Mass Law

The “mass law” in acoustics is the base of air-borne sound insulation, namely,
the higher the density of a material is, the more unlikely it vibrates when
influenced by sound wave.
From: Building Decorative Materials, 2011

Related terms:

Sound Insulation, Turbines, Thermodynamics, Conservation of Mass, Critical

Frequency, Laws of Thermodynamics, Nobel Prize, Nozzle, Sound Reduction
Index, Mass Flowrate

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Influence of internal thermal insulation on the

sound insulation of walls
Berndt Zeitler, in Energy-Efficient Retrofit of Buildings by Interior Insulation,
2022

2.3.2.4 Critical frequency

Berger’s Mass Law assumes a limp mass. However, if the element has a
bending stiffness, there is a frequency at which it can be excited very easily by
airborne sound and at which it radiates airborne sound very easily. That means
that at this critical frequency the sound insulation is very poor because much
of the sound is transmitted through the element. This frequency is also often
referred to as the coincidence frequency because it is where the wavelength in
air λ0 and the bending wavelength on the plate-like element λB coincide. It is
common practice to either ensure the coincidence frequency is very low, below
200 Hz as is the case in massive construction, or very high as is the case for
lightweight framed construction, above 1600 Hz. The coincidence frequency
can be calculated as follows [8]:
(2.3.7)
⁎

where h is the thickness of panel in meters, ρ is density of panel in kg/m3, c0 is

the propagation speed in air, cL is the frequency independent longitudinal
wave speed in the panel in m/s, and E is the Young’s modulus of the panel in
N/m2. Note that by increasing the thickness of the panel, e.g., going from 0.5
mm (dashed curve) steel to 16 mm gypsum board (solid curve), the coincidence
frequency moves down in frequency (Fig. 2.3.2).

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Fig. 2.3.2. Dip in sound reduction index seen at critical or coincidence frequency fc for single layer of 13-mm gypsum board (fc = 2.5 k Hz) and
single layer of 0.5-mm steel (fc = 22 kHz).

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Fault Detection of a Nonlinear Switching System

Using Finite Memory Observers
Rudy Kajdan, ... Frédéric Kratz, in Fault Detection, Supervision and Safety of
Technical Processes 2006, 2007

3.2 Modelisation
Using the volume conservation principle, state équations are:
(4a)

(4b)

where
Using Torricelli’s law, mass flows Qi, are modelled by:
(5)

(6)

(7)

where and g = 9.81 m/s2 is the gravity constant.

Therefore, it can be noticed than seven integer variables can be used to
describe the discrete state vector q:

When no fault occurs, the first four components of q correspond to the valves’
commands: qi = uvi, i ∈ {1,…, 4}. On a safe system, qi’s evolution correspond to
a forced switching. The last three components of the discrete state vector, qj, j
∈ {5,6,7} depend on the state vector and a change of value of qj means an
autonomous switching of the system. It can be noticed that and are
function of qi and qj whereas and depends only on qi.
The discrete-time nonlinear representation with the sample time Ts = 0.1 s can
be easily deduced from (4) using the Euler’s discretization method:

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Surface Complexation Modelling

M.L. Machesky, ... M.V. Fedkin, in Interface Science and Technology, 2006

3.2 Stern Layer EDL Model Description

A complete Surface Complexation Model (SCM) consists of both mass-law
expressions that describe ion binding to surface functional groups, and
electrostatic correction terms for the mass law expressions derived from
Electrical Double Layer (EDL) theory [60], since the ion adsorption process
results in charge development at the interface. Stern-based EDL models, which
include both the earlier Helmholtz and diffuse-layer EDL representations, are
most commonly incorporated into SCM's, and a schematic of our Stern-based
EDL model as used to model our rutile adsorption data is given in Fig. 6. This
3-plane Stern model was originally due to Van Riemsdijk and co-workers [61],
and is distinct from the widely-used original triple-layer model in that the
capacitance of the outermost Stern plane (C2 in Fig. 6) is not fixed at 0.2 F/m2.
A Stern-based MUSIC model is our SCM of choice because it is capable of
linking macroscopic ion adsorption data with the underlying molecular-level
details in a broadly realistic way [55].

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Fig. 6. Schematic of the three-plane Stern EDL model.

