Cengel FTFS 6e ISM CH 12

12-1
SOLUTIONS MANUAL
Fundamentals of Thermal Fluid Sciences
6th Edition
Yunus A. Çengel, John M. Cimbala, Afshin J. Ghajar
McGraw-Hill, 2022
Chapter 12
BERNOULLI AND ENERGY EQUATIONS
PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL

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12-2
Bernoulli Equation
12-1C Express the Bernoulli equation in three different ways using (a) energies, (b) pressures, and (c) heads.
Solution We are to express the Bernoulli equation in three different ways.
Analysis The Bernoulli equation is expressed in three different ways as follows:
2
P V
+ +gz =constant
ρ 2
(a) In terms of energies:
2
V
P+ρ +ρ gz=constant
2
(b) In terms of pressures:
2
P V
+ +z=H =constant
ρg 2 g
(c) in terms of heads:
Discussion You could, of course, express it in other ways, but these three are the most useful.
12-2C What are the three major assumptions used in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation?
Solution We are to discuss the three major assumptions used in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation.
Analysis The three major assumptions used in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation are that the flow is steady,
there is negligible frictional effects, and the flow is incompressible.
Discussion If any one of these assumptions is not valid, the Bernoulli equation should not be used. Unfortunately, many
people use it anyway, leading to errors.
12-3C Define static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressure. Under what conditions is their sum constant for a flow stream?
Solution We are to define and discuss static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressure.
Analysis Static pressurePis the actual pressure of the fluid. Dynamic pressureV 2/2 is the pressure rise when the
fluid in motion is brought to a stop isentropically. Hydrostatic pressuregz is not pressure in a real sense since its value
depends on the reference level selected, and it accounts for the effects of fluid weight on pressure. The sum of static,
dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures is constant when flow is steady and incompressible, and when frictional effects are
negligible.
Discussion The incompressible Bernoulli equation states that the sum of these three pressures is constant along a
streamline; this approximation is valid only for steady and incompressible flow with negligible frictional effects.
12-3
12-4C What is streamwise acceleration? How does it differ from normal acceleration? Can a fluid particle accelerate in
steady flow?
Solution We are to define streamwise acceleration and discuss how it differs from normal acceleration.
Analysis The acceleration of a fluid particle along a streamline is called streamwise acceleration, and it is due to a
change in speed along a streamline. Normal acceleration (or centrifugal acceleration), on the other hand, is the acceleration
of a fluid particle in the direction normal to the streamline, and it is due to a change in direction.
Discussion In a general fluid flow problem, both streamwise and normal acceleration are present.
12-5C What is stagnation pressure? Explain how it can be measured.

Solution We are to define stagnation pressure and discuss how it can be measured.
Analysis The sum of the static and dynamic pressures is called the stagnation pressure, and it is expressed as
. The stagnation pressurecan be measured by a Pitot tube whose inlet is normal to the flow.
Discussion Stagnation pressure, as its name implies, is the pressure obtained when a flowing fluid is brought to rest
isentropically, at a so-called stagnation point.
12-6C Define pressure head, velocity head, and elevation head for a fluid stream and express them for a fluid stream
whose pressure is P, velocity is V, and elevation is z.
Solution We are to define and discuss pressure head, velocity head, and elevation head.
Analysis The pressure headP/g is the height of a fluid column that produces the static pressure P. The velocity
headV 2/2 is the elevation needed for a fluid to reach the velocity V during frictionless free fall.The elevation headz is
the height of a fluid relative to a reference level.
Discussion It is often convenient in fluid mechanics to work with head – pressure expressed as an equivalent column
height of fluid.
12-7C How is the location of the hydraulic grade line determined for open-channel flow? How is it determined at the
outlet of a pipe discharging to the atmosphere?
Solution We are to discuss the hydraulic grade line in open-channel flow and at the outlet of a pipe.
Analysis For open-channel flow, the hydraulic grade line (HGL) coincides with the free surface of the liquid. At the
exit of a pipe discharging to the atmosphere, HGL coincides with the elevation of the pipe outlet.
Discussion We are assuming incompressible flow, and the pressure at the pipe outlet is atmospheric.
12-4
12-8C In a certain application, a siphon must go over a high wall. Can water or oil with a specific gravity of 0.8 go over a
higher wall? Why?
Solution We are to discuss the effect of liquid density on the operation of a siphon.
Analysis The lower density liquid can go over a higher wall, provided that cavitation pressure is not reached.
Therefore, oil may be able to go over a higher wall than water.
Discussion However, frictional losses in the flow of oil in a pipe or tube are much greater than those of water since the
viscosity of oil is much greater than that of water. When frictional losses are considered, the water may actually be able to
be siphoned over a higher wall than the oil, depending on the tube diameter and length, etc.
12-9C What is the hydraulic grade line? How does it differ from the energy grade line? Under what conditions do both
lines coincide with the free surface of a liquid?
Solution We are to define hydraulic grade line and compare it to energy grade line.
Analysis The curve that represents the sum of the static pressure and the elevation heads, P/g + z, is called the
hydraulic grade line or HGL. The curve that represents the total head of the fluid, P/g + V 2/2g + z, is called the energy line
or EGL. Thus, in comparison, the energy grade line contains an extra kinetic-energy-type term. For stationary bodies such
as reservoirs or lakes, the EL and HGL coincide with the free surface of the liquid.
Discussion The hydraulic grade line can rise or fall along flow in a pipe or duct as the cross-sectional area increases or
decreases, whereas the energy grade line always decreases unless energy is added to the fluid (like with a pump).
12-10C A glass manometer with oil as the working fluid is connected to an air duct as shown in Fig. P12–10C. Will the oil
levels in the manometer be as in Fig. P12–10Ca or b? Explain. What would your response be if the flow direction is
reversed?
Solution We are to discuss and compare the operation of a manometer.

Analysis As the duct converges to a smaller cross-sectional area, the velocity increases. By Bernoulli’s equation, the
pressure therefore decreases. Thus Manometer A is correct since the pressure on the right side of the manometer is
obviously smaller. According to the Bernoulli approximation, the fluid levels in the manometer are independent of the flow
direction, and reversing the flow direction would have no effect on the manometer levels. Manometer A is still correct if
the flow is reversed.
Discussion In reality, it is hard for a fluid to expand without the flow separating from the walls. Thus, reverse flow with
such a sharp expansion would not produce as much of a pressure rise as that predicted by the Bernoulli approximation.
12-5
12-11C The velocity of a fluid flowing in a pipe is to be measured by two different Pitot-type mercury manometers shown
in Fig. P12–11C. Would you expect both manometers to predict the same velocity for flowing water? If not, which would
be more accurate? Explain. What would your response be if air were flowing in the pipe instead of water?
Solution We are to discuss and compare two different types of manometer arrangements in a flow.
Analysis Arrangement 1 consists of a Pitot probe that measures the stagnation pressure at the pipe centerline, along
with a static pressure tap that measures static pressure at the bottom of the pipe. Arrangement 2 is a Pitot-static probe that
measures both stagnation pressure and static pressure at nearly the same location at the pipe centerline. Because of this,
arrangement 2 is more accurate. However, it turns out that static pressure in a pipe varies with elevation across the pipe
cross section in much the same way as in hydrostatics. Therefore, arrangement 1 is also very accurate, and the elevation
difference between the Pitot probe and the static pressure tap is nearly compensated by the change in hydrostatic pressure.
Since elevation changes are not important in either arrangement, there is no change in our analysis when the water is
replaced by air.
Discussion Ignoring the effects of gravity, the pressure at the centerline of a turbulent pipe flow is actually somewhat
smaller than that at the wall due to the turbulent eddies in the flow, but this effect is small.
12-12C The water level of a tank on a building roof is 20 m above the ground. A hose leads from the tank bottom to the
ground. The end of the hose has a nozzle, which is pointed straight up. What is the maximum height to which the water
could rise? What factors would reduce this height?
Solution We are to discuss the maximum rise of a jet of water from a tank.
Analysis With no losses and a 100% efficient nozzle, the water stream could reach to the water level in the tank, or
20 meters. In reality, friction losses in the hose, nozzle inefficiencies, orifice losses, and air drag would prevent attainment
of the maximum theoretical height.
Discussion In fact, the actual maximum obtainable height is much smaller than this ideal theoretical limit.
12-13C Explain how and why a siphon works. Someone proposes siphoning cold water over a 7-m-high wall. Is this
feasible? Explain.
Solution We are to explain how and why a siphon works, and its limitations.
Analysis Siphoning works because of the elevation and thus pressure difference between the inlet and exit of a tube.
The pressure at the tube exit and at the free surface of a liquid is the atmospheric pressure. When the tube exit is below the
free surface of the liquid, the elevation head difference drives the flow through the tube. At sea level, 1 atm pressure can
support about 10.3 m of cold water (cold water has a low vapor pressure). Therefore, siphoning cold water over a 7 m wall
is theoretically feasible.
Discussion In actual practice, siphoning is also limited by frictional effects in the tube, and by cavitation.
12-6
12-14C A student siphons water over an 8.5-m-high wall at sea level. She then climbs to the summit of Mount Shasta
(elevation 4390 m, Patm = 58.5 kPa) and attempts the same experiment. Comment on her prospects for success.
Solution We are to compare siphoning at sea level and on a mountain.
Analysis At sea level, a person can theoretically siphon water over a wall as high as 10.3 m. At the top of a high
mountain where the pressure is about half of the atmospheric pressure at sea level, a person can theoretically siphon water
over a wall that is only half as high. An atmospheric pressure of 58.5 kPa is insufficient to support a 8.5 meter high
siphon.
Discussion In actual practice, siphoning is also limited by frictional effects in the tube, and by cavitation.
12-15 In a hydroelectric power plant, water enters the turbine nozzles at 800 kPa absolute with a low velocity. If the
nozzle outlets are exposed to atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa, determine the maximum velocity to which water can be
accelerated by the nozzles before striking the turbine blades.
Solution In a power plant, water enters the nozzles of a hydraulic turbine at a specified pressure. The maximum
velocity water can be accelerated to by the nozzles is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow of water is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects (so that the
Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 Water enters the nozzle with a low velocity.
Properties We take the density of water to be  = 1000 kg/m3.
Analysis We take points 1 and 2 at the inlet and exit of the nozzle, respectively. Noting that V1 0 and z1 = z2, the
application of the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives
P1 V 12
ρg 2 g
P V2
+ +z 1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
ρg 2 g
→
P 1 Patm V 22
= +
ρg ρg 2 g
→ V 2=
√ 2( P1 −Patm )
ρ
Substituting the given values, the nozzle exit velocity is

