PATH-505 POULTRY PATHOLOGY

To The Point & Well-illustrated

Practical Class Work

PART ONE

TOP STORIES
● Necropsy of Fowl
● Serum Plate Agglutination Test (SPAT)
● Poultry Vaccination Techniques
● Early Chick Mortality (ECM)

Presented by:
Muhammad Sajjad Hussain

Up to Date: Feb 02, 2012, Wednesday

For Your Suggestion & Feedback: Email: dvmdoctors@gmail.com Contact: +92 322 6272 278
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NECROPSY OF FOWL
Necropsy of fowl means to conduct a postmortem examination to discover the cause of death or the
extent of a disease.

Necropsy Protocol
1. Review the clinical history of disease.
 For how many days mortality is there?
 Previous medication
 When last batch of feed arrived
 Preliminary diagnosis
 Which antibiotic was given and there was toxicity e.g. gentamycin takes 30 days to
remove from body through kidney.
 Water quality
 Coccidiosis
2. Examine the external surfaces: Observe the clinical signs if bird is alive. Pay particular
attenuation to abnormalities of hock joint, eyes, tendons, sheaths, nostrils and mouth. Check
external parasites and skin nodules (check unfeathered skin).
3. If birds are alive, these may be killed by any one of the following methods:
 Administration of CO2 gas in appropriate closed container
 Disarticulation of atlanto-occipital joint
 Intravenous administration of barbiturates
 Killing or slaughtering (convenient)
4. Moisten the feathers (in layer birds) with water containing detergents before opening. If
ornithosis or psittacosis is suspected, the bird should be dipped in 5 % lysol solution and
laminar flow is mostly used for necropsy of such birds.
5. With an enterotom or scissor, cut through lateral commissures of mouth and examine the
oral cavity.
6. Continue the cut of commissures and make a longitudinal incision through the skin of the
head to thoracic inlet i.e. just after the neck. Reflect the skin laterally and examine the
paired vagous nerve and thymus if present.
7. Make a longitudinal incision in esophagus and crop and note the contents and odour of the
material in crop and esophagus.
8. Make a longitudinal incision in trachea, larynx and examine.
9. With heavy scissors, remove the upper beak by a transverse cut near the eyes. This will
allow the inspection of nasal cavity and will expose the open anterior end of infra orbital
sinuses.
10. Insert one blade of a sterile scissors into the infraorbital sinus. Make a longitudinal lateral
incision through the wall of each sinus and examine them. Culture the sinuses if indicated.
11. Incise the loose skin between the medial surface of each thigh and abdomen. Reflect the
legs laterally and disarticulate the hip joint.
12. Incise the skin on medial aspect of each leg and reflect it to expose the muscle and stifle
joint. Look the thigh muscle and stifle joint for deep hemorrhages.
13. Connect the lateral skin incisions with a transverse incision across the middle of abdomen.
Reflect the skin of breast anteriorly and skin of abdomen posteriorly.
14. Make a longitudinal incision through pectoral muscles on each side of keel bone over the
costo-chondral junction. The anterior end of each incision should intersect the thoracic inlet
at dorso-ventral mid joint.
15. With the heavy incisor, cut through the coracoids and clavicle bones.