Our recent publications contain complete accounts of the mass-law and

electrostatic equations employed in the use of this SCM (e.g., [15,62]), so those
details will not be repeated here. However, it is important to point out that
fitting a set of adsorption data to a given metal oxide surface with this SCM
generally proceeds as follows. First, the types and concentrations of
protolyzable surface oxygens are determined using available bulk and surface-
specific crystallographic information.
Next, protonation constants for these surface oxygens are determined with the
temperature-compensated MUSIC model, making use of surface-specific bond
length and/orH-bond information if available. As a result of these first two
steps, surface site densities (Ns in Fig. 6) and surface protonation constants
(∑KH in Fig. 6) can be fixed for modeling purposes, and pHzpc values can be
calculated by solving for that pH value where the protonated (positively
charged) and deprotonated (negatively charged) surface oxygen pairs
considered sum to zero charge. Titration curves are then adjusted or “offset”
such that σH=0 precisely at the calculated pHzpc value, provided the effects of
specific adsorption or extraneous protolysis reactions are not significant at the
pHzpc. Adjusted titration data are more properly symbolized by σH,rel to signify
the offset correction relative to the pHzpc, and these adjusted curves are used
for SCM modeling purposes.
Background electrolyte titration data are fitted first with a Basic Stem EDL
model (in which the innermost Stern plane in Fig. 6 is omitted) with the Stern
layer capacitance (CS), and background cation (KM1) and anion (KA) binding
constants as fitted parameters.
Modeling is conducted with the aid of custom-designed Mathematica®
notebooks since commercially available fitting programs such as FITEQL or
ECOSAT were not designed for fitting hydrothermal adsorption data. All ionic
strengths at each temperature are fit simultaneously, and model output
includes the best-fit parameters (CS, KM1, KA), along with parameter errors, and
correlations.
Trace ion adsorption modeling is usually conducted using a combination of
pure least-squares and trial-and-error fitting approaches to better
accommodate the additional dimension of temperature in our data sets. Fitted
parameters are the trace ion binding constants (KM2), and capacitance value
associated with the innermost Stern plane (C1) where trace ions are assumed to
adsorb. Best-fit parameters obtained during the fitting of the relevant
background electrolyte titration data (CS, KM1, KA) are held constant, and
titration and adsorption pH edge data for each ionic strength at a particular
temperature are fit simultaneously.
The fitting of zeta potential data has proceeded somewhat differently for
several reasons. First, it has not yet been possible to perform high temperature
electrophoretic mobility (EM) and surface charge titrations on the same metal
oxide powder. Second, low background electrolyte concentrations (≤ 0.01m) are
optimal for EM titrations to minimize the settling of particles and solution
electrolysis, while our HECC titrations are performed at higher ionic strengths
(≤ 0.01m) to minimize liquid junction potentials. Finally, in our experience, it is
not possible to reliably fit background cation and anion binding constants and
Stern layer capacitance values on the basis of zeta potential values alone which
is perhaps not surprising given that the zeta potential is a property of the outer
reaches of the EDL. Consequently, MUSIC model derived protonation constant
values are adjusted so that calculated pHzpc values match experimental pHiep
values as closely as possible, and relevant cation and anion binding constants
and Sternlayer capacitance values are fixed, based on fits to HECC titration
data for similar powders. Then, following the approach of others [60,63] a
“slipping plane” distance, defined as the distance from the outermost Stern
plane to that point in the diffuse layer where the zeta potential is expressed (d
in Fig. 6), is used as the sole adjustable parameter when fitting zeta potential
data.

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Sound absorption and insulation functional

composites
L. Peng, in Advanced High Strength Natural Fibre Composites in
Construction, 2017

13.3.4.1 Airborne sound insulation properties of

wooden partitions and timber doors
The insulation property of a single wallboard is mainly governed by Mass Law,
and it can be enhanced by improving the weight and thickness. However, the
self-weight of the building element will be largely improved and it will occupy
more space. In order to yield better soundproof property, especially for
lightweight wallboards, possible solutions are limited to double-leaf partitions,
consisting of plates over studding and an intervening cavity. As there is an
elastic air cavity between two plates, the double-leaf insulation structure can be
seen as a vibration system made of “mass-spring-mass.” The incident waves
are reflected twice and absorbed twice. The acoustic energy transmitted
through the second panel is largely attenuated, and the sound insulation
property is greatly enhanced. The double-leaf structure is also used in wooden
insulation doors.
The sound insulation property of a wooden partition is correlated with factors
such as surface density, stud dimensions and space, volume weight and
thickness of filled absorption material, and sealing. Studies have shown that
selecting the optimal face plate has a great effect on the insulation property in
double-leaf structure design. The face plate is expected to have high critical
frequency to avoid coincidence effects. Nevertheless, in some cases, the
compound of a high critical frequency thin panel and a large surface mass
panel can attenuate more vibration energy. Studs in wooden partitions play a
role of supporting the facing plates, supplying stiffness and lateral shear
resistance effects. The dimensions of studs determine the air thickness in the
structure. Sound reduction is improved by increasing air thickness. However,
as the cross area of studs increase, the rigidity of walls is improved, and the
stiffness is increased in the same way. Transmission loss in a stiffness-
controlled region is largely affected and improved in 100–500 Hz (Remes,
2009). The space between wall studs determines amounts of studs, which play
a role of sound bridges in sound wave transmission. The sound absorption
property of the air cavity is weakened necessarily with the increasing amount of
studs, and the sound reduction index is also decreased. When the space of wall
studs is increased, the resonant frequency moves toward low frequency.
Usually the resonant frequency is projected below 100 Hz to avoid the
influence of resonance effect. Under the consideration of the safety of the
structure, it is suggested that the space between studs can be 400 or 600 mm,
and the priority is given to 600 mm. Fig. 13.25 shows a typical sound
insulation partition structure.