determined to be
100 kPa
√
Water
(
2(800−100) kPa 1000 N/ m 2
)( 1 kg1⋅Nm/ s )=37.4 m/ s
2
V
V 2= 3 1 Turbine
1000 kg/ m 1 kPa nozzzle
800 kPa 2
Discussion This is the maximum nozzle exit velocity, and
the actual velocity will be less because of friction between
water and the walls of the nozzle.
12-7
12-16 A Pitot-static probe is used to measure the speed of an aircraft flying at 3000 m. If the differential pressure reading
is 3 kPa, determine the speed of the aircraft.
Solution The velocity of an aircraft is to be measured by a Pitot-static probe. For a given differential pressure reading,
the velocity of the aircraft is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The air flow over the aircraft is steady,
incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects
(so that the Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 Standard
atmospheric conditions exist. 3 The wind effects are negligible.
Properties The density of the atmosphere at an elevation of
3000 m is  = 0.909 kg/m3.
Analysis We take point 1 at the entrance of the tube whose
opening is parallel to flow, and point 2 at the entrance of the tube
whose entrance is normal to flow. Noting that point 2 is a
stagnation point and thus V2 = 0 and z1 = z2, the application of the
Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives
2 2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 V 1 P2 −P1 V 1 P stag−P1
+ + z 1 = + +z 2 → = → =
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2g ρg 2 ρ
Solving for V1 and substituting,
√ √ ( )
2( Pstag −P1 ) 2
2(3000 N/m ) 1 kg⋅m/s2
V 1= = =81 . 2 m/s=292 km/h
ρ 0 . 909 kg/m3 1 N
since 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 and 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h.
Discussion Note that the velocity of an aircraft can be determined by simply measuring the differential pressure on a
Pitot-static probe.
12-8
12-17 The air velocity in the duct of a heating system is to be measured by a Pitot-static probe inserted into the duct
parallel to the flow. If the differential height between the water columns connected to the two outlets of the probe is 3.2 cm,
determine (a) the flow velocity and (b) the pressure rise at the tip of the probe. The air temperature and pressure in the duct
are 45°C and 98 kPa, respectively.
Solution A Pitot-static probe is inserted into the duct of an air heating system parallel to flow, and the differential
height of the water column is measured. The flow velocity and the pressure rise at the tip of the Pitot-static probe are to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow through the duct is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects (so
that the Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 Air is an ideal gas.
Properties We take the density of water to be  = 1000 kg/m3. The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kPam3/kgK.
Analysis We take point 1 on the side of the probe where the entrance is parallel to flow and is connected to the static
arm of the Pitot-static probe, and point 2 at the tip of the probe where the entrance is normal to flow and is connected to the
dynamic arm of the Pitot-static probe. Noting that point 2 is a stagnation point and thus V2 = 0 and z1 = z2, the application of
the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives
P1 V 12
ρg 2 g
P 2 V 22
+ + z 1= + + z 2
ρg 2 g
→
P 1 V 21 P2
+ =
ρg 2 g ρg
→ V=
√ 2( P2 −P 1 )
ρair
where the pressure rise at the tip of the Pitot-static probe is
3
P2 −P 1 =ρw gh=(1000 kg/m )(9.81 m/s )(0 .032 m )
2
(11 Nkg⋅m/s )
2
Air
1
2 V
¿313.9 N/m2 ≃314 Pa
P 98 kPa
ρair = = =1 . 074 kg/m3
RT (0 . 287 kPa⋅m3 /kg⋅K )(45+273 K) h=3.2 cm
Also,
Substituting,
√ ( )
2
2(313 . 9 N/m ) 1 kg⋅m/s2
V 1= =24 . 2 m/s
1. 074 kg/m3 1N
Discussion Note that the flow velocity in a pipe or duct can be measured easily by a Pitot-static probe by inserting the
probe into the pipe or duct parallel to flow, and reading the differential pressure height. Also note that this is the velocity at
the location of the tube. Several readings at several locations in a cross-section may be required to determine the mean flow
velocity.
12-9
12-18 A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a 4-cm-diameter horizontal water pipe, and the heights of the water
columns are measured to be 26 cm in the piezometer and 35 cm in the Pitot tube (both measured from the top surface of the
pipe). Determine the velocity at the center of the pipe.
Solution The static and stagnation pressures in a horizontal pipe are measured. The velocity at the center of the pipe
is to be determined.
Assumptions The flow is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects in the short distance
between the two pressure measurement locations (so that the Bernoulli equation is applicable).
Analysis We take points 1 and 2 along the centerline of the pipe, with point 1 directly under the piezometer and
point 2 at the entrance of the Pitot-static probe (the stagnation point).
This is a steady flow with straight and parallel streamlines, and
thus the static pressure at any point is equal to the hydrostatic
pressure at that point.Noting that point 2 is a stagnation point
and thus V2 = 0 and z1 = z2, the application of the Bernoulli 35 cm
equation between points 1 and 2 gives 26 cm
2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 V 1 P2 −P1
+ +z = + +z → = Water 1 V
ρg 2 g 1 ρg 2 g 2 2g ρg 2
Substituting the P1 and P2expressions give
2
V 1 P2−P 1 ρg(hpitot + R )−ρg( hpiezo +R ) ρg( hpitot−hpiezo )
= = = =h pitot−h piezo
2g ρg ρg ρg
V 1=√2 g(h pitot−h piezo )=√ 2(9.81 m/s2 )[(0.35−0.26) m ]=1. 33 m/s
Discussion Note that to determine the flow velocity, all we need is to measure the height of the excess fluid column in
the Pitot-static probe.
12-10
12-19 The diameter of a cylindrical water tank is Do and its height is H. The tank is filled with water, which is open to the
atmosphere. An orifice of diameter D with a smooth entrance (i.e., negligible losses) is open at the bottom. Develop a rela-
tion for the time required for the tank (a) to empty halfway and (b) to empty completely.
Solution A water tank of diameter Do and height H open to the atmosphere is initially filled with water. An orifice of
diameter Dwith a smooth entrance (no losses) at the bottom drains to the atmosphere. Relations are to be developed for the
time required for the tank to empty completely and half-way.
Assumptions 1 The orifice has a smooth entrance, and thus the frictional losses are negligible. 2The flow is steady,
incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects (so that the Bernoulli equation is applicable).
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the tank, and point 2 at the exit of orifice. We take the reference level
at the orifice (z2 = 0), and take the positive direction of z to be upwards. Noting that the fluid at both points is open to the
atmosphere (and thus P1 = P2 = Patm) and that the fluid velocity at the free surface is very low ( V1 0), the Bernoulli
equation between these two points simplifies to
2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 V2
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → z1= → V 2= √2 gz1
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2g
V =√ 2gz
For generality, we express the water height in the tank at any time t by z, and the discharge velocity by 2 . Note
that water surface in the tank moves down as the tank drains, and thus z is a variable whose value changes from H at the
beginning to 0when the tank is emptied completely.
We denote the diameter of the orifice by D, and the diameter of the tank by Do.The flow rate of water from the tank
is obtained by multiplying the discharge velocity by the orifice cross-sectional area,
2
πD
V̇ = A orifice V 2 = √ 2 gz 1 Tank
Water
4
Then the amount of water that flows through the orifice during a differential time
interval dt is
2 D0 H
πD
dV =V̇ dt= √2 gz dt
4 (1) D
which, from conservation of mass, must be equal to the decrease in the volume of
water in the tank,
2
πD 0 2
dV =A tank (−dz )=− dz
4 (2)
where dz is the change in the water level in the tank during dt. (Note that dz is a negative quantity since the positive
direction of z is upwards. Therefore, we used –dz to get a positive quantity for the amount of water discharged). Setting Eqs.
(1) and (2) equal to each other and rearranging,
√
2
πD 2 πD D20 1
2
D0 − 12
√ 2 gz dt=− 0 dz → dt=− dz=− 2 z dz
4 4 D2 2 gz D √2g
The last relation can be integrated easily since the variables are separated. Letting tfbe the discharge time and integrating it
from t = 0 when z = zi =H to t = tf when z = zf gives
(√ √ )
1
tf D20 zf D 20z 2 zf 2 D20 D20 2 zi 2 zf
∫t =0 dt =− D 2 ∫ −1/ 2
z dz → tf = - 2 | | = 2 ( √ z i−√ z f ) = 2 −
√ 2 g z= z 1 D √2 g 1 D √2 g D g g
2 z1
Then the discharging time for the two cases becomes as follows:
D √ g √g)
(
D20 2H H
tf= 2
−
(a) The tank empties halfway: zi =H and zf =H/2:
√
2
D0 2 H
tf= 2
D g
(b) The tank empties completely: zi =H and zf = 0:
Discussion Note that the discharging time is inversely proportional to the square of the orifice diameter. Therefore, the
discharging time can be reduced to one-fourth by doubling the diameter of the orifice.
12-11
12-12
12-20E A siphon pumps water from a large reservoir to a lower tank that is initially empty. The tank also has a rounded
orifice 20 ft below the reservoir surface where the water leaves the tank. Both the siphon and the orifice diameters are 2 in.
Ignoring frictional losses, determine to what height the water will rise in the tank at equilibrium.
Solution A siphon pumps water from a large reservoir to a lower tank which is initially empty. Water leaves the tank
through an orifice. The height the water will rise in the tank at equilibrium is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady, incompressible, and irrotational
with negligible frictional effects (so that the Bernoulli equation is
applicable). 2 Both the tank and the reservoir are open to the 1
atmosphere. 3 The water level of the reservoir remains constant.
Analysis We take the reference level to be at the bottom of the
tank, and the water height in the tank at any time to be h. We take point
Reservoir 2 in
1 to be at the free surface of reservoir, point 2 at the exit of the siphon,
which is placed at the bottom of the tank, and point 3 at the free surface
20 ft
of the tank, and point 4 at the exit of the orifice at the bottom of the
tank. Then z1 = 20 ft, z2 = z4 = 0, z3 = h, P1 = P3 = P4 =Patm (the
reservoir is open to the atmosphere and water discharges into the 3
atmosphere) P2 = Patm+gh (the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of
the tank where the siphon discharges), and V1V3 0 (the free surfaces h Water
of reservoir and the tank are large relative to the tube diameter). Then Tank 2
the Bernoulli equation between 1-2 and 3-4 simplifies to
2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 Patm Patm + ρ gh V 2 4
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → + z 1= + → V 2 =√ 2 gz 1 −2 gh=√ 2 g( z 1 −h )
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g ρg ρg 2g
2 2 2
P3 V 3 P4 V 4 V4
+ +z 3 = + + z 4 → h= → V 4 =√ 2 gh
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2g
Noting that the diameters of the tube and the orifice are the same, the flow rates of water into and out of the tank will be the
same when the water velocities in the tube and the orifice are equal since
V̇ 2 =V̇ 4 → AV 2 =AV 4 → V 2 =V 4
Setting the two velocities equal to each other gives

z1 20 ft
V 2 =V 4 → √2 g( z 1−h)= √2 gh → z 1 −h=h → h=
2
=
2
=10 ft
Therefore, the water level in the tank will stabilize when the water level rises to 10 ft.
Discussion This result is obtained assuming negligible friction. The result would be somewhat different if the friction in
the pipe and orifice were considered.
12-13
12-21E Water flows through a horizontal pipe at a rate of 2.4 gal/s. The pipe consists of two sections of diameters 4 in and
2 in with a smooth reducing section. The pressure difference between the two pipe sections is measured by a mercury
manometer. Neglecting frictional effects, determine the differential height of mercury between the two pipe sections.
Solution Water flows through a horizontal pipe that consists of two sections at a specified rate. The differential height
of a mercury manometer placed between the two pipe sections is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow through the pipe is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects (so
that the Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 The losses in the reducing section are negligible.
Properties The densities of mercury and water are Hg = 847 lbm/ft3 and w = 62.4 lbm/ft3.
Analysis We take points 1 and 2 along the centerline of the pipe over the
two tubes of the manometer. Noting that z1 = z2, the Bernoulli equation
between points 1 and 2 gives 1 2 2 in
4 in
2 2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 ρw (V 2 −V 1 ) s
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → P1 −P2 =
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2
(1)
h
We let the differential height of the mercury manometer be h and the distance
between the centerline and the mercury level in the tube where mercury is
raised be s. Then the pressure difference P2 – P1 can also be expressed as
P1 +ρ w g(s+h )=P2 + ρw gs+ ρHg gh → P1 −P2 =( ρ Hg −ρw ) gh
(2)
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) and solving for h,
ρw (V 22−V 12 ) ρ w (V 22 −V 21 ) V 22−V 21
=( ρHg −ρw ) gh → h= =
2 2 g( ρHg −ρw ) 2 g ( ρHg / ρw −1)
Calculating the velocities and substituting,
V 1=
V̇ V̇
= 2 =
A1 πD1 /4 π (4/12 ft )2 /4 (
2 . 4 gal/s 0. 13368 ft3
1 gal )
=3 . 676 ft/s
V 2=
V̇ V̇
= 2 =
A 2 πD 2 /4 π (2/12 ft )2 /4 (
2 . 4 gal/s 0 . 13368 ft3
1 gal )
=14 . 71 ft/s
2 2
(14 .71 ft/s) −(3.676 ft/s)
h= =0.2504 ft=3. 0 in
2(32 .2 ft/s 2 )(847/62 . 4−1)
Therefore, the differential height of the mercury column will be 3.0 in.
12-14
Discussion In reality, there are frictional losses in the pipe, and the pressure at location 2 will actually be smaller than
that estimated here, and therefore h will be larger than that calculated here.
12-15
12-22 An airplane is flying at an altitude of 10,500 m. Determine the gage pressure at the stagnation point on the nose of
the plane if the speed of the plane is 450 km/h. How would you solve this problem if the speed were 1050 km/h? Explain.
Solution An airplane is flying at a certain altitude at a given speed. The pressure on the stagnation point on the nose
of the plane is to be determined, and the approach to be used at high velocities is to be discussed.
Assumptions 1 The air flow over the aircraft is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects
(so that the Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 Standard atmospheric conditions exist. 3 The wind effects are negligible.
Properties The density of the atmospheric air at an elevation of 10,500 m is  = 0.3885 kg/m3 (Table A-11 of Fluid
Mechanics by Cengel and Cimbala).
Altitude
10,500 m
2 1
450 km/h
Analysis We take point 1 well ahead of the plane at the level of the nose, and point 2 at the nose where the flow
comes to a stop. Noting that point 2 is a stagnation point and thus V2 = 0 and z1 = z2, the application of the Bernoulli
equation between points 1 and 2 gives
2 2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 V 1 P2 −P1 V 1 P stag−Patm Pstag, gage
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → = → = =
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2g ρg 2 ρ ρ
Solving for Pstag, gage and substituting,

ρV 21 (0 .3885 kg/m3 )( 450/3. 6 m/s )2
Pstag, gage =
2
=
2 ( 1N
1 kg⋅m/s
2)=3035 N/m 2=3035 Pa
since 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 and 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h.