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16. Make a transverse incision with sterile scissor through the posterior part of abdomen
muscle; remove the ventral abdominal wall and breast as one piece. Observe the air sacs as
they will torn out. (Two types of air sacs: abdominal and thoracic).
17. Normal air sacs are transparent and shiny like onion peal. If lungs are not seen that may be
suspected as air sacculitis.
18. Now see pericardial sac, 1-2 ml fluid is normally there (7-15 ml in HPS). Without touching
them examine the abdominal viscera and air sacs in situ.
19. By use sterile instrument remove any organ and take swab for culturing. Spleen can be
exposed aseptically by freeing the left margin of gizzard. Any unnecessary delay or
manipulation prior to culture increases the probability of contamination. Take intestinal
culture at the end if needed.
20. Examine the pancreas, cut the esophagus at anterior border of proventriculus
21. Reflect the entire G.I. tract posteriorly by cutting the mesenteric attachments and remove
from rectum. Examine bursa. Remove and examine the spleen, liver and genetalia. Remove
ovary and oviduct and open oviduct longitudinally. Also examine the ureter and kidney in
situ. Remove the kidney if necessary. Remove and examine heart, examine lungs.
22. With an enterotome, give incision through proventriculus, ventriculus, intestine, ceaca,
colon and cloaca.
23. Examine both brachial and sciatic nerves. Land mark for brachial plexis is last rib. To
expose the extra pelvic part of sciatic nerve, reflect the thigh muscle present on medial
surface of thigh. Intrapelvic part can be exposed by removing the over-laying kidneys.
24. Use sharp knife for opening of the tibio-tarsal joints and examine the joint fluid.
25. Us a sharp knife and make a long cut through the anterior or medial aspect of the head of
tibia to expose the growth plate of immature birds.
26. With an osteotome split one femur longitudinally and examine the bone marrow.
27. To examine the brain, disarticulate the head and skin it.

SERUM PLATE AGGLUTINATION TEST (SPAT)

(for Mycoplasma spp.)
Rapid Serum Agglutination Test
 It is used for serological detection of mycoplasma in the host.
 Serological detection is the basis for voluntary control program for Mycoplasmosis. Screening
of poultry flock for infection with pathogenic mycoplasma spp. is generally accomplished with
SPAT.
 Generally 10% of flock or minimum 300 birds of flock is tested before onset of egg production
(laying flock); vertically transmitted. Approximately 30 birds /flock are tested after every 2-3
months.
 Serological test also used as laboratory diagnosis aid.
 SPAT is quick, inexpensive and highly sensitive. Infected birds may test positive as early as 7-
10 days after infection.
 Test involved the use of specific strain antigen for;
Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae (both in chicken) and Mycoplasma
meleagridis (in turkey).
Procedure:
 Antigen available commercially by different laboratories is of purple color. Scoring is done
from 0-4. The weak positive tests are repeated.
 Approximately 0.02 ml (20 µl) of serum and 0.03 ml (30 µl) of antigen are mixed on a glass
plate.

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 Plate is rotated for 2 minutes and test examined for visible clumping.
 Antigen obtained from various sources may vary in their sensitivity and specificity but
variation also exists between batches.
 Commercially a vial is available for 100 tests.
Disadvantage:
Greatest disadvantage of SPAT is low specificity (false +ve results). Such results are commonly
obtained after chicken / turkey has been vaccinated with inactivated vaccine against other
infections.
Important Note: Flocks with SPA reaction should be confirmed +ve or –ve with HA or other
serological test(s).

POULTRY VACCINATION TECHNIQUES

Around the world every sector of poultry industry continues to evolve. This is not limited to
quantitative changes but includes qualitative improvements resulting from scientific research and
new insights. Poultry meat and eggs are stable foods all over the world. FAO endorses this and
encourages the development of poultry industry as a whole. To optimize the production and yield of
poultry farms new technologies and management techniques are constantly being researched and
developed.
Poultry health care plays an essential role in this. The steadily increasing the concentration of
number of birds kept under the roof continually demand improved prevention of diseases.
Furthermore existing diseases have evolved during the past decade and new diseases has developed.
Examples of new developments include the isolation of new variant strains of IB virus (IB 491) and
discovery and demonstrated pathogenecity of unknown bacterium in Intervet Research Laboratories
and Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale which could have significant economic impact. Accordingly
vaccinations and particularly mass vaccinations have gained importance.

Vaccines- General Instructions

Choice of live or inactivated vaccine and particular vaccination technique depend upon a large
number of factors. The most important factors:
(a) Type of Animal:
Broilers are vaccinated as they have short life cycle.
(b) Age of Animals:
Very young chicks can be vaccinated by drinking water because they dinked very small amount
of water very at irregular intervals.
(c) Diseases:
For which disease vaccination is carrying out e.g. for EDS only inactivated vaccine exists.
(d) Type of Vaccines:
Vaccines such as live REO vaccines and the Marek’s vaccine can only be administered by means
of injections.