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Figure 13.25. A typical structure of sound insulation partition (Remes, 2009): (1) two layers of chipboard or medium density fiberboard (screw
fastening); (2) timber studding and mineral wool; (3) air space (empty, no connection between studs); (4) attachment with screws to floor slab; (5)
sealing to floor slab with EPDM rubber band; (6) sealing of the inner plate to the floor slab with sealing mastic; and (7) outer plate layer
extended to floor level.

Fig. 13.26 shows a typical structure of sound insulation timber door. A porous,

fibrous material filled between two wallboards or facing plates of doors cannot
only block thermal conduction but also absorb acoustic energy, which has a
positive effect on sound reduction. When sound waves propagate through
facing plates and transmit to the air layer, the porous absorption material hung
or put in the air cavity can attenuate partial acoustic energy and improve
transmission loss of the structure. The additional sound reduction index of
filled porous absorption material is commonly 5 dB. Taking the effects of
volume weight of absorption material into account (it has occupied part of air
layer thickness, which can also absorb sound energy), the practical sound
reduction index is improved by 2–4 dB (Zhou, 2006).

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Figure 13.26. A typical structure of sound insulation timber door.

Doors are usually the weakest sound insulating elements between rooms and
therefore need careful acoustic design. Examination of the sound insulation of
doors presupposes two separate transmission paths to be considered: the
structural transmission through the door leaf and the leak transmission
through the slits. Most doors are designed nowadays as double-panel
structures with sound absorbing and fire-resistant materials in the air cavity to
improve the mechanical and sound insulation properties of the door leaf.
According to the research by Finnish scholars, the reduction of interpanel
connections (glue and support laths) is the key point for structural
improvements. The compromise between good stiffness and good insulation
could be found by replacing laths with elastic contacts or honeycomb supports.
Sound absorption materials filled in the core layer can enhance the
soundproofing of the structure. But above all, sound leak has the most
significant influence on the sound insulation property of doors. It can be
improved by about 6 dB by slit-sealing improvements (Hongisto et al., 2000).
The airborne sound insulation properties of doors are rated according to the
standard GB/T 8485-2008.

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Vehicle interior noise refinement – cabin sound

package design and development
D. Vigé, in Vehicle Noise and Vibration Refinement, 2010

Mass law
In the mass-controlled region the TL follows the so-called ‘mass law’. In the
simple case of normal incidence waves on an infinite uniform plate, it is
possible to find an analytical solution to calculate the TL. In this case the
normal incidence mass law (valid for compression wave lengths ≫ plate
thickness) is given by:
(13.4)
where:
pS is the mass per unit surface area of the plate
p0c0 is the characteristic impedance of the gas (air) of mass density p0 and
speed of sound c0.
It is easy to see that in the mass law region the TL increases by 6 dB when
doubling the frequency or doubling the mass per unit surface area. Also,
Equation 13.4 shows that for a given gas (usually air) the TL in the mass law
region depends only on the mass per unit surface area; any modification of the
plate’s stiffness or damping cannot change the level of the TL in this region.
For better sound isolation without increasing the weight too much, it is
possible to adopt specific solutions, such as double wall barriers (see Section
13.5.1).
In practical applications it is more common to deal with incident sound fields
where the angle of the acoustic waves varies randomly from 0° to 90° with
about the same level of probability. For this reason, it is usual to define a
‘random incidence transmission loss’ (TLrandom). Comparison of the predicted
values of TL with the measured value (see Section 13.4.3) shows that better
agreement is achieved by considering a random field with incident angles in
the range 0° to 78° (defined as ‘field transmission loss’, TLfield) rather than
between 0° and 90°: the reason is that in practice it is very difficult to obtain a
real diffuse field in all directions. The relationships between these values in the
low-frequency range (f ≫ fc) are as follows:
(13.5)
(13.6)

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Noise Transmission in Floor Systems

Marshall Long, in Architectural Acoustics (Second Edition), 2014

Concrete Floor Slabs

The transmission loss in thick, monolithic concrete floor slabs can be modeled
by subtracting 6 dB from the mass law relationship previously developed. In
thick panels the shear wave impedance is below the bending impedance so
there is no coincidence effect. Typical examples of measured transmission loss
data are given in Fig. 10.10. Because of the mass law, we quickly reach a point
of diminishing returns if we wish to increase the transmission loss by
thickening the slab. A thickness of 8 to 10 inches, which rates around an STC
58, is usually the practical limit for multistory buildings.
In order to achieve significantly higher STC ratings we must use double panel
or other compound construction techniques. In many situations, a concrete
floor slab is an excellent choice. Although it may not by itself provide an
extremely high STC rating, it has many other advantages. Its low-frequency
performance is excellent. If the spans are controlled it can be relatively stiff,
and there are no squeak problems.