Discussion A flight velocity of 1050 km/h = 292 m/s corresponds to a Mach number much greater than 0.3 (the speed of
sound is about 340 m/s at room conditions, and lower at higher altitudes, and thus a Mach number of 292/340 = 0.86).
Therefore, the flow can no longer be assumed to be incompressible, and the Bernoulli equation given above cannot be used.
This problem can be solved using the modified Bernoulli equation that accounts for the effects of compressibility, assuming
isentropic flow.
12-16
12-23 While traveling on a dirt road, the bottom of a car hits a sharp rock and a small hole develops at the bottom of its
gas tank. If the height of the gasoline in the tank is 30 cm, determine the initial velocity of the gasoline at the hole. Discuss
how the velocity will change with time and how the flow will be affected if the lid of the tank is closed tightly.
Solution The bottom of a car hits a sharp rock and a small hole develops at the bottom of its gas tank. For a given
height of gasoline, the initial velocity of the gasoline out of the hole is to be determined. Also, the variation of velocity with
time and the effect of the tightness of the lid on flow rate are to be discussed.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects (so that the Bernoulli
equation is applicable). 2 The air space in the tank is at atmospheric pressure. 3 The splashing of the gasoline in the tank
during travel is not considered.
Analysis This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic, and potential energies to each other without
involving any pumps, turbines, and wasteful components with large frictional losses, and thus it is suitable for the use of the
Bernoulli equation. We take point 1 to be at the free surface of gasoline in the tank so that P1 = Patm (open to the
atmosphere) V1 0 (the tank is large relative to the outlet), and z1 = 0.3 m and z2 = 0(we take the reference level at the hole.
Also, P2 = Patm (gasoline discharges into the atmosphere). Then the Bernoulli equation simplifies to
2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 V2 Gas Tank
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → z 1=
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2g
1
30 cm
V 2 =√ 2gz 1 =√2( 9.81 m/s 2 )( 0.3 m)=2.43 m/s
Therefore, the gasoline will initially leave the tank with a velocity of 2.43 m/s. V2
2
Discussion The Bernoulli equation applies along a streamline, and streamlines generally do not make sharp turns. The
velocity will be less than 2.43 m/s since the hole is probably sharp-edged and it will cause some head loss. As the gasoline
level is reduced, the velocity will decrease since velocity is proportional to the square root of liquid height. If the lid is
tightly closed and no air can replace the lost gasoline volume, the pressure above the gasoline level will be reduced, and the
velocity will be decreased.
12-17
12-24 The water in an 8-m-diameter, 3-m-high above-ground swimming pool is to be emptied by unplugging a 3-cm-
diameter, 25-m-long horizontal pipe attached to the bottom of the pool. Determine the maximum discharge rate of water
through the pipe. Also, explain why the actual flow rate will be less.
Solution The water in an above the ground swimming pool is to be emptied by unplugging the orifice of a horizontal
pipe attached to the bottom of the pool. The maximum discharge rate of water is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The orifice has a smooth entrance, and all frictional losses are negligible. 2 The flow is steady,
Swimmingpool
3m 3 cm
8m 2
25 m
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the pool, and point 2 at the exit of pipe. We take the reference level at
the pipe exit (z2 = 0). Noting that the fluid at both points is open to the atmosphere (and thus P1 = P2 = Patm) and that the
fluid velocity at the free surface is very low (V1 0), the Bernoulli equation between these two points simplifies to
2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 V2
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → z1= → V 2= √2 gz1
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2g
The maximum discharge rate occurs when the water height in the pool is a maximum, which is the case at the beginning and
thus z1 = h. Substituting, the maximum flow velocity and discharge rate become
V 2,max = √2gh=√ 2(9.81 m/s2 )(3 m )=7.67 m/s

2
πD2 π (0. 03 m)
V̇ max = A pipe V 2 ,max = V 2,max = (7 . 67 m/s )=0. 00542 m 3 /s=5 . 42 L/s
4 4
Discussion The result above is obtained by disregarding all frictional effects. The actual flow rate will be less because
of frictional effects during flow and the resulting pressure drop. Also, the flow rate will gradually decrease as the water
level in the pipe decreases.
12-18
12-25 Reconsider Prob. 12–24. Determine how long it will take to empty the swimming pool completely.
Solution The water in an above the ground swimming pool is to be emptied by unplugging the orifice of a horizontal
pipe attached to the bottom of the pool. The time it will take to empty the tank is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The orifice has a smooth entrance, and all frictional losses are negligible. 2 The flow is steady,
Swimmingpool
3m D=3 cm 2
D0= 8 m
25 m
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of water in the pool, and point 2 at the exit of pipe. We take the reference
level at the pipe exit (z2 = 0). Noting that the fluid at both points is open to the atmosphere (and thus P1 = P2 = Patm) and that
the fluid velocity at the free surface is very low (V1 0), the Bernoulli equation between these two points simplifies to
2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 V2
+ + z 1 = + +z 2 → z1= → V 2= √2 gz 1
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2g
For generality, we express the water height in the pool at any time t by z, and the discharge velocity by 2 √
V = 2 gz
. Note
that water surface in the pool moves down as the pool drains, and thus z is a variable whose value changes from h at the
beginning to 0 when the pool is emptied completely.
We denote the diameter of the orifice by D, and the diameter of the pool by Do.The flow rate of water from the pool is
obtained by multiplying the discharge velocity by the orifice cross-sectional area,
2
πD
V̇ = A orifice V 2 = √ 2 gz
4
Then the amount of water that flows through the orifice during a differential time interval dt is
πD2
dV =V̇ dt= √2 gz dt
4 (1)
which, from conservation of mass, must be equal to the decrease in the volume of water in the pool,
2
πD 0
4 (2)
where dz is the change in the water level in the pool during dt. (Note that dz is a negative quantity since the positive
direction of z is upwards. Therefore, we used –dz to get a positive quantity for the amount of water discharged). Setting Eqs.
(1) and (2) equal to each other and rearranging,
√
2
πD 2 πD D20 1
2
D0 − 12
√ 2 gz dt =− 0 dz → dt=− dz=− 2 z dz
4 4 D2 2 gz D √2g
The last relation can be integrated easily since the variables are separated. Letting tf be the discharge time and integrating it
from t = 0 when z = h to t = tf when z = 0 (completely drained pool) gives
1
√
tf D20 0 D 20 z 2 0 2 D20 D 20 2 h
∫t =0 dt =− ∫
D √ 2 g z= z1
2
z
−1/ 2
dz → t f = - |
D √2 g 1
2
| =
D √2g
2 √ h =
D
2
g
2 z1
Substituting, the draining time of the pool will be
tf =
Discussion
(8 m )2
(0 . 03 m ) 2
√ 2(3 m )
9. 81 m/s2
=55 , 600 s=15 . 4 h
This is the minimum discharging time since it is obtained by neglecting all friction; the actual discharging
time will be longer. Note that the discharging time is inversely proportional to the square of the orifice diameter. Therefore,
the discharging time can be reduced to one-fourth by doubling the diameter of the orifice.
12-19
12-26 Reconsider Prob. 12–25. Using appropriate software, investigate the effect of the discharge pipe diameter on
the time required to empty the pool completely. Let the diameter vary from 1 to 10 cm in increments of 1 cm. Tabulate and
plot the results.
Solution The previous problem is reconsidered. The effect of the discharge pipe diameter on the time required to
empty the pool completely as the diameter varies from 1 to 10 cm in increments of 1 cm is to be investigated.
Analysis The EES Equations window is printed below, followed by the tabulated and plotted results.
g=9.81 "m/s2"
rho=1000 "kg/m3"
h=2 "m"
D=d_pipe/100 "m"
D_pool=10 "m"
V_initial=SQRT(2*g*h) "m/s"
Ac=pi*D^2/4
V_dot=Ac*V_initial*1000 "m3/s"
t=(D_pool/D)^2*SQRT(2*h/g)/3600 "hour"
Pipe diameter Discharge time

D, m t, h
1 177.4
2 44.3
3 19.7
4 11.1
5 7.1
6 4.9
7 3.6
8 2.8
9 2.2
10 1.8
Discussion As you can see from the plot, the discharge time is drastically reduced by increasing the pipe diameter.
12-20
12-27 Air at 105 kPa and 37°C flows upward through a 6-cm-diameter inclined duct at a rate of 65 L/s. The duct diameter
is then reduced to 4 cm through a reducer. The pressure change across the reducer is measured by a water manometer. The
elevation difference between the two points on the pipe where the two arms of the manometer are attached is 0.20 m.
Determine the differential height between the fluid levels of the two arms of the manometer.
Solution Air flows upward at a specified rate through an inclined pipe whose diameter is reduced through a reducer.
The differential height between fluid levels of the two arms of a water manometer attached across the reducer is to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow through the duct is steady, incompressible and irrotational with negligible frictional effects (so
that the Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 Air is an ideal gas. 3 The effect of air column on the pressure change is
negligible because of its low density. 4 The air flow is parallel to the entrance of each arm of the manometer, and thus no
dynamic effects are involved.
Properties We take the density of water to be  = 1000 kg/m3. The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kPam3/kgK.
Analysis We take points 1 and 2 at the lower and upper connection points, respectively, of the two arms of the
manometer, and take the lower connection point as the reference level. Noting that the effect of elevation on the pressure
change of a gas is negligible, the application of the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives
P1 V 12 P 2 V 22 V 22 −V 21
+ + z = + +z → P1 −P2 =ρair 2
ρg 2 g 1 ρg 2 g 2 2
P 105 kPa
ρair = = =1 .180 kg/m3 Air 1
where
RT (0 . 287 kPa⋅m /kg⋅K )(37+273 K)
3
V̇ V̇ 0 . 065 m 3 /s
V 1= = 2 = =22 . 99 m/s
A1 πD1 /4 π (0 . 06 m)2 /4
h
V̇ V̇ 0 . 065 m 3 /s
V 2= = 2 = =51 . 73 m/s
A 2 πD 2 /4 π (0 . 04 m)2 /4
Substituting,
(51.73 m/s)2 −(22 . 99 m/s )2 1 N
P1−P 2 =(1 .180 kg/m 3 )
2 (1 kg⋅m/s 2 )
=1267 N/m 2=1267 Pa
12-21
The differential height of water in the manometer corresponding to this pressure change is determined from ΔP=ρ water gh
to be
h=
P1 −P2 1267 N/m 2
= ( 1 kg⋅m/s 2
ρwater g (1000 kg/m 3 )(9 . 81 m/s 2 ) 1 N )=0 . 1291 m=12 .9 cm
Discussion When the effect of air column on pressure change is considered, the pressure change becomes
ρair (V 22 −V 21 )
P1−P 2= + ρair g ( z 2−z 1 )
2
[ ]( )
2 2
3 (51 . 73 m/s ) −(22 .99 m/s ) 2 1N
¿(1 .180 kg/m ) +(9. 81 m/s )(0. 2 m )
2 1 kg⋅m/s 2
¿(1267+2 ) N/m2 =1269 N/m 2 =1269 Pa
This difference between the two results (1267 and 1269 Pa) is less than 1%. Therefore, the effect of air column on pressure
change is, indeed, negligible as assumed. In other words, the pressure change of air in the duct is almost entirely due to
velocity change, and the effect of elevation change is negligible.Also, if we were to account for the z of air flow, then it
would be more proper to account for the z of air in the manometer by using water - air instead of water when calculating h.
The additional air column in the manometer tends to cancel out the change in pressure due to the elevation difference in the
flow in this case.
12-22
12-28 Water at 20°C is siphoned from a reservoir as shown in Fig. P12–28. For d = 8 cm and D = 16 cm, determine
(a) the minimum flow rate that can be achieved without cavitation occurring in the piping system and (b) the maximum
elevation of the highest point of the piping system to avoid cavitation. (c) Also, discuss the ways of increasing the
maximum elevation of the highest point of the piping system to avoid cavitation.
Solution Water is siphoned from a reservoir. The minimum flow rate that can be achieved without cavitation
occurring in the piping system and the maximum elevation of the highest point of the piping system to avoid cavitation are
to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow through the pipe is steady, incompressible and irrotational with negligible frictional effects (so
that the Bernoulli equation is applicable).
Analysis (a) For T = 20 0C , Pv= 2.338 x 103 Pa (abs)

d = 8 cm, D = 16 cm
Applying Bernoulli Eq. between (1) and (4)
2 2
P1 V P V
+ Z 1+ 1 = 4 + Z 4 + 4 V 4= √2 gh1= √2 g(1+4)
γ 2g γ 2g ,
V4 = 9.904 m/s
On the other hand, from the continuity,
AD D2
V d =( )V D= V
A d V d= A D V D , Ad d2 D
16 2
V d =( ) VD
8
V d =4 V D=4 (9. 904 )=39. 62 m/s
12-23
We should check if these velocities would be possible,

