CHINA
WHAT IS CHINESE LITERATURE?
Chinese literature is among the most imaginative and
interesting in the world. The precision of the language
results in perfectly realized images whether in poetry or
prose and, as with all great literature, the themes are
timeless.
The history of Chinese literature extends thousands of
years, from the earliest recorded dynastic court archives
to the mature vernacular fiction novels that later arose
to entertain the masses of literate Chinese.
PERIOD OF CHINESE HISTORY
Ancient Period (1700 BC - 205 BC )
Writing in China dates back to the hieroglyphs that were
used in the Shang Dynasty. Chinese literature is a vast
subject that spans thousands of years. There are
archaeological finds of hieroglyphic writing on bronze
wares and oracle bones. The great literary works of
philosophy and religion became the basis for Chinese
religious and social belief at this era.
Confucianism is an ancient Chinese belief system, which
focuses on the importance of personal ethics and
morality. Confucianism believes in ancestor worship and
human-centered virtues for living a peaceful life.
Confucius was a philosopher and teacher who lived
from 551 to 479 B.C.E. Confucius's teachings and
philosophy underpin East Asian culture and society,
remaining influential across China and East Asia to this
day. After Confucius’ death, several of his disciples
compiled his wisdom and carried on his work. The most
famous of these disciples were Mencius and Xunzi, both
of whom developed Confucian thought further.
The main idea of Confucianism is the importance of
having a good moral character, which can then affect
the world around that person through the idea of
“cosmic harmony". The idea of “filial piety,” or devotion
to family, is key to Confucius thought. The family is the
most important group for Confucian ethics, and
devotion to family could only strengthen the society
surrounding it.
Taoism or Daoism is an ancient tradition of philosophy
and religious belief that is deeply rooted in Chinese
customs and worldview. Both share ideas and concepts
of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with
the Tao. Taoism is about the Tao. The Tao is the
ultimate creative principle of the universe. All things
are unified and connected in the Tao. It is a religion of
unity and opposites; Yin and Yang. The principle of Yin
Yang sees the world as filled with complementary
forces - action and non-action, light and dark, hot and
cold, and so on.
Taoism promotes:
 achieving harmony or union with nature
 the pursuit of spiritual immortality
 being 'virtuous' (but not ostentatiously so)
 self-development
Imperial Era
From the mythic origins of the Chinese dynasties to the
eventual fall of the last imperial house, Chinese
emperors have long fought to maintain control over one
of the most enduring empires on Earth. The rise and fall
of various imperial families oversaw waves of
innovation and cultural advancement. Qin Shin Huang
unified China, becoming the nation's first emperor.
Initiating the period known as the Imperial Era in China
(221 BCE-1912 CE) when dynasties ruled the land.
This era’s main contribution to Chinese literature was in
the poetry of Dufu, Li Bai and many other poets.
Scientific and Historical Text emerges in the Han
Dynasty.
The Four Classic Novels
Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the
Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber; these
four novels form the core of Chinese classical literature
and still admired in modern culture.
Modern Era
( 1912 - present ) Chinese literature became
westernized the national government wanted women
to have more equal status in society and women writers
and scholars were taken more seriously there was a lot
of politically oriented literature printed scholars had
access to foreign literature and many students studied
abroad.
Modern Literature- The Opium War brought an end to
China's seclusion from the outside world and caused it
to progress to a new period in its history.
Contemporary Literature - With the development of
the New Culture Movement, new thoughts refreshed
the literary field. They tried to approach the public with
more oral and excellent works as well as the literary
association.
Present-Age Literature- Modern China's political arena,
thriving economy and culture provides more freedom
and an open atmosphere in which present day