Inactivated Vaccines - General Introduction

Inactivated vaccines consist of water or oil emulsion to which a killed antigen is added during the
aqueous phase during production. Because of the use of killed vaccine, inactivated vaccines can only
be administered by injections. This offers several key advantages. Vaccination with inactivated
vaccines generally induces long lasting, optimum and uniform immunity. Compare to live vaccines,
an inactivated vaccine causes fewer systemic reactions the use of inactivated vaccines. Inactivated
vaccine requires fewer revaccinations in layer and breeders during production. The use of inactivated
vaccines reduces the risk of interference, enabling production and administration of more antigen

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combinations. Moreover, inactivated vaccine entails no risk of spreading of vaccine viruses and
bacteria because killed antigen is used.
Intervet markets killed viral and bacterial vaccines. Viral combination vaccines are common place
these days. In 1985 Intervet was the first company who introduced combined vaccine.

Inactivated Vaccines Application and

Handling Techniques
Most inactivated vaccines are used to administer during rearing flock of breeders and commercial
layers. Some inactivated vaccines such as Nobilis ND, Nobilis influenza and Nobilis FAV against
fowl adenovirus can be done subcutaneously in very young chicks at first week in the neck. In older
animals inactivated vaccine can be administered. intramuscular and subcutaneously in several
different ways. Intramuscular vaccine can be carried out in breast or leg. A combination of two
vaccine is used here; Nobilis REO inactivated vaccine and IB, Gumboro, ND, RT vaccines. For
injection in breast injection is inserted in to the muscle parallel to breast bone with needle pointing in
the of birds head. Care must be taken to damage to joints during injection in leg. Needle must be
inserted pointing away form the hock joint parallel to fibula. This must be done outside as blood
vessels and nerves run inside. Bacterial vaccines are injected generally subcutaneously in the neck.
Some oil emulsion based bacterial vaccines such as Coryza and fowl cholera should only be
administered s/c in neck. It is also preferable injected E.coli and ORT s/c in neck. It is important to
inject in lower part of neck if location is higher just behind the head, it may cause swelling, pain,
difficulty in eating and drinking. Day old chicks are vaccinated s/c in the neck. Automated
vaccination can be used for day old chicks as usually the case with Marek’s vaccine. Following
precautions should be taken during vaccination with inactivated vaccine:
o Vaccines must be kept cool and stored at temperature between 4-8 oC
o The vaccines must be allowed at reach room temperature before vaccination. A water bath
maintained at room temperature may be used. Shake the bottles well before the use and
during vaccinations.
o Open bottles must be used immediately to prevent contamination
o Use clean sterilized syringes with needles of 10 mm by 1-1.5 mm
o Syringes should be calibrated properly
o Injection must be carried out accurately. Make sure that needle is not along the side along
skin between feathers.
o Make sure that entire dose is injected into the birds
o The Needles should be changed regularly; new needle for every 1000 birds is recommended.
o Only vaccinate healthy animals
o Be careful do not prick yourself. Accidentally administration of vaccine may cause severe
inflammatory reaction particularly mineral oil used.

Live Vaccines - General instruction

May live vaccines can be used for mass vaccination. Technique used depends upon several factors.
Main techniques for live vaccines
o Injection in young and older poultry
o Inovo vaccination for embryo
o Spray vaccination
o Drinking water vaccination
o Ocular or nasal vaccination
o Wing web vaccination
o Follicle administration
o Oral vaccination

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Injections of Live Vaccine

For Marek’s, REO virus, CAV and Salmonella. Vaccine should be prepared before administration
with appropriate sterile solvent. The clarity and color of solvent must be thoroughly checked. It
should not contain any sediment. Turbidity or yellow color shows that it is contaminated with
bacteria or fungi. Vaccine must be dissolved in most hygienic condition. Dissolved vaccines must be
used as early as possible preferably within two hours. Vaccination when not start within half an hour
then dissolved vaccine must be kept and transported in ice. A special sterile die can be added to
solvent. A concentration of 1 ml of dye to 1000 ml of solvent or 0.5 ml dye to 500 ml is sufficed. It
can be used to simply to differentiate vaccinated and non-vaccinated birds.