Bernoulli Eq. from (1) to (2) yields
2 2
P1 m V P V
+ Z 1 + 1 = 2 m + Z2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g
101325 P 2m 39. 622
+5+0= +2+
9810 γ 19. 62
P2 m P2 m
15 .328= +82 . 01 =−66 . 68 m
γ , γ
P2 m
<0
Since γ , the velocity Vd cannot be 39.62 m/s. Applying Bernoulli Eq. from (1) to(2)
2
101325 2 .338 . 103 V d max
+5=2+ +
9810 9810 2g
2
V d max
=13. 09
2g
Vmax = 16.03 m/s. Therefore the velocity will never exceed 16.03 m/s. Accordingly;
0 . 082
V̇ = A d V d =π 16. 03=0 . 0806 m3 /s
4
(b) For a maximum Z3 , the absolute pressure P3 min=2338 Pa( abs)
therefore
P3 V 23
γ and 2 g must be minimum.
P3 min 2338
= =0 . 238 m
γ 9810
Applying Bernoulli Eq. from (1) to (3)
2
101325 V
+5+0=Z3 . max + 0 .238+ D
9810 2g
From the first part,
2
d 8
V D= V =( )2 16 . 03
2 d
D 16
VD = 4.008 m/s
101325 4 . 0082
Z 3 . max = +5−0 .238−
Therefore 9810 19 .62
Z3.max =14.3 m
(c) Exit velocity of water from pipe system to atmosphere can be increasedby attaching a valve or contraction part such as a
nozzle or pipe with smaller diameter to the pipe exit. Therefore, velocity in the main pipe can be decreased and pressure in
the main pipe can be increased. Thus, the maximum elevation of the highest point of the piping system to avoid cavitation
can be increased.
12-24
12-29 The water pressure in the mains of a city at a particular location is 270 kPa gage. Determine if this main can serve
water to neighborhoods that are 25 m above this location.
Solution The gage pressure in the water mains of a city at a particular location is given. It is to be determined if this
main can serve water to neighborhoods that are at a given elevation relative to this location.
Assumptions Water is incompressible and thus its density is constant.
Pgage =ρwater gh
Analysis Noting that the gage pressure at a dept of h in a fluid is given by , the height of a fluid
column corresponding to a gage pressure of 270 kPa is determined to be
h=
P gage
=
270 , 000 N/m 2
( 1 kg⋅m/s2
ρ water g (1000 kg/m3 )(9 . 81 m/s 2 ) 1 N )
=27 . 5 m Water main, 270 kPa
which is higher than 25 m. Therefore, this main can serve water to

neighborhoods that are 25 m above this location.
Discussion Note that h must be much greater than 25 m for water to have enough pressure to serve the water needs of
the neighborhood.
12-25
12-30 A pressurized tank of water has a 10-cm-diameter orifice at the bottom, where water discharges to the atmosphere.
The water level is 2.5 m above the outlet. The tank air pressure above the water level is 250 kPa (absolute) while the atmos-
pheric pressure is 100 kPa. Neglecting frictional effects, determine the initial discharge rate of water from the tank.
Solution Water discharges to the atmosphere from the orifice at the bottom of a pressurized tank. Assuming
frictionless flow, the discharge rate of water from the tank is to be determined.
1
Assumptions 1 The orifice has a smooth entrance, and thus the frictional losses are
negligible. 2 The flow is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional Air, 250 kPa
effects (so that the Bernoulli equation is applicable).
Properties We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3.
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the tank, and point 2 at the exit of Water 2.5 m
orifice, which is also taken to be the reference level (z2 = 0). Noting that the fluid velocity Tank
at the free surface is very low (V1 0) and water discharges into the atmosphere (and thus 2
P2 = Patm), the Bernoulli equation simplifies to
2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 V 2 P1 −P2
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → = +z 1 10 cm
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2g ρg
Solving for V2 and substituting, the discharge velocity is determined to
V 2=
√ 2( P1 −P2 )
ρ
+2gz 1 =
√
1000 kg/m 3 1 kPa (
2(250−100 ) kPa 1000 N/m 2 1 kg⋅m/s2
1 N )( )
+2(9.81 m/s2 )(2.5 m)=18.7 m/s
Then the initial rate of discharge of water becomes

2
πD 2 π (0. 10 m)
V̇ = A orifice V 2 = V = (18. 7 m/s )=0 . 147 m 3 /s
4 2 4
Discussion Note that this is the maximum flow rate since the frictional effects are ignored. Also, the velocity and the
flow rate will decrease as the water level in the tank decreases.
12-26
12-31 Reconsider Prob. 12–30. Using appropriate software, investigate the effect of water height in the tank on the
discharge velocity. Let the water height vary from 0 to 5 m in increments of 0.5 m. Tabulate and plot the results.
Solution The previous problem is reconsidered. The effect of water height in the tank on the discharge velocity as the
water height varies from 0 to 5 m in increments of 0.5 m is to be investigated.
g=9.81 "m/s2"
rho=1000 "kg/m3"
d=0.10 "m"
P1=300 "kPa"
P_atm=100 "kPa"
V=SQRT(2*(P1-P_atm)*1000/rho+2*g*h)
Ac=pi*D^2/4
V_dot=Ac*V
h, m V, m/s V̇ , m3/s
0.00 20.0 0.157
0.50 20.2 0.159
1.00 20.5 0.161
1.50 20.7 0.163
2.00 21.0 0.165
2.50 21.2 0.166
3.00 21.4 0.168
3.50 21.6 0.170
4.00 21.9 0.172
4.50 22.1 0.174
5.00 22.3 0.175
Discussion Velocity appears to change nearly linearly with h in this range of data, but the relationship is not linear.
12-27
12-32E Air is flowing through a venturi meter whose diameter is 2.6 in at the entrance part (location 1) and 1.8 in at the
throat (location 2). The gage pressure is measured to be 12.2 psia at the entrance and 11.8 psia at the throat. Neglecting
frictional effects, show that the volume flow rate can be expressed as
and determine the flow rate of air. Take the air density to be 0.075 lbm/ft3.
Solution Air is flowing through a venturi meter with known diameters and measured pressures. A relation for the
flow rate is to be obtained, and its numerical value is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow through the venturi is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects
(so that the Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 The effect of air column on the pressure change is negligible because of its
low density, and thus the pressure can be assumed to be uniform at a given cross-section of the venturi meter (independent
of elevation change). 3 The flow is horizontal (this assumption is usually unnecessary for gas flow.).
Properties The density of air is given to be  = 0.075 lbm/ft3.
12.2 psia
Analysis We take point 1 at the main flow section and 11.8 psia
point 2 at the throat along the centerline of the venturi meter.
Noting that z1 = z2, the application of the Bernoulli equation
between points 1 and 2 gives 2
Air
2 2 2 2 1
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 V 2−V 1 2.6 in 1.8 in
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → P1 −P2 =ρ
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2
(1)
The flow is assumed to be incompressible and thus the density is constant. Then the conservation of mass relation for this
single stream steady flow device can be expressed as
V̇ V̇
V̇ 1 =V̇ 2= V̇ → A1 V 1 = A2 V 2=V̇ → V 1= and V 2=
A1 A2
(2)
Substituting into Eq. (1),
P1−P 2= ρ
2
=
( )
( V̇ / A2 )2 −( V̇ / A1 )2 ρ V̇ 2
2 A 22
1−
A 22
A 21
V̇
Solving for gives the desired relation for the flow rate,
V̇ = A 2
√ 2( P1 −P 2 )
2
ρ[ 1−( A 2 / A1 ) ]
(3)
12-28
The flow rate for the given case can be determined by substituting the given values into this relation to be
V̇ =
4 √
πD22 2( P1 −P2 )
¿ 4 . 48 ft 3 /s
=
ρ[ 1−(D 2 / D1 )4 ] 4 √
π (1 .8 /12 ft )2 2(12 . 2−11 .8 ) psi
( )(
144 lbf/ft 2 32 .2 lbm⋅ft/s 2
(0 . 075 lbm/ft3 )[ 1-(1 .8/2. 6 )4 ] 1 psi 1 lbf )
Discussion Venturi meters are commonly used as flow meters to measure the flow rate of gases and liquids by simply
measuring the pressure difference P1 - P2 by a manometer or pressure transducers. The actual flow rate will be less than the
value obtained from Eq. (3) because of the friction losses along the wall surfaces in actual flow. But this difference can be
as little as 1% in a well-designed venturi meter. The effects of deviation from the idealized Bernoulli flow can be accounted
for by expressing Eq. (3) as
V̇ =C c A2
√ 2( P1 −P2 )
2
ρ[1−( A2 / A 1 ) ]
where Ccis the venturi discharge coefficient whose value is less than 1 (it is as large as 0.99 for well-designed venturi meters
in certain ranges of flow). For Re > 105, the value of venturi discharge coefficient is usually greater than 0.96.
12-29
12-33 The water level in a tank is 20 m above the ground. A hose is connected to the bottom of the tank, and the nozzle at
the end of the hose is pointed straight up. The tank cover is airtight, and the air pressure above the water surface is 2 atm
gage. The system is at sea level. Determine the maximum height to which the water stream could rise.
Solution The water height in an airtight pressurized tank is given. A hose pointing straight up is connected to the
bottom of the tank. The maximum height to which the water stream could rise is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with
negligible frictional effects (so that the Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 The 2
friction between the water and air is negligible.
Properties We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3. 2 atm
1
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of water in the tank, and
point 2 at the top of the water trajectory. Also, we take the reference level at the h
bottom of the tank. At the top of the water trajectory V2 = 0, and atmospheric
pressure pertains. Noting that z1 = 15 m, P1,gage = 2 atm, P2 = Patm, and that the 20 m
fluid velocity at the free surface of the tank is very low (V1 0), the Bernoulli
equation between these two points simplifies to
2 2
P1 V 1 P V P1 P P1−P atm P
+ +z 1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 → + z 1= atm +z 2 → z2 = +z 1 = 1,gage +z 1
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g ρg ρg ρg ρg
Substituting,
z 2=
2 atm
(
(1000 kg/m3 )(9 . 81 m/s2 ) 1 atm )(
101 ,325 N/m 2 1 kg⋅m/s 2
1N )+20=40 .7 m
Therefore, the water jet can rise as high as 40.7 m into the sky from the ground.
Discussion The result obtained by the Bernoulli equation represents the upper limit, and should be interpreted
accordingly. It tells us that the water cannot possibly rise more than 40.7 m (giving us an upper limit), and in all likelihood,
the rise will be much less because of frictional losses.
12-30
12-31
12-34E The air velocity in a duct is measured by a Pitot-static probe connected to a differential pressure gage. If the air is
at 13.4 psia absolute and 70°F and the reading of the differential pressure gage is 0.15 psi, determine the air velocity.
Solution A Pitot-static probe equipped with a differential pressure gage is used to measure the air velocity in a duct.
For a given differential pressure reading, the flow velocity of air is to be determined.
Assumptions The flow of air is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects (so that the
Bernoulli equation is applicable).
Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.3704 psiaft3/lbmR.
P = 0.15 psi
Air
Pitot
tube
70F 1
13.4 psia 2
Analysis We take point 1 on the side of the probe where the entrance is parallel to flow and is connected to the static
arm of the Pitot-static probe, and point 2 at the tip of the probe where the entrance is normal to flow and is connected to the
dynamic arm of the Pitot-static probe. Noting that point 2 is a stagnation point and thus V2 = 0 and z1 = z2, the application of
the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives
P1 V 12 P 2 V 22
+ +z = + + z
ρg 2 g 1 ρg 2 g 2
→
P 1 V 21 P2
+ =
ρg 2 g ρg
→ V 1=
√ 2( P2 −P1 )
ρ
where
P 13 . 4 psia
ρ= = =0 . 0683 lbm/ft 3
RT (0 . 3704 psia⋅ft /lbm⋅R)(70+460 R )
3
Substituting the given values, the flow velocity is determined to be
V 1=
√ ( )(
2(0 .15 psi ) 144 lbf/ft 2 32 .2 lbm⋅ft/s2
0 . 0683 lbm/ft 3 1 psi 1 lbf )
=143 ft/s
Discussion Note that flow velocity in a pipe or duct can be measured easily by a Pitot-static probe by inserting the probe
into the pipe or duct parallel to flow, and reading the pressure differential. Also note that this is the velocity at the location
of the tube. Several readings at several locations in a cross-section may be required to determine the mean flow velocity.
12-32
12-35 In cold climates, water pipes may freeze and burst if proper precautions are not taken. In such an occurrence, the
exposed part of a pipe on the ground ruptures, and water shoots up to 55 m. Estimate the gage pressure of water in the pipe.
State your assumptions and discuss if the actual pressure is more or less than the value you predicted.
Solution A water pipe bursts as a result of freezing, and water shoots up into the air a certain height. The gage
pressure of water in the pipe is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects (so that the Bernoulli
equation is applicable). 2 The water pressure in the pipe at the burst section is equal to the water main pressure. 3 Friction
between the water and air is negligible. 4 The irreversibilities that may occur at the burst section of the pipe due to abrupt
expansion are negligible.
Properties We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3. 2
Analysis This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic,
and potential energies to each other without involving any pumps,
turbines, and wasteful components with large frictional losses, and thus 55 m
it is suitable for the use of the Bernoulli equation. The water height will
be maximum under the stated assumptions. The velocity inside the hose 1
is relatively low (V1  0) and we take the burst section of the pipe as the
reference level (z1 = 0). At the top of the water trajectory V2 = 0, and
atmospheric pressure pertains. Then the Bernoulli equation simplifies to WaterPipe
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2 P1 Patm P1 −P atm P1,gage
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → = +z → =z 2 → =z 2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g ρg ρg 2 ρg ρg
Solving for P1,gage and substituting,
3 2
P1,gage= ρ gz 2 =(1000 kg/m )( 9. 81 m/s )(55 m) ( 11kN/m
kPa
2 )(10001kg⋅m/s
kN
)=540 kPa
2
Therefore, the pressure in the main must be at least 540kPa above the atmospheric pressure.
Discussion The result obtained by the Bernoulli equation represents a limit, since frictional losses are neglected, and
should be interpreted accordingly. It tells us that the water pressure (gage) cannot possibly be less than 540kPa (giving us a
lower limit), and in all likelihood, the pressure will be much higher.
12-33
12-36 Water enters a tank of diameter DT steadily at a mass flow rate of An orifice at the bottom with diameter Do
allows water to escape. The orifice has a rounded entrance, so the frictional losses are negligible. If the tank is initially
empty, (a) determine the maximum height that the water will reach in the tank and (b) obtain a relation for water
height z as a function of time.
Solution Water enters an empty tank steadily at a specified rate. An orifice at the bottom allows water to escape.
The maximum water level in the tank is to be determined, and a relation for water height z as a function of time is to be
obtained.
Assumptions 1 The orifice has a smooth entrance, and thus the frictional losses are negligible. 2The flow through the
orifice is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible frictional effects (so that the Bernoulli equation is
applicable).
Analysis (a) We take point 1 at the free surface of the tank, and point 2 at the exit of orifice. We take the reference
level at the orifice (z2 = 0), and take the positive direction of z to be upwards. Noting that the fluid at both points is open to
the atmosphere (and thus P1 = P2 = Patm) and that the fluid velocity at the free surface is very low (V1 0) (it becomes zero
when the water in the tank reaches its maximum level), the Bernoulli equation between these two points simplifies to
2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 V2
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → z1= → V 2= √2 gz1
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2g
m
Then the mass flow rate through the orifice for a water height of z becomes
( )
2
2 1 4 ṁ out 1
πD0 z=
ṁout =ρ V̇ out =ρA orifice V 2 =ρ √ 2 gz 2 g ρπ D 20
4  Water Tank
ṁ = ṁ DT
Setting z = hmax and out in (the incoming flow rate) gives the desired
relation for the maximum height the water will reach in the tank,
z
( )
2 D0
1 4 ṁ in
hmax =
2 g ρπ D 20
2 D0
(b) The amount of water that flows through the orifice and the increase in
the amount of water in the tank during a differential time interval dt are
2
πD0
dmout =ṁout dt =ρ √2 gz dt
4
2
πD T
dm tank =ρA tank dz=ρ dz
4
12-34
dmin= ṁin dt ṁin