literature takes on a greater brilliance. Poems, essays,
fiction and drama in a broad spectrum of themes and in
many forms are quite popular. Newspapers, magazines,
radio, and the Internet, all give writers of literature
much scope for their exertions.
Lu Xun- He was a leading figure in modern Chinese
literature. Writing in vernacular Chinese and classical
Chinese, he was a short story writer, editor, translator,
literary critic, essayist, poet, and designer. In the 1930s,
he became the titular head of the League of Left-Wing
Writers in Shanghai during republican era China. Lu
Xun's writing exerts a substantial influence on Chinese
literature and popular culture.
CHINESE WRITING STYLE
In a written language, a logogram, logograph, or
lexigraph is a written character that represents a word
or morpheme.
The use of logograms in writing is called logography,
and a writing system that is based on logograms is
called a logography or logographic system.
Chinese characters, also known as Hanzi are one of the
earliest forms of written language in the world, dating
back approximately five thousand years. Nearly one-
fourth of the world's population still uses Chinese
characters today. As an art form, Chinese calligraphy
remains an integral aspect of Chinese culture.
Chinese characters do not constitute an alphabet or a
compact syllabary.
Two forms of Hanzi: Traditional and Simplified
COMMON LITERARY FORMS
 PLAYS / DRAMA
 FICTIONAL NOVEL- Examples of Chinese
fictional literature are the old classical novels:
Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance
of the Three Kingdoms, Dream of the Red
Chamber
 Philosophical and Religious Writings - It is
compose of a scripture about ancestral rites
and divination, and school of thoughts from the
philosophers of the past such as Confucius and
Laozi. Appreciating the complexity of this rich
and enduring culture is crucial to understanding
the beliefs that have helped to shape China’s
behavior and history.
Analects of Confucius
The analects is an ancient Chinese book composed of a
large collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the
Chinese philosopher Confucius and his contemporaries,
traditionally believed to have been compiled and
written by Confucius's followers. It strongly emphasizes
the importance of morality for the betterment of
oneself and society in general.
COMMON ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS
“Respect yourself and others will respect you.”
“Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles.”
“To be wealthy and honored in an unjust society is a
disgrace.”
“Never give a sword to a man who can't dance.”
“When the wind blows, the grass bends.”
“The man who moves a mountain begins by carrying
away small stones.”
“Learning without thinking is useless. Thinking without
learning is dangerous.”
 Poetry- Chinese classical poetry is an integral
part of Chinese culture and values. It covers
social life, including socio-political, economic
and cultural life, and the state. The aesthetic
level and tendency reflected by Chinese
classical genre is timeless.
CHINESE POETS
Li Bai - left home at 24 when he got married and began
to write poetry. He began to wander, showing off his
poetry in order to receive employment. He eventually
went to Chang’an, the Tang capital city, and became
part of a poetry group. He became the unofficial poet
laureate for Prince Lin, who was eventually executed for
treason. Li was arrested and eventually banished. Li Bai
celebrated his love of drinking and wrote poems about
friendship and nature.
Li Yu- was the final ruler of the south Tang dynasty,
before Taizu, the founder of the Song dynasty invaded
and took over. Li Yu was the master of the song form
and his earlier poems reflected the luxury of court. His
most impressive poetry, came sadly when he
experienced the loss of his kingdom.
Li He - is a brilliant Chinese poet who showed great
promise until his untimely death at age 26. He's style
and diction are often idiosyncratic and even hermetic,
and his work presents daunting challenges to readers
wishing to follow the flights of his imagination, or simply
to construe the basic sense of his language.
Du Fu - was a Chinese poet and politician of the Tang
dynasty. Along with his elder contemporary and friend
Li Bai, he is frequently called the greatest of the Chinese
poets. He is often described as a poet-historian, and
his works convey the emotional impact and import of