Dissolving Cell-associated Vaccines

These are stored and transported in liquid nitrogen at temperature of -196 oC. Always wear safety
mask and gloves. Firstly vaccine is thawed in water at temperature 5-10 oC then place in water bath
25-27 oC. Before use dry the outside of ampule with tissue paper to avoid contamination from water
bath. Change water of water bath at least once a day. Always use large gauge needle when dissolving
cell associated vaccine to avoid damaging carrier cells. The added to appropriate cell associated
diluent at room temperature. When sold, must never be returned to the nitrogen container. It should
be transported in ice if use after half an hour after dissolved. Cell associated vaccination such as
Nobilis MD + REO 2177 combination is time saving during vaccination. Day old chicks must be
administered s/c and intramuscularly in necks. Destroy any remaining vaccine.
Nobilis CAV vaccine against chicken anemia virus is the only live vaccine which can be mixed with
inactivated vaccine. The freezed dried CAV vaccine must be dissolved in sterile buffer solution
which is supplied in special 2 ml syringes. Then dissolved vaccine is added to inactivated vaccine.
The mixture should be shaken to get maximum result.

Inovo Vaccination Method

It is performed in hatcheries. 18 days old chicken embryo is vaccinated in egg three days prior to
hatching. Vaccine is injected into amniotic fluid. In ovo used mainly for Marek’s and Gumboro
vaccinations. Vaccination takes place when eggs are transferred setter to hatcher.

Spray Vaccination
When mass vaccination is done then spray method is proffered. It is done for IB, ND and turkey
rhinotracheitis. Spray vaccination provide strong local immunity as we can best reach birds mucous
membrane in the eyes, nostrils, beak, ear and if necessary deep respiratory tract Penetration of
droplets in respiratory tract depends on the size of droplets.

There are various techniques for controlling foam and density of the spray. In emergency situation
day old chicks can be vaccinated with the coarse spray. The spray nozzle of this sprayer is quite easy
to adjust but infect it cannot really be adjust accurately enough. The spray clean water horizontally
enters the air in front of dark bark ground with back lighting. This provides an accurate view of the
size of droplets. Adjust the spray nozzle accordingly to generate coarse droplet. The droplet size
should not be coarse but neither should be as fine as the very fine mist the aerosol. The drawback of
this kind of spray is that pressure does not remain constant while spraying.

Knapsacks sprayer can be adjusted more accurately. They regain backlight and provide a good view.
With this type of spray pressure can be controlled accurately using pressure gauge or regulator. Low
pressure produces correct course droplet. Under high pressure sprayer produces the mist consisting

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of small droplets. Aerosol sprayers such as automis or trouble fogger must be adjusted to produce
finest cloud of mist possible. A mist hanging in the air, you do not see falling droplets. Special water
sensitive indicator paper can be used to adjust the nozzle of nobes sprayer and aerosol sprayer. When
you spray on the yellow strip of paper the water droplets changes color of paper to blue. This sure the
exact size of droplets size being produced. Spraying on dry grey concrete floor gives how much the
same result obviously less accurately.

First Day Spray Vaccine

Automatic:
Fully automated vaccine is the vaccination techniques used how much exclusively at hatcheries.
Twelve Thousands of day old chicks can be vaccinated per hour with this technique. The most
common day old vaccinations are those with live Noblis vaccines against IB, ND, TRT and Nobils
Cox ATM. The amount of water in which vaccine must be dissolved depends upon type of spray
equipment. The droplet size depends upon the size of spray nozzle and pressure setting as well as on
the vaccine. For example when priming day old chick with ND clone 30 we want the vaccine reaches
only the upper respiratory tract. This is achieved with coarse spray. The deeper penetration of
vaccine with fine spray results in excessive vaccination reaction.