The amount of water that enters the tank during dt is (Recall that = constant). Substituting them into the
dmtank =dmin −dm out
conservation of mass relation gives
dmtank =ṁin dt−ṁout dt


ρ
πD2T
4 (
dz= ṁin −ρ
πD20
4 )
√ 2 gz dt
Separating the variables, and integrating it from z = 0 at t = 0 to z = z at time t = t gives
1 2 1 2
ρπ DT dz z ρπ D T dz t
4
1
=dt ∫z=0 4
1
=∫t=0 dt=t
ṁin − 4 ρπ D20 √2 gz ṁin − 4 ρπ D20 √2 gz

Performing the integration, the desired relation between the water height z and time t is obtained to be
( )
1 1
2
ρπ D2T 1
ṁ in− 4 ρπ D 20 √ 2 gz
ρπ D20 √ 2 gz −ṁin ln =t
1
( 4 ρπ D20 √ 2 g) 2 4 ṁin
Discussion Note that this relation is implicit in z, and thus we can’t obtain a relation in the form z = f(t). Substituting a z
value in the left side gives the time it takes for the fluid level in the tank to reach that level. Equation solvers such as EES
can easily solve implicit equations like this.
12-35
Energy Equation
12-37C What is irreversible head loss? How is it related to the mechanical energy loss?
Solution We are to define and discuss irreversible head loss.

Analysis Irreversible head loss is the loss of mechanical energy due to irreversible processes (such as friction) in
piping expressed as an equivalent column height of fluid, i.e., head. Irreversible head loss is related to the mechanical
e mech loss, piping Ėmech loss, piping
h L= =
g ṁ g
energy loss in piping by .
Discussion hL is always positive. It can never be negative, since this would violate the second law of thermodynamics.
12-38C What is useful pump head? How is it related to the power input to the pump?
Solution We are to define and discuss useful pump head.

Analysis Useful pump head is the useful power input to the pump expressed as an equivalent column height of
w pump, u Ẇ pump, u
h pump= =
g ṁ g
fluid. It is related to the useful pumping power input by .
Discussion Part of the power supplied to the pump is not useful, but rather is wasted because of irreversible losses in the
pump. This is the reason that pumps have a pump efficiency that is always less than one.
12-39C Consider the steady adiabatic flow of an incompressible fluid. Can the temperature of the fluid decrease during
flow? Explain.
Solution We are to analyze whether temperature can decrease during steady adiabatic flow of an incompressible
fluid.
Analysis It is impossible for the fluid temperature to decrease during steady, incompressible, adiabatic flow of an
incompressible fluid, since this would require the entropy of an adiabatic system to decrease, which would be a violation of
the 2nd law of thermodynamics.
Discussion The entropy of a fluid can decrease, but only if we remove heat.
12-36
12-40C Consider the steady adiabatic flow of an incompressible fluid. If the temperature of the fluid remains constant
during flow, is it accurate to say that the frictional effects are negligible?
Solution We are to determine if frictional effects are negligible in the steady adiabatic flow of an incompressible fluid
if the temperature remains constant.
Analysis Yes, the frictional effects are negligible if the fluid temperature remains constant during steady,
incompressible flow since any irreversibility such as friction would cause the entropy and thus temperature of the fluid to
increase during adiabatic flow.
Discussion Thus, this scenario would never occur in real life since all fluid flows have frictional effects.
12-41C What is the kinetic energy correction factor? Is it significant?
Solution We are to define and discuss the kinetic energy correction factor.
Analysis The kinetic energy correction factor is a correction factor to account for the fact that kinetic energy
using average velocity is not the same as the actual kinetic energy using the actual velocity profile (the square of a sum
is not equal to the sum of the squares of its components). The effect of kinetic energy factor is usually negligible, especially
for turbulent pipe flows. However, for laminar pipe flows, the effect of  is sometimes significant.
Discussion Even though the effect of ignoring  is usually insignificant, it is wise to keep  in our analyses to increase
accuracy and so that we do not forget about it in situations where it is significant, such as in some laminar pipe flows.
12-42C The water level in a tank is 20 m above the ground. A hose is connected to the bottom of the tank, and the nozzle at
the end of the hose is pointed straight up. The water stream from the nozzle is observed to rise 25 m above the ground.
Explain what may cause the water from the hose to rise above the tank level.
Solution We are to analyze the cause of some strange behavior of a water jet.
Analysis The problem does not state whether the water in the tank is open to the atmosphere or not. Let’s assume that
the water surface is exposed to atmospheric pressure. By the Bernoulli equation, the maximum theoretical height to which
the water stream could rise is the tank water level, which is 20 meters above the ground. Since the water rises above the tank
level, the tank cover must be airtight, containing pressurized air above the water surface. In other words, the water in
the tank is not exposed to atmospheric pressure.
Discussion Alternatively, a pump would have to pressurize the water somewhere in the hose, but this is not allowed,
based on the problem statement (only a hose is added).
12-37
12-43C A 3-m-high tank filled with water has a discharge valve near the bottom and another near the top. (a) If these two
valves are opened, will there be any difference between the discharge velocities of the two water streams? (b) If a hose
whose discharge end is left open on the ground is first connected to the lower valve and then to the higher valve, will there
be any difference between the discharge rates of water for the two cases? Disregard any frictional effects.
Solution We are to analyze discharge of water from a tank under different conditions.
Analysis (a) Yes, the discharge velocity from the bottom valve will be higher since velocity is proportional to the square
root of the vertical distance between the hole and the free surface. (b) No, the discharge rates of water will be the same since
the total available head to drive the flow (elevation difference between the ground and the free surface of water in the tank)
is the same for both cases.
Discussion Our answer to Part (b) does not change even if we consider head losses in the hose, because the hose is the
same length in either case. Same hose, same length, same flow rate…yields the same head loss through the hose. Note: We
are ignoring any effects of bends or curves in the hose – assume both cases have the same curves.
12-44C A person is filling a knee-high bucket with water using a garden hose and holding it such that water discharges
from the hose at the level of his waist. Someone suggests that the bucket will fill faster if the hose is lowered such that water
discharges from the hose at knee level. Do you agree with this suggestion? Explain. Disregard any frictional effects.
Solution We are to analyze a suggestion regarding a garden hose.

Analysis Yes. When water discharges from the hose at waist level, the head corresponding to the waist-knee vertical
distance is wasted. When recovered, this elevation head is converted to velocity head, increasing the discharge velocity (and
thus the flow rate) of water and thus reducing the filling time.
Discussion If you are still not convinced, imagine holding the hose outlet really high up. If the outlet elevation is greater
than the upstream supply head, no water will flow at all. If you are concerned about head losses in the hose, yes, they will
increase as the volume flow rate increases, but not enough to change our answer.
12-38
12-45 Water is being pumped from a large lake to a reservoir 25 m above at a rate of 25 L/s by a 10-kW (shaft) pump. If
the irreversible head loss of the piping system is 5 m, determine the mechanical efficiency of the pump.
Solution Water is pumped from a large lake to a higher reservoir. The head loss of the piping system is given. The
mechanical efficiency of the pump is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The
elevation difference between the lake and the reservoir is
constant. 2
Properties We take the density of water to be  = 1000

kg/m3. Reservoir
Analysis We choose points 1 and 2 at the free surfaces of 25 m
the lake and the reservoir, respectively, and take the surface of Pump
the lake as the reference level (z1 = 0). Both points are open to
the atmosphere (P1 = P2= Patm) and the velocities at both 1
locations are negligible (V1 = V2 = 0). Then the energy equation
for steady incompressible flow through a control volume Lake
between these two points that includes the pump and the pipes
reduces to
ṁ (
P1
ρ
V 21
)
+ α 1 + gz 1 + Ẇ pump =ṁ
2
P2
ρ
V 22
( )
+ α 2 + gz 2 + Ẇ turbine + Ė mech,loss
2
®
Ẇ pump,u = ṁ gz 2 + Ėmech loss, piping
since, in the absence of a turbine,

Ėmech, loss = Ėmech loss, pump + Ė mech loss, piping
and
Ẇ pump, u =Ẇ pump− Ė mech loss, pump .
Noting that
Ėmech loss, piping =ṁ gh L , the useful pump power is
Ẇ pump,u = ṁ gz 2 + ṁ gh L=ρ V̇ g ( z 2 +h L )
¿(1000 kg/m3 )(0 .025 m 3 /s)(9 . 81 m/s2 )[(25+5 ) m ]