political and social issues and register a range of private
concerns, trials, and dramas.
Chinese Major Festivals
 Chinese New Year
 Lantern Festival
 Tomb Sweeping Day
 Mid-Autumn Festival
INDIA
 World’s 7th Largest Country located in South
Asia
 “India” and “Bharat” are both official names
 Derives from Indus river used by “Greek”
 India civilization grew up in the Indus Valley
4000 to 2000 BC
3 Main Topographic Regions
TOPOGRAPHIC - It means “Land” 
3 MAIN REGIONS:
 HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS SYSTEM ON THE
NORTH 
 GANGES and BRAHMAPUTRA RIVERS IN NORTH
CENTRAL INDIA.
 PENINSULAR INDIA IN THE SOUTH
Language: More than “200 languages” are spoken in
India
The Earliest Indians may have migrated from Australia
and the Pacific Islands.
4 major Languages:
 INDO-ARAB BRANCH OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN
GROUP
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE GROUP
 HINDI
 INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGE
3 Major Religious traditions have emerged from this
area:
 HINDUISM - Adherent to the proscription
against violence toward living things can escape
from the cycle of “Rebirth” and the doctrine
also form a basis for vegetarian
 JAINISM - Non-violence is a core religious duty
and followed so strictly that the most
“Orthodox” devotes cover their faces with mask
to prevent accidentally harming insect.
 BUDDHISM - Non-violence is manifest in the
Buddha’s emphasis on compassion and is also
part of the faith’s moral codes.
Indian Caste System
INDIAN CASTE SYSTEM - Major social system that
groups people according to birth 
CASTE - It means “States”
Caste System are:
 BRAHMINS: Priest, the Highest caste 
 KSHATRIYAS: Warriors and Kings 
 VAISHYAS: Merchants 
 SHUDRAS: Manual Labourers 
 DALITS or UNTOUCHABLE - The most lowest
caste, where the people not fall to any caste
and traditionally tasked with work such as
cleaning streets and working with human
LITERATURE
 SANSKRIT LITERATURE
Oral Tradition
Vedic Holy Text
 MAHABHARATA and RAMAYANA
Two great books
 400 B.C - “PANINI”
Produced his sanksrit gramma
 SECOND CENTURY AD
“Prakrits” is being used in literature 
 MIDDLE AGES SANSKRIT
Used in religious context by “priesthood”
 GHAZAL
Stylized form of “lyrical folk song” and “notable
exponents of the form
 MICHAEL MADHUSUDAN DUTT
Introduce “Black Verse in Sonnet into Indian Poetry.
 MADHUSUDAN DUTT
Wrote the “First Plays Modeled on Western Drama”
 SIR RABINDRANATH TAGORE
Introduced by the Short Story to Vernacular writing in
India
 IQBAL
Major Poets of the Period
4 Hindu Gods
 GANESH - God of Good Fortune
 BRAHMA - God of Creation
 SHIVA - God of Destruction
 VISHNU - God of Preservation 
BRAHMA, VISHNU, SHIVA - They are the “Trinity God” of
Indians
The Ramayana is not just a story, but also an
educational medium to demonstrate the importance of
values such as loving and respecting your family,
keeping your promises, protecting the weak and that
good deeds are the means to reach a higher plane while
bad deeds lead to destruction.
HEBREW
Literature in Hebrew has been produced
uninterruptedly from the early 12th century BC, and
certain excavated tablets may indicate a literature of
even greater antiquity.
HISTORY/ORIGIN
The emergence of Hebrew literature dates back to the
doctrines that were dictated orally at the time of
Abraham, one of the most relevant characters in
Christianity and Judaism. These manifestations will take
place in the oral language known as The Law, or the
Torah.
HALAKAH - a word which came from the Hebrew halak
meaning go or a rule to go by. most popular Hebrew
literature in the first centuries of the Christian Era.
HAGGADAH- coming from the Hebrew higgid meaning
to tell. it embraces folklore, theology, ethics, history,
poetry, science, and extra nonlegal material.
The Hebrew alphabet is often called the "alef-bet,"
because of its first two letters.
Alef - first letter
Tav- last letter
Note that Hebrew is written from right to left, rather
than left to right
Note that there are two versions of some letters. Kaf,
Mem, Nun, Peh and Tzadeh all are written differently
when they appear at the end of a word than when they
appear in the beginning or middle of the word.
The alef-bet has no vowels. People who are fluent in the
language do not need vowels to read Hebrew, and most
things written in Hebrew in Israel are written without
vowels.
The Monarchy