First Day Vaccination:

If first day vaccine did not take place, it should be performed immediately after the arrival of chicks
on farm. A Knapsack sprayer fitted with correct nozzle and pressure regulator is most suitable for
this. Before spraying line up the chick boxes in rows against each other. Do not place the boxes
under or too close heat source. The use of simple hand sprayer is not recommended because it cannot
be adjusted with great enough with accuracy and coarseness of sprayer is inconsistent due to loss for
pressure. For the first day old vaccination use the following procedure.
For 1000 birds dissolve vaccine in 250 ml of water at 15-20 oC. the water should be of very high
quality preferably distilled or demineralized. To rapidly dissolve the freezed dry pellets the vial
should be opened under water. This must be done with clean hands but without disinfectant or soap
residues. Rinse vial at least three times with vaccine water. Fill the sprayer with solution. It must be
very clean and obviously entire free of disinfectant and soap. The sprayer should be brought up to the
pressure which would good coarse spray definitely not too fine. While spraying hold the spryer
nozzle approximately 40 cm above the bird. Spray rapidly enough to dampen the chicks not too wet.
After vaccination chicks must let dry in boxes. This takes at least 20-30 minute.

Semiautomatic Spraying
In general semiautomatic spraying equipment Knapsack spryer are used in older birds with dispenser
coarse spray. There are different types of sprayers as with double spray nozzle can deliver the
vaccine efficiently and accurately in shorter time. These sprays must be dedicated strictly to the
vaccination only in order to prevent cost contamination from infections, toxins or disinfectants. A
new technique is Knapsack with six or more nozzle used in battery houses. Spray vaccine in older
birds are primarily used for vaccinating against respiratory passages such as IB, ND, and TRT. For
spray use 500-1000 ml of very high quality water per 1000 birds at 15-20 oC . Ventilation system
should be turned off during and until shortly after the vaccination. In order to ensure older chicken
has vaccinated birds must be hurdle the chicks together. One way to achieve is by creating the
central part in full light after which light must be dim as much as possible before spray. The house
temperatue should be low as 1-2 oC. in Order to keep the birds calm and we use special blue light.
Spray nozzle held at 40 cm about birds. It is strongly recommended use spray mask. In open sided
houses vaccination should be done in evening or around dawn since when it is cool in building and
birds are at rest. After vaccination is completed the spray equipment must be clean.

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Aerosol Vaccination
For M. gallisepticum and revaccination of ND in older birds. It is appropriate technique for live
Nobilis Mycoplasma (Mg 6/85) and for booster live ND as these penetrate deeply in respiratory tract.
For this technique 400 ml water for 1000 birds. 15-30 minutes after vaccine the ventilation and heat
system be opened.

Spray Cart for Older Birds

It is multifunctional labour saving device for battery cages. Coarse spray, fine spray or closed nozzle
can be adjusted.
Coccidiosis
For day old in chicks. It can also be done with hand sprayer as size of droplet is not major issue.
(Feed should be coccidiostat free)
It contains oocyst so not used in drinking water in nipple system. Ratio is 1:10 (vaccine:water).
Shake the sprayer time to time to prevent setting of oocyst at bottom.

Drinking Water Method

In case of IB, ND, Gumboro, Salmonellosos and Coccdiosis it most of time may not effective. But it
is most easy and economical. To make drinking water more effectively follow these points:
Water quality check regularly as pH not too high or too low, no heavy water, no chlorination.
Chick should drink sufficient water. For this keep them thirsty. Type of bird, its age and weather are
the factors to decide time to keep birds thirsty. 2-4 hours is given usually to bring bird. 2-2½ hours
are the time within which water should be completed. Water intake can be encouraged by
vaccination immediately after feeding. Immediately after sun rise in early morning or when lights
turn on also effective as lights stimulate the birds.
Drinking water should be discouraged:
For coocidiosis as oocyst settle around pipes and in nipple
o Below 4 days younger as uptake is irregular. Day 4-5 eye drops done
o Following complete instructions for drinking method:
o Two systems: Trough system or nipple system
o Drinkers must be dry and free of detergents
o Keep thirsty as discussed above
For 1000 birds, 1000 vaccine doses 10 liters water for 1000 birds per day age of bird
For example 1000 birds of 25 day old > 10 × 25 = 250 liters
as bird is 25 day old so in 10000 birds it is upto 40 days of age. Above 40 days 40 liter per 1000
birds
(consult this formula with fellows)
For IB and gumboro and salmonella addition of 2 g skimmed milk powder is used. 1 liter milk per 50
liter of water. 1000 doses per 1000 birds dissolved in required water. Hyaline tablets to give water a
color.