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Some Fundamentals of Chemistry

F.J. BAKER F.I.M.L.S., F.I.S.T., R.E. SILVERTON F.I.M.L.S., L.I.Biol., in
Introduction to Medical Laboratory Technology (Fifth Edition), 1976

Publisher Summary
This chapter discusses some fundamentals of chemistry. It discusses the four
fundamental laws of chemistry, that is, Law of Conservation of Mass, Law of
Constant Composition, Law of Multiple Proportions, and Law of Reciprocal
Proportions. It also describes the gas laws: (1) Boyle's Law, (2) Charles' Law, and
(3) Avogadro's Law. There are several definitions of acids and bases, but the one
that is particularly helpful is that of Bronstead–Lowry, who defined acids and
bases in terms of proton exchange. An acid is a substance existing as
molecules or ions that can donate a proton, that is, a proton donor. A base is a
molecule or ion that can accept a proton, that is, a proton acceptor. The
chapter further presents the dissociation of water. Pure water is a bad
conductor of electricity. The presence of small amounts of dissolved
substances, however, increases the conductance considerably. Neutralization
indicators are substances that dissociate in solution into two (or more)
differently coloured forms, the nature of the form present being governed by
the pH of the solution.

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Sound Transmission in Buildings

Marshall Long, in Architectural Acoustics (Second Edition), 2014

High-Transmission-Loss Construction
An important study was undertaken by Sharp (1973) to try to develop
construction methods that would achieve transmission loss ratings 20 dB or
more above the mass law prediction. In this work several techniques were
utilized, not normally seen in standard construction practice but which could
easily be implemented. These included spot lamination that has been
discussed previously, and point mounting. The point mounting technique he
devised used 1/4 inch (6 mm) thick foam tape squares between the gypboard
and the stud and attached the sheet with drywall screws through the tape. This
technique resulted in panel isolation that approaches the theoretical point
mounting discussed in Eq. 9.54. A triple-panel wall having an STC of 76
utilizing these techniques is shown in Fig. 10.12. This wall has a relatively low
transmission loss value of 33 dB in the 80 Hz band.

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Figure 10.12. High-Transmission-Loss Wall Construction (California Office of Noise Control, 1981)

Figure 10.12 also shows a double-panel wall having the same mass as the
previous construction. It has a lower rating (STC 69) due to reduced
performance in the mid-frequencies but much better performance at low
frequencies (41 dB at 80 Hz). The multiple layers of spot-laminated drywall
significantly reduce the coincidence effects. Similar performance should be
obtained using separate double-stud construction assuming that flanking
paths have been controlled.

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Surface Complexation Modelling

S.S. Mathur, D.A. Dzombak, in Interface Science and Technology, 2006

3.3. Fiteql
Model calculations and optimization of model constants were performed with
the nonlinear least squares optimization program FITEQL [25]. This program is
used to determine optimal sets of equilibrium reactions and mass law
constants to fit a particular set of equilibrium data. Details about the program
can be found in Refs. 18 and 25. The main indicator of the goodness of fit of a
particular model formulation (set of solution and surface reactions and
corresponding equilibrium constants) to a particular data set is the overall
variance VY, which is the weighted sum of squares of residuals divided by the
degrees of freedoms. Values of VY between 0.1 and 20 indicate a reasonably
good fit, with values around 1 being the best.
For each sorbing ion studied, sets of surface reactions were hypothesized and
incorporated in a version of FITEQL containing the Two-Layer Model. The
smallest set of reactions capable of fitting all available data with acceptable
goodness of fit was adopted. After individual fitting of all data sets for a
particular sorbing ion, with the same set of surface reactions in each case,
overall best estimates for the surface complexation constants were calculated
according to the method of Dzombak and Morel [18] as follows:
(12)
where wi is a weighting factor given by
(13)
and (σlogK)i is the standard deviation in log K calculated by FITEQL for the ith
data set. A set of confidence intervals was also calculated for the weighted
average of each surface complexation constant to indicate the uncertainty
associated with the best estimate. Additional details are provided in Dzombak