KING SAUL - first King of Israel

KING DAVID - crushed the civil wars and defeated the

enemies of the Hebrews

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

 THE BIBLICAL PERIOD - Ancient Hebrew

historiography is not the documentary and
scientific historiography of modern times. It is a
union of legend and fact, imagination and
speculation. 3. LYRIC POETRY - Ancient Hebrew poetry
employs some of the same petic devices found
 THE POST BIBLICAL PERIOD - the immediate
in Germanic verse – parallelism of structure of
post-biblical period is merely an extension of
idea, repetition, and balance, there is no rhyme
the biblical period. Many apocryphal and
and no regular meter, but usually there is a
apocalyptic books were patterned after the
distinct rhythm.
biblical prototype.
THE PSALMS - An anthology of 150 hymns, compiled c.
 THE MIDDLE AGES- when Islam became
150 B.C A few of the hymns were probably written by
widespread in almost all parts of the world, the
David (c. 1000 B.C.); some where written during the
Hebrews were forced to follow the Arabs in
periods of the Kingdom and of the Exile; most were
science and literature. great advances of
post-Exilic.
culture were felt in the realm of poetry. Under
the impact of Arab influences, latent and new 4. DRAMA - Although there was no theater in
poetic devices were formed. Palestine, there are two examples of dramatic
writing: Job and The Song of Songs/Song of
HEBREW POETRY- rhyme and meter as well as
Solomon
European forms like the sonnet were also introduced
into Hebrew poetry. THEMES: wine, nature, sensual Job (c. 350 B.C.), the book of Job is a philosophical
love, and friendship drama, principally in poetic form; it was probably
influenced by Greek tragedy – in content as well as
THE BIBLE- the most widely read book in the world, has
in form.
been translated into more languages and dialects than
any other. It is divided into three parts: The Old The song of songs or Song of Solomon- - A semi-
Testament, The New Testament, and The Apocrypha. dramatic poem intended to be presented with
songs and dances a spart of a wedding ceremony.
THE OLD TESTAMENT- made up of 39 books, which may
be classified conveniently in six groups: History,
Prophetic Books, Lyric Poetry, Drama, Wisdom
5. WISDOM LITERATURE- Proverbs (compiled c.
Literature, and Tales.
300 B.C.). A book prudential sayings, chiefly poetic;
1. HISTORY - PENTATEUCH erroneously ascribed to Solomon probably of
popular origin.
The first main part of the Old Testament is called the
Pentateuch - the first five books namely: Genesis, Ecclesiastes (c. 150 B.C.). Wrongly ascribed to
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy Solomon, this is a series of heretical essays of
profound pessimism, fatalism, and skepticism
(except of many provers and pious passages
interpolated by later editors).

5. TALES - Several stories (once considered true,

now generally recognized as fictional) are
included in the Old Testament. Each one has a
special purpose of message.

Ruth (c. 350 B.C.). A short story containing a tactful

protest against the forbidding of racial
intermarriage.