Drinking Nipple System

To prevent from drinking raise the pipe line and turn off the system. Then drain the system. 1 litter
milk in 50 liters of water is used. In hot condition birds take more water. In this case increase the
amount of water and give vaccines in two halves; one after other. Blue color can added in water. It
helps in identifying the birds who have taken vaccine. This can also be used to check whether
vaccine has been reached at the end of line. All colors are non carcinogenic be sure.
1 tablet 170 liter of water

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Cox ATM against coccidiosis consists of solution containing chrlophil which gives green color to
vaccine. Spraying or drinking water can be used but spraying is preferred. Oocysts are in vaccine so
nipple system is not suitable as settle around nipples. 1:100 for dilution. Shake solution during water.
5 ml per chick of vaccine solution is poured directly into drinkers.

Ocular and Nasal Method

Best for live vaccine. Every animal receives proper dose. Labourious methods. Rapid and uniform
immunity. Used for IB, ILT, tRT and ND. Following instructions:
Dissolve in appropriate solvent by special dropper with ice to keep it at lower temperature. Color
may be added
One drop is given in eye or nostril. Do not touch the eyeball of bird to avoid damage. Same drop size
should be.

Wing Web Method

Used for Nobilis Ovo-diphterin, and AE pox. Do not insert into muscle. Insert though the feather
underside of wing. One needle is used in case of less than 2 weeks.

Oral Vaccination Method

Used for Nobilis AE 1143. 8-16 weeks of age of bird oral. It is performed in floor raring system.
There must be mutual contact of bird. Not in battery cages or floor made of wire. Only 4% of flock is
vaccinated.

EARLY CHICK MORTALITY (ECM)

It is the mortality of chicks during first two weeks of brooding period. It provides great economic
challenges to the poultry farmers. It is a matter of great concern.
ECM is the result of many integrated factors unless tackled carefully from different angles by
nutritional, managemental and disease control. It is very difficult to control early chick mortality
(ECM).

Causes of ECM
According to one classification, there are four types of causes;
(i) Genetic causes
(ii) Managemental causes
(iii) Nutritional causes
(iv) Diseases
According to another classification, causes are classified as:
(a) Infectious (incl. genetic, managemental and nutritional causes)
(b) Non infectious (Incl. diseases)

(i) Genetic Causes:

Sticky embryo die during last 4 days of incubation and about half of naked chicks die during last
2-3 days before hatching. If we make comparison between control and genetically affected
group, there is difference of 25% hatchability (less is effected).

(ii) Managemental Causes:

BROODING & BROODING TEMPERATURE

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Brooding the chick on floor needs 3 inch layer of clean good quality dry litter material. Saw dust
and other fine material should be avoided to prevent the excessive litter consumption because
they may lead to chocking problem. Secondly saw dust is very important source of fungus
contamination (Aspergllosis). Brooding pneumonia is caused by Aspergillus fumigatus.
Brooding on slippery paper or surfaces is not advised due to development of skin abnormalities
and lameness in young chicks.
A chick guard of 18"-24" height and 6-10 feet long may use.
HIGH BROODING TEMPERATURE:
a) Dehydration:
Body of the young chick has 70% water. Continuous high temperature causes loss of
water. When this water loss reaches up to 10%, chicks start to die due to dehydration.
b) Pasting:
This is another problem in which fecal material block the vent that ultimately results to
chick death.
LOW BROODING TEMPERATURE
a) Chilling & Brooding pneumonia:
Temperature below normal leads to brooding pneumonia or chilling; in which lungs turn
blue.
b) Smothering:
Under low temperature, chicks huddle together to maintain the body temperature. Thus,
smothering leads to suffocation (asphyxia) that ultimately leads to death of the chicks.
Chilled chicks have smaller bursa as compared to the normal chicks. Proper brooding helps in
absorption of yolk and prevents yolk sac infection (omphalitis).
Prevention of temperature related problems: Try to maintain normal temperature throughout
brooding in entire brooding house. There is no substitute for solution of this problem other than
maintaining temperature.