(11000kN kg⋅m/s )
2
¿ 7 .36 kN⋅m/s=7 . 36 kW
Then the mechanical efficiency of the pump becomes
Ẇ pump, u 7 . 36 kW
ηpump = = =0 . 736=73. 6%
Ẇ shaft 10 kW
Discussion A more practical measure of performance of the pump is the overall efficiency, which can be obtained by
multiplying the pump efficiency by the motor efficiency.
12-39
12-46 Reconsider Prob. 12–45. Using appropriate software, investigate the effect of irreversible head loss on the
mechanical efficiency of the pump. Let the head loss vary from 0 to 15 m in increments of 1 m. Plot the results, and discuss
them.
Solution The previous problem is reconsidered. The effect of head loss on mechanical efficiency of the pump. as the
head loss varies 0 to 20 m in increments of 2 m is to be investigated.
g=9.81 "m/s2"
rho=1000 "kg/m3"
z2=25 "m"
W_shaft=10 "kW"
V_dot=0.025 "m3/s"
W_pump_u=rho*V_dot*g*(z2+h_L)/1000 "kW"
Eta_pump=W_pump_u/W_shaft
Head Loss, Pumping power Efficiency

hL, m Wpump, u pump
0 6.13 0.613
1 6.38 0.638
2 6.62 0.662
3 6.87 0.687
4 7.11 0.711
5 7.36 0.736
6 7.60 0.760
7 7.85 0.785
8 8.09 0.809
9 8.34 0.834
10 8.58 0.858
11 8.83 0.883
12 9.07 0.907
13 9.32 0.932
14 9.56 0.956
15 9.81 0.981
Discussion Note that the useful pumping power is used to raise the fluid and to overcome head losses. For a given
power input, the pump that overcomes more head loss is more efficient.
12-40
12-47 A 15-hp (shaft) pump is used to raise water to a 45-m higher elevation. If the mechanical efficiency of the pump is
82 percent, determine the maximum volume flow rate of the water.
Solution A pump with a specified shaft power and efficiency is used to raise water to a higher elevation. The
maximum flow rate of water is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The elevation difference 2
between the reservoirs is constant. 3 We assume the flow in the pipes to be
Ėmech loss, piping =0.
frictionless since the maximum flow rate is to be determined,
Analysis We choose points 1 and 2 at the free surfaces of the lower and upper
reservoirs, respectively, and take the surface of the lower reservoir as the reference PUMP
level (z1 = 0). Both points are open to the atmosphere (P1 = P2= Patm) and the 45 m
velocities at both locations are negligible (V1 = V2 = 0). Then the energy equation for
steady incompressible flow through a control volume between these two points that
includes the pump and the pipes reduces to 1
ṁ ( P1
ρ
V 21
)
+ α 1 + gz 1 + Ẇ pump =ṁ
2
P2
ρ ( V 22
)
+α 2 + gz 2 + Ẇ turbine + Ė mech,loss
2
Water
Ẇ pump,u = ṁ gz 2 =ρ V̇ gz 2
®
since in this case
Ėmech, loss = Ėmech loss, pump
and
Ẇ pump, u =Ẇ pump− Ė mech loss, pump
The useful pumping power is
Ẇ pump,u =ηpump Ẇ pump, shaft =(0.82)(15 hp)=12.3 hp

Substituting, the volume flow rate of water is determined to be
)( )
Ẇ pump,u 12 .3 hp
V̇ =
ρ gz 2
= (
(1000 kg/m 3 )(9.81 m/s 2 )( 45 m ) 1 hp 1W )(
745 .7 W 1 N⋅m/s 1 kg⋅m/s2
1N
3
¿ 0 .0208 m /s
Discussion This is the maximum flow rate since the frictional effects are ignored. In an actual system, the flow rate of
water will be less because of friction in pipes.
12-41
12-48 Water flows at a rate of 0.040 m3/s in a horizontal pipe whose diameter is reduced from 15 cm to 8 cm by a
reducer. If the pressure at the centerline is measured to be 480 kPa and 440 kPa before and after the reducer, respectively,
determine the irreversible head loss in the reducer. Take the kinetic energy correction factors to be 1.05.
Solution Water flows at a specified rate in a horizontal pipe whose diameter is decreased by a reducer. The pressures
are measured before and after the reducer. The head loss in the reducer is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The pipe is horizontal. 3 The kinetic energy correction factors
are given to be 1 = 2 =  = 1.05.
Analysis We take points 1 and 2 along the centerline of the pipe before and after the reducer, respectively. Noting that
z1 = z2, the energy equation for steady incompressible flow through a control volume between these two points reduces to
2 2 2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2 P1−P 2 α (V 1 −V 2 )
+α 1 + z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 + z 2 + hturbine, e + h L h L= +
ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g
®
where
V̇ V̇ 0 . 040 m 3 /s 480 kPa

V 1= = 2 = =2 .264 m/s Water
A1 πD1 /4 π(0.15 m )2 / 4 1 15 cm 440 kPa 2 8 cm
V̇ V̇ 0 . 040 m3 /s
V 2= = 2 = =7 . 958 m/s
A 2 πD2 /4 π (0 . 08 m)2 /4 Reducer
Substituting, the head loss in the reducer is determined to be
( )( )
2 2
( 480−440) kPa 1 kN/m 2 1000 kg⋅m/s2 1 .05 [(2 . 264 m/s) −(7 . 958 m/s) ]
h L= + =0 . 963 m
(1000 kg/m3 )(9 . 81 m/s2 ) 1 kPa 1 kN 2(9. 81 m/s 2 )
Discussion Note that the 0.963 m of the head loss is due to frictional effects and 2.97 m is due to the increase in
velocity. This head loss corresponds to a power potential loss of
Ėmech loss, piping =ρ V̇ gh L
¿(1000 kg/m3 )(0 .040 m 3 /s)(9 . 81 m/s2 )(0 . 963 m )

(11 kg⋅m/s
N
2)( 11 WN⋅m/s )
¿ 378 W
12-42
12-49 The water level in a tank is 20 m above the ground. A hose is connected to the bottom of the tank, and the nozzle at
the end of the hose is pointed straight up. The tank is at sea level, and the water surface is open to the atmosphere. In the
line leading from the tank to the nozzle is a pump, which increases the pressure of water. If the water jet rises to a height of
27 m from the ground, determine the minimum pressure rise supplied by the pump to the water line.
Solution A hose connected to the bottom of a tank is equipped with a nozzle at the end pointing straight up. The
water is pressurized by a pump, and the height of the water jet is measured. The minimum pressure rise supplied by the
pump is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 Friction between the water and air as well as friction in the hose
is negligible. 3 The water surface is open to the atmosphere.
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of water in the tank, and point 2 at the top of the water trajectory where
V2 = 0 and P1 = P2 = Patm. Also, we take the reference level at the bottom of the tank. Noting that z1 = 20 m and z2 = 27 m,
hL=0 (to get the minimum value for required pressure rise),and that the fluid velocity at the free surface of the tank is very
low (V1 0), the energy equation for steady incompressible flow through a control volume between these two points that
includes the pump and the water stream reduces to
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
+α 1 + z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 + z 2 + hturbine, e + h L 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
h pump, u=z 2 −z 1
®
Substituting, 27 m
1
h pump, u=27−20=7 m
20 m
A water column height of 7 m corresponds to a pressure rise of
3 2
ΔP pump, min =ρ gh pump, u=(1000 kg/m )(9 .81 m/s )(7 m )
(11000N kg⋅m/s )
2
¿ 68 .7 kN/m2 =68 . 7 kPa
Therefore, the pump must supply a minimum pressure rise of 68.7 kPa.
Discussion The result obtained above represents the minimum value, and should be interpreted accordingly. In reality, a
larger pressure rise will need to be supplied to overcome friction.
12-43
12-44
12-50 A hydraulic turbine has 50 m of head available at a flow rate of 1.30 m3/s, and its overall turbine–generator
efficiency is 78 percent. Determine the electric power output of this turbine.
Solution The available head of a hydraulic turbine and its overall efficiency are given. The electric power output of
this turbine is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The available head remains constant.
Eff=78%
Analysis When the turbine head is available, the
corresponding power output is determined from
Turbine Generator
Ẇ turbine=η turbine ṁ ghturbine =ηturbine ρ V̇ ghturbine
Substituting,
3 3
Ẇ turbine=0 . 78(1000 kg/m )(1 .30 m /s )(9 .81 m/s )(50 m )
2
(1 kg⋅m/s
1N
2)(11000kW N⋅m/s )=497 kW
Discussion The power output of a hydraulic turbine is proportional to the available turbine head and the flow rate.
12-45
12-51E In a hydroelectric power plant, water flows from an elevation of 400 ft to a turbine, where electric power is
generated. For an overall turbine–generator efficiency of 85 percent, determine the minimum flow rate required to generate
100 kW of electricity.
Solution In a hydroelectric power plant, the elevation difference, the power generation, and the overall turbine-
generator efficiency are given. The minimum flow rate required is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The water levels at the reservoir and the discharge site remain
Ėmech,loss =0.
constant. 3 We assume the flow to be frictionless since the minimum flow rate is to be determined,
Properties We take the density of water to be r = 62.4 lbm/ft3.
Water
400 ft
2
Turbine Generator
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the reservoir and point 2 at the free surface of the discharge water
stream, which is also taken as the reference level (z2 = 0). Also, both 1 and 2 are open to the atmosphere (P1 = P2= Patm), the
velocities are negligible at both points (V1 = V2 = 0), and frictional losses are disregarded. Then the energy equation in terms
of heads for steady incompressible flow through a control volume between these two points that includes the turbine and the
pipes reduces to
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
+α 1 +z 1 +h pump, u= +α 2 + z 2 +hturbine, e +h L → h turbine, e =z1
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Substituting and noting that

Ẇ
turbine, elect =η turbine-gen ṁ ghturbine, e , the extracted turbine head and the mass and volume flow
rates of water are determined to be
h turbine, e=z 1 =400 ft
ṁ=
Ẇ turbine,elect
ηturbine-gen ghturbine
=
100 kW
(
0 . 85(32. 2 ft/s 2 )( 400 ft ) 1 Btu/lbm )( 1 kW )
25 , 037 ft2 /s2 0. 9478 Btu/s
=216 . 8 lbm/s≃217 lbm/s
ṁ 216 .8 lbm/s
V̇ = = =3 . 47 ft 3 /s
ρ 62. 4 lbm/ft 3
Therefore, the flow rate of water must be at least 3.47 ft3/s to generate the desired electric power while overcoming friction
losses in pipes.
Discussion In an actual system, the flow rate of water will be more because of frictional losses in pipes.
12-46
12-47
12-52E Reconsider Prob. 12–51E. Determine the flow rate of water if the irreversible head loss of the piping system
between the free surfaces of the inlet and the outlet is 36 ft.
Solution In a hydroelectric power plant, the elevation difference, the head loss, the power generation, and the overall
turbine-generator efficiency are given. The flow rate required is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible.
2 The water levels at the reservoir and the discharge site 1
remain constant.
Properties We take the density of water to be r =
62.4 lbm/ft3. Water
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the 400 ft
reservoir and point 2 at the free surface of the discharge
water stream, which is also taken as the reference level
(z2 = 0). Also, both 1 and 2 are open to the atmosphere
(P1 = P2= Patm), the velocities are negligible at both 2
points (V1 = V2 = 0). Then the energy equation in terms
Turbine Generator
of heads for steady incompressible flow through a
control volume between these two points that includes
the turbine and the pipes reduces to
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
+α 1 +z 1 +h pump, u= +α 2 +z 2 +hturbine, e +h L → h turbine, e =z1 −h L
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Substituting and noting that