Jonah (c. 275 B.C.). A widely misunderstood tale

2. PROPHETIC BOOKS- The Old testament prophet
was not primarily a soothsayer; he was a
religious and social reformer. He was a
spokesman for God--- a spokesman who
pointed out the people’s evils to them and who
often threatened the nation with disaster and
destruction unless it repeated.
about an early Jewish missionary who rebels when
sent to Nineveh, who repents and carries out his
mission, but who rebels a second time when God
forgives Nineveh.
Daniel (c. 150 B.C.) An allegorical tale written for
the purpose of encouraging the Jews during the
Maccabean struggle.
Esther (c. 150 B.C.). Probably the latest of all the
Old Testament books and also the least moral.
THE NEW TESTAMENT
The New Testament contains 27 books written in
Greek by 15 or 16 different authors between 50 C.E
and 120 C.E. It can be divided into 4 groups:
Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, Epistles, and
Apocalypse.
There are four accounts of the life of Christ. They
agree in most essentials but differ in minor details.
1. Matthew - TWO MAIN PURPOSE:
(1.) to prove to the Jews that Christ was a
fulfillment of the old prophecies - that he was the
Messiah
(2) to record the ethical teaching of Jesus
2. Mark- The earliest, shortest, and perhaps most
authentic of the Gospels. It is the source book for
Matthew and Luke; three are called the "The
Synoptic Gospels."
3. Luke- Written by Luke, a physician and the
companion of Paul on some missionary journeys.
Uses Mark and Matthew as sources, but draws in
other material as well.
4. John - The book shows the influence of Greek
and Alexandrian philosophy, especially the doctrine
of the logos. Its emphasis is on the divinity of Christ,
His personification of logos, faith, identification of
the love for God with the love for man, and mystical
union with deity.
THE ACTS OF APOSTLES
By Luke, the author of the third Gospel. The Acts is
a vivid and moving narrative of the spread of
Christianity over Asia Minor, the islands of the
Mediterranean, Greece, and Rome.
EPISTLES
Believed to be the divinely inspired writings of the
Apostles or followers of Jesus Christ, the Epistles
are the collection of writings and lectures given by
followers. This has proved to be the most
universal influential letters ever written as an
account of later Christian doctrine and practice.
tHE BOOK OF REVELATION - the last book of the
Bible, is one of the most difficult to understand
because it abounds in unfamiliar and extravagant
symbolism, which at best appears unusual to the
modern reader.
TALES
Judith - A fictitious story of a God-fearing Jewess,
who, when her native Bethulia is besieged by
Nebuchadnezzar’s men, makes her way (by names
of her beauty and her wisdom) into the tent of
Holofernes, the leader of the Assyrian
expeditionary force.
Susanna and the Elders - An excellent little story about
a beautiful and righteous matron whom two wicked
elders attempt to seduce.
Tobit - A wildly romantic tale which shows both
Egyptian and Persian influences.
PARABLES
The parables of Jesus make up a crucial part of the
Bible. Jesus had the wisdom to simplify the profound
spiritual truths he needed to share with humanity in
the form of relatable stories that are easy to
understand.
PERSIA
Iran (Persia) is the most populous and the second
largest country in the Middle East, and a major exporter
of oil.
Iran, meaning “Land of the Aryans” was the center of a
great empire of the ancient world and remained a
monarchy until the Islamic Revolution of 1979 and the
establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran. In the
west, the country has been known as Persia, from the
ancient Greek name for the heartland of the empire,
Persis.
Aryan tribes migrated into the Iranian plateau in the
2nd millennium B.C.
Iran’s official language, Persian(Farsi), is an Indo-
European Language, it has been written in modified
Arabic script since the 10th Century.
Some 99% of the Iranians are Muslims, over 93%
belonging to the Shiite branch of Islam and under 6% to
the Sunni branch.
Iran has a very rich culture. Persian literature has
flourished for over a thousand years, with poetry as
the most important art form. Music and architecture
are also historically important, as are calligraphy and
miniature painting. Iran also is famous for its crafts,
including ceramics, silver and gold metalwork, and
above all Persian Carpets. The traditional crafts,
however declined with industrialization.
The Government of Iran is the first theocratic republic
in the world. The constitution of the Islamic republic
gives its leader, the Faqih, extensive religious and
secular powers, including the right to appoint the
commanders of the armed forces and the head of the
judiciary and to confirm the elected president.
Legislative power is vested in the major, whose
members are elected every 4 years.
CHARACTERISTIC
Persia has been influenced by the varieties of ideals,
religions, the way of life of the different invaders who
had dominated Persian soil. The most zealous adherents
of Islam endeavored to reconcile themselves with the
mysteries of existence and transcendental reality
beyond the strappings of ceremonials by practice of
Sufism (mortification of mortal flesh) by the wearing
wool (suf in Arabic).
Arabic and Persian Literature became strengthened by MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
sufi terms. In fact, it became a staple ingredient of
Japan experienced many civil wars which led to the
Persian poetry, so much so that ordinary terms became
development of a warrior class, and subsequent war
mystical in implications.
tales, histories, and related stories.
The thematic substance of Persian poetry was love,
Work from this period is notable for its insights into
wine, and enjoyment of life, there is a pervading
life and death, simple lifestyles, and Seppuku.
somberness, perceptible despite their seemingly
epicurean tendencies. Tale of the Heike, an epic account of the struggle
between two clans for control of Japan at the end of
JAPAN
the twelfth century.
LAND OF THE RISING SUN
EDO PERIOD
Japan as a country has a past with its styles in its own
The Tokugawa Period is commonly referred to as the
tradition, in clothing, building and foods.
Edo Period. The capital of Japan moved from Kyoto to
Clothing- Japanese people used their traditional Edo (modern Tokyo)
clothing in the past, now they wear it just in special
Scholarly work continued to be published in Chinese,
occasions.
which was the language of the learned much as Latin
Yukata for men, Kimono for women, Zori sandals was in Europe.

