washing machines to squeeze out water from wet clothes.

(3) Separating funnel

It is used to separate a mixture of two immiscible liquids, like oil and water.

Principle of Separating funnel :

When a mixture of two immiscible liquids is kept in a separating funnel, the liquids separate out
in layers depending on their densities with the heavier forming the top layer.

Applications of Separating funnel:

 To separate mixture of oil and water.
 In the extraction of iron from its ore where the lighter sl
slag
ag (molten waste material) is removed
from the top by to leave the molten iron at the bottom of the blast furnace.

Method:
The immiscible liquids are allowed to settle in the funnel. They soon form separate layers due to
varying densities. The first liquid is allowed to flow oout
ut of the funnel and as soon as it is
completely poured out, the stopcock is closed thereby separating the two liquids from each
other.
 (4) Sublimation:
This method is used to separate those components from a mixture which can sublime on heating.

For example: Ammonium chloride

chloride,, camphor, naphthalene etc, can be separated from their
mixture by sublimation

Applications of Sublimation:
 Iron can be separated from a mixture of iron fillings and camphor (volatile).
 Common salt can be separated from a mixture of salt and ammonium chl chloride
oride (volatile).
 Method:
Heat the mixture in an inverted d funnel so that the sublimable component sublimes in the air and
settles over the walls of the funnel and the non
non-sublimable
sublimable component, on the other hand, is left
behind.

(5) Chromatography
This method is used to separate two or more dissolved solids which are present in a solution in
very small quantities.

Principle of Chromatography:
This method of separation is based on the fact that though two substa
substances
nces are dissolved in the
same solvent but their solubilities can be different. The component which is more soluble in,
rises faster and gets separated from the mixture.

Applications of Chromatography:
 To separate colours in a dye by paper chromatography.
 To separate drugs from blood.
Method:
Take a filter paper or a blotting paper and place a drop of ink at the rear end. Dip the end in
water. Since ink is a mixture of two or more colors, the component of ink which is soluble in
 water mixes into it and then separates quickly from the other components that are less soluble in
water.

(6) Distillation:
This method is used to separate a mixture solid in a liquid. It is the process of heating the liquid
to form vapour, and then cooling the vapour to get back liquid.

It is used for the separation of components of a mixture containing two miscible liquids that boil
without decomposition and have sufficient difference in their boiling points. This process is valid
only when the difference in boiling point is more than 25 K.

Principle of Distillation:
The volatile liquid evaporates on heating which can be recovered by cooling its vapours by the
process of condensation.

Applications of Distillation:
 It is used to remove salt from sea water to obtain drinking water.

Method:
The mixture is heated in a distillation apparatus. The one substance with lower boiling point
evaporates first, condenses and gets separated from the one with a higher boiling point.

(7) Fractional distillation

 It is the process of separating two or more miscible liquids by distillation, the distillate being
collected in fractions due to boiling at different temperatures.

Fractionating Column:
The apparatus used in this process is similar to that for simple distillation except a fractionating
column which is fitted in between the distillation flask and the condenser. A simple fractionating
column is a tube packed with glass beads. The beads provide surface for the vapours to cool and
condense repeatedly.

Principle of Fractional Distillation:

In a mixture of two or more miscible liquids, the separation of various liquids depends on their
boiling points. The liquid having lower boiling point boils first and can be obtained first from the
fractionating column than the liquid having higher boiling point.

Applications of Fractional Distillation:

 It is used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids like alcohol-water mixture.
 It is used to separate crude oil ‘petroleum’ into useful fractions like kerosene, petrol, diesel, etc.
 It is used to separate different gases of the air by taking the liquid air.
 (8) Crystallisation :
Crystallisation is a process used to separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a
solution. The process involves cooling a hot, concentrated solution of a substance to obtain
crystals.

Applications of Crystallisation:
 Purification of common salt obtained from sea water.
 To obtain crystals of alum (phitkari) from impure
samples.
 To obtain pure copper sulphate from an impure
sample.

Method:

The impurities of a substance are filtered out.

Water is evaporated to obtain a saturated solution.
The solution is covered with filter paper and left as it is.
After some time, the crystals of pure solid are formed.

Is evaporation better than crystallization?

Simple evaporation is not better than crystallization because:
1. Some solid substances decompose because of excess heat. For Example, Sugar gets charred on
extra heating.
2. If after filtration some impurities remain in the solution they can contaminate the solid and
therefore we would not obtain a pure substance.

Separation of Air into Its Components

Process of obtaining different gases from the air
Air is a homogeneous mixture. It consists of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon,
etc. in different proportion, which can be separated into its components by fractional distillation.

In order to obtain nitrogen gas from air, we need to remove rest of the constituents of air. Before
we start, air is filtered to remove the dust particles and then liquefied.

Conversion of air into liquid air

The air which is in gaseous form is converted into liquid air. This is done under high pressure.
Under high pressure, the air is compressed and then cooled by reducing the temperature. This
results in liquid air.
Fractional Distillation
The liquid air is then passed through the fractional distillation column. Here, the liquid air is
allowed to warm-up. up. The bottom of the fractionating column is war warmer
mer than the top. Each gas
starts to separate at different temperatures according to its boiling point.
Nitrogen has a boiling point of --196°C while oxygen has -183°C.
183°C. The nitrogen gas will start to
escape through the outlet and it is collected. The liquid oxygen will be collected in the
fractionating column.

Water Purification
Purification of seawater, separation of alum crystals from impure samples etc.
Cleaning Water for Drinking
To have clean water we need to pass the water obtained from lake through a long process. It is as
follows -
1. SEDIMENTATION TANK - Heavy impure particles settle down when water is left for
some time.
2. LOADING TANK - Alum is mixed with water. Even small suspended particles settle
down.
3. FILTRATION TANK - It has 3 layers of fine sand, coarse sand & tiny stones. When
water passes through them,
hem, it is further cleaned.
4. CHLORINATION TANK - Chlorine is mixed with water in the tank. It kills gems. Now
water is sent to home.

WATER OF CRYSTALLISATION

Water of crystallization is defined as water that is stoichiometrically bound into a crystal.

Crystal salts containing water of crystallization are called hydrates. Water of crystallization is
also known as water of hydration or crystallization water.

How Water of Crystallization

zation Forms
Many compounds are purified by crystallization from an aqueous solution. The crystal excludes
many contaminants, however, water can fit within the crystalline lattice without being
chemically bonded to the cation of the compound. Applying heat can drive off this water, but the
process typically damages the crystalline structure. This is fine, if the goal is to obtain a pure
compound. It may be undesirable when growing crystals for crystallography or other purposes.

Examples

 Commercial root killers often contain copper sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4·5H2O)

cyrstals. The five water molecules are called water of crystallization.
 Proteins typically contain even more water than inorganic salts. A protein may easily
contain 50 percent water.
Water of Crystallization Nomenclature
The two methods to denote water of crystallization in molecular formulas are:
I. "hydrated compound·nH2O" - For example, CaCl2·2H2O
II. "hydrated compound(H2O)n" - For example, ZnCl2(H2O)4