Ẇ
turbine, elect =η turbine-gen ṁ ghturbine, e , the extracted turbine head and the mass and volume flow
rates of water are determined to be
h turbine, e=z 1 −h L=400−36=364 ft
ṁ=
Ẇ turbine,elect
ηturbine-gen ghturbine
=
100 kW
(
0 . 85(32. 2 ft/s 2 )(364 ft ) 1 Btu/lbm )( 1 kW )
25 , 037 ft 2 /s 2 0 .9478 Btu/s
=238 lbm/s
ṁ 238 lbm/s
V̇ = = =3 . 82 ft3 /s
ρ 62. 4 lbm/ft 3
Therefore, the flow rate of water must be at least 3.82 ft3/s to generate the desired electric power while overcoming friction
losses in pipes.
Discussion Note that the effect of frictional losses in the pipes is to increase the required flow rate of water to generate a
specified amount of electric power.
12-48
12-53 A fan is to be selected to ventilate a bathroom whose dimensions are 2 m × 3 m × 3 m. The air velocity is not to
exceed 7 m/s to minimize vibration and noise. The combined efficiency of the fan–motor unit to be used can be taken to
be 50 percent. If the fan is to replace the entire volume of air in 15 min, determine (a) the wattage of the fan–motor unit to
be purchased, (b) the diameter of the fan casing, and (c) the pressure difference across the fan. Take the air density to be
1.25 kg/m3 and disregard the effect of the kinetic energy correction factors.
Solution A fan is to ventilate a bathroom by replacing the entire volume of air once every 10 minutes while air
velocity remains below a specified value. The wattage of the fan-motor unit, the diameter of the fan casing, and the pressure
difference across the fan are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 Frictional losses along the flow (other than those due to the fan-
motor inefficiency) are negligible. 3 The fan unit is horizontal so that z = constant along the flow (or, the elevation effects
are negligible because of the low density of air). 4 The effect of the kinetic energy correction factors is negligible,  = 1.
Properties The density of air is given to be 1.25 kg/m3.
Analysis (a) The volume of air in the bathroom is V = 2 m3 m3 m = 18 m3. Then the volume and mass flow rates
of air through the casing must be
3
V 18 m
V̇ = = =0. 02 m3 /s Air
Δt 15×60 s
7 m/s D 2
ṁ=ρ V̇ =(1.25 kg/m 3 )(0.02 m3 /s)=0 .025 kg/s 1
We take points 1 and 2 on the inlet and exit sides of the fan,
respectively. Point 1 is sufficiently far from the fan so that P 1 = Patm
and the flow velocity is negligible (V1 = 0). Also, P2= Patm. Then the
energy equation for this control volume between the points 1 and 2
reduces to
( P1 V 21
) P2
(
V 22
)
2
V
ṁ + α 1 + gz 1 + Ẇ pump =ṁ +α 2 + gz 2 + Ẇ turbine + Ė mech,loss Ẇ fan, u =ṁ α 2 2
ρ 2 ρ 2  2
Ė
since mech, loss
= Ėmech loss, pump in this case and Ẇ pump, u =Ẇ pump− Ė mech loss, pump . Substituting,
V 22
Ẇ fan, u =ṁ α 2 =(0 . 025 kg/s)(1. 0 )
2
(7 m/s )2 1 N
2 ( 1W
1 kg⋅m/s 1 N⋅m/s
2 )(
=0 .6125 W )
Ẇ fan, u 0 .6125 W
Ẇ fan, elect = = =1 . 225 W
and
η
fan-motor 0 .5
Therefore, the electric power rating of the fan/motor unit must be 1.225 W.
(b) For air mean velocity to remain below the specified value, the diameter of the fan casing should be
12-49
V̇ = A 2 V 2=( πD22 /4 )V 2 → D2 =
√ √
4 V̇
πV 2
=
4 (0 .02 m3 /s)
π (7 m/s )
=0 .06031 m =6 .03 cm
(c) To determine the pressure difference across the fan unit, we take points 3 and 4 to be on the two sides of the fan on a
horizontal line. Noting that z3 = z4 and V3 = V4 since the fan is a narrow cross-section and neglecting flow loses (other than
the loses of the fan unit, which is accounted for by the efficiency), the energy equation for the fan section reduces to
P3 P Ẇ fan, u Ẇ fan, u
ṁ + Ẇ fan, u = ṁ 4 → P 4 −P3 = =
ρ ρ ṁ/ ρ V̇
Substituting ,
P4 −P3 = 3
0 . 02 m /s 1 (
0 .6125 W 1 N⋅m/s
W )
=30 . 63 N/m 2 ≃30 . 6 Pa
Therefore, the fan will raise the pressure of air by 30.6 Pa before discharging it.
Discussion Note that only half of the electric energy consumed by the fan-motor unit is converted to the mechanical
energy of air while the remaining half is converted to heat because of imperfections.
12-50
12-54 Water flows at a rate of 20 L/s through a horizontal pipe whose diameter is constant at 3 cm. The pressure drop
across a valve in the pipe is measured to be 2 kPa, as shown in Fig. P12–54. Determine the irreversible head loss of the
valve and the useful pumping power needed to overcome the resulting pressure drop.
Solution Water flows through a horizontal pipe at a specified rate. The pressure drop across a valve in the pipe is
measured. The corresponding head loss and the power needed to overcome it are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The pipe is given to be horizontal (otherwise the elevation
difference across the valve is negligible). 3 The mean flow velocities at the inlet and the exit of the valve are equal since the
pipe diameter is constant.
Valve
Water 1 2
20 L/s
P=2 kPa
Analysis We take the valve as the control volume, and points 1 and 2 at the inlet and exit of the valve, respectively.
Noting that z1 = z2 and V1 =V2, the energy equation for steady incompressible flow through this control volume reduces to
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2 P −P
+α 1 + z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 + z 2 + hturbine, e + h L h L= 1 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g ® ρg
Substituting,
h L=
2 kN/m 2
(1000 kg/m3 )(9 . 81 m/s2 )(1000 kg⋅m/s 2
1 kN )
=0 . 204 m
The useful pumping power needed to overcome this head loss is

Ẇ pump, u =ṁ gh L= ρ V̇ gh L
¿(1000 kg/m3 )(0 .020 m 3 /s )( 9. 81 m/s2 )(0 . 204 m)

( 1N
1 kg⋅m/s)( 1W
)
2 1 N⋅m/s
=40 W
Therefore, this valve would cause a head loss of 0.204 m, and it would take 40 W of useful pumping power to overcome it.
Discussion The required useful pumping power could also be determined from
Ẇ pump =V̇ ΔP=(0. 020 m3 /s)(2000 Pa )

(11 WPa⋅m /s )=40 W
3
12-51
12-52
12-55E The water level in a tank is 34 ft above the ground. A hose is connected to the bottom of the tank at the ground
level, and the nozzle at the end of the hose is pointed straight up. The tank cover is airtight, but the pressure over the water
surface is unknown. Determine the minimum tank air pressure (gage) that will cause a water stream from the nozzle to rise
72 ft from the ground.
Solution A hose connected to the bottom of a pressurized tank is equipped with a nozzle at the end pointing straight
up. The minimum tank air pressure (gage) corresponding to a given height of water jet is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 Friction between water and air as well as friction in the hose is
negligible. 3 The water surface is open to the atmosphere.
Properties We take the density of water to be  = 62.4 lbm/ft3. 2
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of water in the tank, and point
2 at the top of the water trajectory where V2 = 0 and P1 = P2 = Patm. Also, we take
P1
the reference level at the bottom of the tank. Noting that z1 = 34ft and z2 = 72ft, 1
hL= 0 (to get the minimum value for the required air pressure), and that the fluid 72 ft
velocity at the free surface of the tank is very low (V1 0), the energy equation
for steady incompressible flow through a control volume between these two
34 ft
points reduces to
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
+α 1 + z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 + z 2 + hturbine, e + h L
ρg 2g ρg 2g
P1 −Patm P1 , gage
=z 2 −z 1 =z 2 −z 1
or ρg ® ρg
Rearranging and substituting, the gage pressure of pressurized air in the tank is determined to be
3 2
P1,gage= ρg(z 2 −z 1 )=(62 . 4 lbm/ft )(32. 2 ft/s )(72-34 ft )
( 1 lbf
)(1 psi
32 . 2 lbm⋅ft/s 144 lbf/ft 2
2 )
=16 . 5 psi
Therefore, the gage air pressure on top of the water tank must be at least 10.4 psi.
Discussion The result obtained above represents the minimum value, and should be interpreted accordingly. In reality, a
larger pressure will be needed to overcome friction.
12-53
12-56 A large tank is initially filled with water 4 m above the center of a sharp-edged 10-cm-diameter orifice. The tank
water surface is open to the atmosphere, and the orifice drains to the atmosphere. If the total irreversible head loss in the
system is 0.2 m, determine the initial discharge velocity of water from the tank. Take the kinetic energy correction factor at
the orifice to be 1.2.
Solution A water tank open to the atmosphere is initially filled with water. A sharp-edged orifice at the bottom drains
to the atmosphere. The initial discharge velocity from the tank is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The tank is open to the atmosphere. 3 The kinetic energy
correction factor at the orifice is given to be 2 =  = 1.2.
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the tank, and point 2 at the exit of the orifice. Noting that the fluid at
both points is open to the atmosphere (and thus P1 = P2 = Patm) and that the fluid velocity at the free surface of the tank is
very low (V1 0), the energy equation between these two points (in terms of heads) simplifies to
P1 V 21 P2 V 22
+α +z +h = +α +z +h +h
ρg 1 2 g 1 pump, u ρg 2 2 g 2 turbine, e L 1
which yields
2
V2
z 1 +α 2 =z +h
2g 2 L Water 4m
Solving for V2and substituting,
V 2=√ 2g( z 1 −z 2−h L )/α=√ 2(9.81 m/s2 )(4−0.2 m)/1.2=7.88 m/s 2 V2 10 cm

Discussion This is the velocity that will prevail at the beginning. The mean
flow velocity will decrease as the water level in the tank decreases.
12-54
12-57 Water enters a hydraulic turbine through a 30-cm-diameter pipe at a rate of 0.6 m3/s and exits through a
25-cm-diameter pipe. The pressure drop in the turbine is measured by a mercury manometer to be 1.2 m. For a combined
turbine–generator efficiency of 83 percent, determine the net electric power output. Disregard the effect of the kinetic
energy correction factors.
Solution Water enters a hydraulic turbine-generator system with a known flow rate, pressure drop, and efficiency.
The net electric power output is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 All losses in the turbine are accounted for by turbine efficiency
and thus hL = 0. 3 The elevation difference across the turbine is negligible. 4 The effect of the kinetic energy correction
factors is negligible, 1 = 2 =  = 1.
Properties We take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3 and the density of mercury to be 13,560 kg/m3.
Analysis We choose points 1 and 2 at the inlet and the exit of the turbine, respectively. Noting that the elevation
effects are negligible, the energy equation in terms of heads for the turbine reduces to
2 2 2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2 P1 −P2 α ( V 1 −V 2 )
+α 1 + z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 +z +h +h → h turbine, e= +
ρg 2g ρg 2 g 2 turbine, e L ρ water g 2g
(1)
where
V̇ V̇ 0 . 6 m 3 /s 1
We
V 1= = 2 =8. 49 m/s
A1 πD 1 /4 π (0 . 30 m )2 /4
Turbine
3
V̇ V̇ 0 . 6 m /s
V 2= = 2 = =12 . 2 m/s
A 2 πD 2 /4 π (0 . 25 m)2 /4 Generator
The pressure drop corresponding to a differential height of 1.2 m in the

mercury manometer is 2
P1−P 2=( ρHg −ρ water )gh
¿[(13 , 560−1000 ) kg/m3 ](9 . 81 m/s2 )(1 . 2 m)

(11000kN kg⋅m/s )
2
¿ 148 kN/m 2 =148 kPa
Substituting into Eq. (1), the turbine head is determined to be
12-55
( )
2 2
148 kN/m 2 1000 kg⋅m/s 2 (8 . 49 m/s ) −(12. 2 m/s )
h turbine, e= 3 2 1 kN
+(1. 0 ) =15 .1−3. 9=11. 2 m
(1000 kg/m )( 9. 81 m/s ) 2( 9. 81 m/s 2 )
12-56
Then the net electric power output of this hydroelectric turbine becomes
Ẇ turbine=η turbine-gen ṁ ghturbine, e =ηturbine-gen ρ V̇ ghturbine, e
¿ 0 .83 (1000 kg/m3 )(0 .6 m 3 /s)(9 . 81 m/s2 )(11. 2 m)

(11 kg⋅m/s
N
2)(11000kW N⋅m/s )
¿ 55 kW
Discussion It appears that this hydroelectric turbine will generate 55 kW of electric power under given conditions. Note
that almost half of the available pressure head is discarded as kinetic energy. This demonstrates the need for a larger turbine
exit area and better recovery. For example, the power output can be increased to 74 kW by redesigning the turbine and
making the exit diameter of the pipe equal to the inlet diameter, D2 = D1. Further, if a much larger exit diameter is used and
the exit velocity is reduced to a very low level, the power generation can increase to as much as 92 kW.
12-57
12-58E A 78-percent-efficient 12-hp pump is pumping water from a lake to a nearby pool at a rate of 1.2 ft 3/s through a
constant- diameter pipe. The free surface of the pool is 32 ft above that of the lake. Determine the irreversible head loss of
the piping system, in ft, and the mechanical power used to overcome it.
Solution Water is pumped from a lake to a nearby pool by a pump with specified power and efficiency. The head loss
of the piping system and the mechanical power used to overcome it are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The elevation difference between the lake and the free surface of
the pool is constant. 3 All the losses in the pump are accounted for by the pump efficiency and thus hL represents the losses
in piping.
Properties We take the density of water to be  = 62.4 lbm/ft3.
Pool 2
32 ft
Pump
Lake 1
Analysis The useful pumping power and the corresponding useful pumping head are
Ẇ pump,u =ηpump Ẇ pump=(0.78 )(12 hp)=9.36 hp
Ẇ pump, u Ẇ pump, u
h pump, u= =
ṁ g ρ V̇ g
¿
9 .36 hp
(
(62 . 4 lbm/ft )(1 .2 ft /s)(32 .2 ft/s ) 1 lbf
3 3 2 1 hp)(
32 .2 lbm⋅ft/s 2 550 lbf⋅ft/s
=68 . 75 ft )
We choose points 1 and 2 at the free surfaces of the lake and the pool, respectively. Both points are open to the atmosphere
(P1 = P2= Patm) and the velocities at both locations are negligible (V1 = V2 = 0). Then the energy equation for steady
incompressible flow through a control volume between these two points that includes the pump and the pipes reduces to
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
+α 1 + z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 + z 2 + hturbine, e + h L h L=h pump, u +z 1 −z 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
®
Substituting, the head loss is determined to be
h L=h pump, u −( z 2−z 1 )=68 . 75−32=36 .75 ft≃36 . 8 ft
Then the power used to overcome it becomes

Ėmech loss, piping =ρ V̇ gh L
¿(62 . 4 lbm/ft3 )(1 .2 ft 3 /s)(32 .2 ft/s 2 )(36 . 75 ft )