iii) Nutritional Causes:

Yolk sac is regarded as nutritional source for first 48-72 hours for hatchlings. Although it is a
rich source of maternal antibodies and vitamin but it does not provide complete nutrition. Use of
nutritional supplements as soon as possible help in development of intestine, immunity and
general health. It is important to remember that early chick growth is important factor and it is
determined by intestinal development. This growth controls the potential growth of chick during
later period.
FEED POISONING
Fungus contaminated feed and other toxic material in feed causes feed poisoning. Salt
poisoning, high level of salt leads to salt poisoning
AMMONIA TOXICITY
Ammonia is very important in young chick. Putting the curtains down for longer period in chick
house leads to accumulation of ammonia; which usually causes irritation of mucous membranes
and eyes. Consequently, there is reduced feed consumption and less weight gain. Death occurs
as a result of hemorrhages and loss of cilia in trachea. Normal level is 25 ppm but when 100
ppm, ammonia toxicity occurs.
DEFFICIENCY OF ESSENTIAL VITAMINS
Deficiency of all essential vitamins A, D, E, K (B complex also) leads to stunted growth and
even mortality in young chicks.

iv) Diseases/ Infectious Causes:

o Omphalitis: E. coli, salmonella, proteous, staph are causative agents
o Collibacillosis: E. coli, pericarditis, prihepatitis

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o Salmonellosis
o Brooding pneumonia or Aspergellosis ( caused by Aspergillus fumigatus)
o Newcastle Disease (ND)
o Infectious Bronchitis (IB)
o Avian Encephalomyelitis (AE)
o Chicken Infectious Anemia (CIA)
 Infectious causes play crucial role in the life of chick imposing a major limiting factor on
intensive production program. Economic loss reflected in heavy mortality or low egg
production.
 ECM may be caused by bacterial infection showing lesions in yolk sac and some viral
and fungal diseases.
 Many infections transmit from parents vertically; some are hatchery borne i.e.
salmonellosis. Even egg contamination with microorganisms play significant role in
poultry production. 30-35% of chick mortality is due Enterobacter related problems.
 Salmonella considered as a frequent cause next to collibacillosis and outbreak occurs
during first 3-4 days of life of chicks. E.coli with other organisms contribute yolk sac
infection (omphalitis) that leads to 5-10% mortality.

OMPHALITIS
Syn: Yolk sac infection
It is an important cause of ECM. In this, bacteria affects chick during and after hatching.
Causative Agents: E.coli, Salmonella, Staph aureus and Pseudomonas spp.
Clinical Findings:
Naval (yolk sac) infection characterized by:
(a) Inflammed skin of naval area (b) Soft flabby and distended abdomen
(c) Vent pasting
PM lesions: Yolk became brownish or black in color and gives foul odour.
Treatment:
For best response against E.coli:
Enrofloxacin (Fluroquinolones) much safer used in poultry.
Brand Names: Avitryl, Enrosol-S. Kenflox, Enrotil, Enroflex, Encure and Floxivet
10% = 1 ml/2 liter
20% = 1 ml/4 liter
In more sever problem, it is indicated to use in combination with colistin:
Colistin preparations: Colimex-T, Colisol (used 1g/10 liter of water)
Enrofloxacin + Colistin preparation: Enrocol
Against omphalitis/ E.coli infection, best results can be obtained by using Norfloxacin and
Ciprofloxacin (Ciprosel @ 1ml/20 liter)
For best response against Salmonella spp.
Nitrufuran in combination with Chloramphenicol
Fluorofenicol (Neflox, Neflor) and Frultadone are also safely used in poultry.

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