Buildings and Gardens- In Japan there are many
different buildings and gardens, that are a big part of
its culture.
Japan Literature is one of the major literatures of the
world comparable to English literature in age and
variety.
Chikamatsu Monzaemon, a kabuki dramatist, known
as the Japan’s Shakespeare
Many genres of literature made their debut during the
Edo Period, helped by a rising literacy rate among the
growing population of townspeople, as well as the
development of lending libraries.

Poems and Odes to the Gods were composed in the
early Japanese language before the art of writing was
known in Japan.
The Modern Japanese writing system uses:
MEIJI PERIOD
War-time Japan saw the debut of several authors best
known for the beauty of their language and their tales
of loves and sensuality.

- Kanji, ideographs from Chinese characters,
- Kana, a pair of syllabaries, consisting of
- Hiragana, used for native Japanese words, and
- Katakana, used for foreign loanwords and
sometimes to replace kanji or hiragana for
emphasis.
ANCIENT LITERATURE Two of the oldest Japanese
literature:
Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matter)
-relates to the creation of the world, describes
the gods and goddess of the mythological period, and
contains facts about ancient Japan.
Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan)
-tells the history of Japan in poetry and shows the
profound influence of Chinese.
CLASSICAL LITERATURE
The Heian Period, referred to as the golden era of
Japanese art and literature.
Man’yoshu (Collection of Myriad Leaves)
-The oldest collection of Japanese poetry collected in
the year 800.
Kawabata Yasunari, for his narrative mastery, which
with great sensibility expresses the essence of the
Japanese mind became Japan’s first winner of the
Nobel Prize for Literature.
POST-WAR AND CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE
In Japanese fiction, plot development and action have
often been of secondary interest to emotional issues.
In keeping with the general trend toward reaffirming
national characteristics, many old themes re-emerged,
and some authors turned consciously to the past.
JAPANESE POETRY
The 17th-century Japanese haiku master Basho was
born Matsuo Kinsaku near Kyoto, Japan, to a minor
samurai and his wife. Soon after the poet’s birth, Japan
closed its borders, beginning a seclusion that allowed
its native culture to flourish.
JAPANESE CEREMONIES
- Tea ceremony
- Wedding
- Birth
- Death

Genji Monogatari (The Tale of Genji)

-Written by court lady named Murasaki Shikibu is

considered the pre-eminent masterpiece of Heian
fiction and the first example of a work of fiction in the
form of a novel.