(132lbf.2 lbm⋅ft/s )(1550hplbf⋅ft/s )
2
¿ 5. 00 hp
Discussion Note that the pump must raise the water an additional height of 36.8 ft to overcome the frictional losses in
pipes, which requires an additional useful pumping power of about 5 hp.
12-58
12-59 Water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir by a pump that provides 23 kW of useful mechanical
power to the water. The free surface of the upper reservoir is 57 m higher than the surface of the lower reservoir. If the flow
rate of water is measured to be 0.03 m3/s, determine the irreversible head loss of the system and the lost mechanical power
during this process.
Solution Water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher one. The head loss and power loss associated with this
process are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The elevation difference between the reservoirs is constant.
Analysis The mass flow rate of water through the system is

3 3
ṁ=ρ V̇ =(1000 kg/m )( 0. 030 m /s)=30 kg/s
We choose points 1 and 2 at the free surfaces of the lower and upper reservoirs, respectively, and take the surface of the
lower reservoir as the reference level (z1 = 0). Both points are open to the atmosphere (P1 = P2 =Patm) and the velocities at
both locations are negligible (V1 = V2 = 0). Then the energy equation for steady incompressible flow for a control volume
between 1 and 2 reduces to
ṁ ( P1
ρ
V 21
)
+ α 1 + gz 1 + Ẇ pump, u =ṁ
2 ρ(
P2 V 22
)
+ α 2 + gz 2 + Ẇ turbine, e + Ė mech,loss
2 Ẇ pump, u =ṁ gz 2+ Ė mech,loss
Ė
 mech,loss
=Ẇ pump, u− ṁ gz 2
12-59
Substituting, the lost mechanical power and head loss are calculated as
Ėmech,loss =23 kW−(30 kg/s)(9 .81 m/s )(57 m)

2
(11 kg⋅m/s
N
)(11000kWN⋅m/s )=6 . 225 kW≃6. 23 kW
2
Noting that the entire mechanical losses are due to frictional losses in piping and thus
Ėmech, loss = Ėmech loss, piping ,the
irreversible head loss is determined to be
h L=
Ėmech loss, piping
ṁ g
=
6 .225 kW
(
(30 kg/s)(9 . 81 m/s2 ) 1 N )(
1 kg⋅m/s2 1000 N⋅m/s
1 kW )
=21 . 2 m
Discussion The 6.23 kW of power is used to overcome the friction in the piping system. Note that the pump could raise
the water an additional 21 m if there were no irreversible head losses in the system. In this ideal case, the pump would
function as a turbine when the water is allowed to flow from the upper reservoir to the lower reservoir and extract 23 kW of
power from the water.
12-60
12-60 Water in a partially filled large tank is to be supplied to the rooftop, which is 8 m above the water level in the tank,
through a 2.5-cm-internal-diameter pipe by maintaining a constant air pressure of 300 kPa (gage) in the tank. If the head
loss in the piping is 2 m of water, determine the discharge rate of the supply of water to the rooftop.
Solution Water from a pressurized tank is supplied to a roof top. The discharge rate of water from the tank is to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The effect of the kinetic energy correction factor is negligible
and thus 2 = 1 (we examine the effect of this approximation in the discussion).
h=8m
300 kPa
1
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the tank, and point 2 at the exit of the discharge pipe. Noting that the
fluid velocity at the free surface of the tank is very low (V1 0) and water discharges into the atmosphere (and thus P2 =
Patm), the energy equation written in the head form simplifies to
Solving for V2 and substituting, the discharge velocity is determined to
Then the initial rate of discharge of water becomes
Discussion This is the discharge rate that will prevail at the beginning. The mean flow velocity will decrease as the
water level in the tank decreases. If we assume that the flow in the hose at the discharge is fully developed and turbulent,
2 1.05, and the results change to V2 = 19.610 m/s  19.6 m/s, and ,
a decrease (as expected since we are accounting for more losses) of about 2.4%.
12-61
12-61 Underground water is to be pumped by a 78-percent-efficient 5-kW submerged pump to a pool whose free surface
is 30 m above the underground water level. The diameter of the pipe is 7 cm on the intake side and 5 cm on the discharge
side. Determine (a) the maximum flow rate of water and (b) the pressure difference across the pump. Assume the elevation
difference between the pump inlet and the outlet and the effect of the kinetic energy correction factors to be negligible.
Solution Underground water is pumped to a pool at a given elevation. The maximum flow rate and the pressures at
the inlet and outlet of the pump are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The elevation difference between the inlet and the outlet of the
pump is negligible. 3 We assume the frictional effects in piping to be negligible since the maximum flow rate is to be
Ėmech loss, pipping =0.
determined, 4 The effect of the kinetic energy correction factors is negligible,  = 1.
Properties We take the density of water to be 1 kg/L = 1000 kg/m3.
Analysis (a) The pump-motor draws 5-kW of power, and is 78% efficient. Then the useful mechanical (shaft) power
it delivers to the fluid is
Ẇ pump, u =η pump-motor Ẇ electric=(0.78)(5 kW)=3.9 kW

We take point 1 at the free surface of underground water, which is also taken as the reference level ( z1 = 0), and point 2 at
the free surface of the pool. Also, both 1 and 2 are open to the atmosphere ( P1 = P2= Patm), the velocities are negligible at
both points (V1V2 0), and frictional losses in piping are disregarded. Then the energy equation for steady incompressible
flow through a control volume between these two points that includes the pump and the pipes reduces to
ṁ
ρ(
P1 V 21
)
+ α 1 + gz 1 + Ẇ pump =ṁ
2
P2
ρ
V 22
(
2 ) 2
In the absence of a turbine,

Ėmech, loss = Ėmech loss, pump + Ė mech loss, piping Pool
and
Ẇ pump, u =Ẇ pump− Ė mech loss, pump .
30 m
Thus,
Ẇ pump, u =ṁ gz 2 .
Then the mass and volume flow rates of water become 1
ṁ=
Ẇ pump, u
gz 2
=
3. 9 kJ/s
(
1000 m 2 /s2
(9. 81 m/s 2 )(30 m ) 1 kJ )
=13 . 25 kg/s Pump
12-62
ṁ 13 .25 kg/s
V̇ = = =0 . 01325 m 3 /s≃0 . 0133 m 3 /s
ρ 1000 kg/m 3
(b) We take points 3 and 4 at the inlet and the exit of the pump, respectively, where the flow velocities are
V̇ V̇ 0 .01325 m 3 /s V̇ V̇ 0 . 01325 m 3 /s
V 3= = 2 = =3. 443 m/s V 4= = 2 = =6 . 748 m/s
A 3 πD 3 /4 π (0. 07 m )2 /4 A 4 πD 4 /4 π (0 . 05 m)2 /4
,
We take the pump as the control volume. Noting that z3 = z4, the energy equation for this control volume reduces to
(
P3 V 23
) P4
( V 24
)
2 2
ρα (V 3 −V 4 ) Ẇ pump,u
ṁ + α 3 + gz 3 + Ẇ pump =ṁ + α4 +gz 4 + Ẇ turbine + Ė mech loss, pump P4 −P3 = +
ρ 2 ρ 2 ® 2 V̇
Substituting,
P4 −P3 =
2 (
(1000 kg/m 3 )[(3. 443 m/s )2−(6 .748 m/s )2 ] 1 kN
+
)
3 . 9 kJ/s 1 kN⋅m
1000 kg⋅m/s 0 . 01325 m /s 1 kJ
2 3 ( )
¿(−16 . 8+294 .3 ) kN/m 2 =277 . 5 kPa≃278 kPa
Discussion In an actual system, the flow rate of water will be less because of friction in the pipes. Also, the effect of
flow velocities on the pressure change across the pump is negligible in this case (under 2%) and can be ignored.
12-63
12-62 Reconsider Prob. 12–61. Determine the flow rate of water and the pressure difference across the pump if the irre-
versible head loss of the piping system is 4 m.
Solution Underground water is pumped to a pool at a given elevation. For a given head loss, the flow rate and the
pressures at the inlet and outlet of the pump are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The elevation difference between the inlet and the outlet of the
pump is negligible. 3 The effect of the kinetic energy correction factors is negligible,  = 1.
Properties We take the density of water to be 1 kg/L = 1000 kg/m3.
Analysis (a) The pump-motor draws 5-kW of power, and is 78% efficient. Then the useful mechanical (shaft) power
it delivers to the fluid is
Ẇ pump, u =η pump-motor Ẇ electric=(0.78)(5 kW)=3.9 kW
We take point 1 at the free surface of underground water, which is also taken as the reference level ( z1 = 0), and point 2 at
the free surface of the pool. Also, both 1 and 2 are open to the atmosphere ( P1 = P2= Patm), and the velocities are negligible
at both points (V1V2 0). Then the energy equation for steady incompressible flow through a control volume between these
two points that includes the pump and the pipes reduces to
ṁ
ρ(
P1 V 21
)
+ α 1 + gz 1 + Ẇ pump =ṁ
2
P2
ρ
V 22
( )
2
In the absence of a turbine,
Ėmech, loss = Ėmech loss, pump + Ė mech loss, piping 2
and
Ẇ pump, u =Ẇ pump− Ė mech loss, pump Pool
and thus
Ẇ pump, u =ṁ gz 2 + Ė mech loss, piping
Ėmech, loss =ṁ gh L , the mass and volume flow rates of water become 30 m
Noting that
Ẇ pump, u Ẇ pump, u
ṁ= = 1
gz 2 +ghL g( z 2 +h L )
( )
3 .9 kJ/s 1000 m 2 /s 2 Pump
¿ =11. 69 kg/s
(9 . 81 m/s2 )(30 +4 m ) 1 kJ
ṁ 11. 69 kg/s
V̇ = = =0 . 01169 m 3 /s≃0 . 0117 m 3 /s
ρ 1000 kg/m3
(b) We take points 3 and 4 at the inlet and the exit of the pump, respectively, where the flow velocities are
V̇ V̇ 0 .01169 m 3 /s
V 3= = 2 = =3 .038 m/s
A 3 πD 3/4 π (0. 07 m )2 /4
,
3
V̇ V̇ 0 . 01169 m /s
V 4= = 2 = =5 . 954 m/s
A 4 πD4 /4 π (0 . 05 m)2 /4
We take the pump as the control volume. Noting that z3 = z4, the energy equation for this control volume reduces to
ṁ (
P3
ρ
V 23
)
+α 3 + gz 3 + Ẇ pump =ṁ
2
2 2
P4
ρ
+ α4
2 (
V 24
)
+gz 4 + Ẇ turbine + Ė mech loss, pump
ρα (V 3 −V 4 ) Ẇ pump,u
P4 −P3 = +
® 2 V̇
Substituting,
P4−P3=
(1000 kg/m 3 )[(3. 038 m/s)2 −(5 . 954 m/s )2 ] 1 kN
2
+
( )
3 .9 kJ/s 1 kN⋅m
1000 kg⋅m/s 0 . 01169 m /s 1 kJ
2 3 ( )
2
¿(−13 .1+333 . 6) kN/m =320 . 5 kPa≃321 kPa
Discussion Note that frictional losses in the pipes causes the flow rate of water to decrease. Also, the effect of flow
velocities on the pressure change across the pump is negligible in this case (about 1%) and can be ignored.
12-64
12-63 The velocity profile for turbulent flow in a circular pipe is approximated as where n = 9.
Determine the kinetic energy correction factor for this flow.
Solution The velocity profile for turbulent flow in a circular pipe is given. The kinetic energy correction factor for
this flow is to be determined.
u(r )=umax (1−r /R )1/ n
Analysis The velocity profile is given by with n = 9The kinetic energy correction factor is
then expressed as
( )
3
u (r) 3 2 umax R
( ) ( )
3 3
1 1 1 R r n r n
α= ∫
A A V avg
dA= 3 ∫A
AV avg
u(r )3
dA= ∫ u 3
πR2 V 3avg r=0 max
1−
R
(2 πr)dr = ∫
R2 V 3avg r=0
1−
R
rdr
where the average velocity is

2 u max
( ) ∫r=0 (1− Rr )
1/n 1/n
1 1 R r R
V avg = ∫
A A
u (r )dA=
πR 2 ∫r=0 max
u 1−
R
(2 πr )dr =
R 2
rdr
From integral tables,
(a+bx )n+2 a (a+bx ) n+1

∫ (a+bx ) xdx = b2 (n+2) − b2 (n+1)
n
u(r) 2r
Then,
1 1
+2 +1
∫r=0 u(r)rdr=∫r=0 ( )
1/n 2 2
R R r (1−r/ R )n (1−r/ R)n R nR
1− rdr= − |r=0 =
R 1 1 1 1 (n+1)(2n+1)
( +2) ( +1)
R n R n
2 2
3 3
+2 +1
∫r=0 u(r) rdr=∫r=0 ( )

3/n 2 2
R 3 R r (1−r/R )n (1−r/R ) n R nR
1− rdr= − |r =0 =
R 1 3 1 3 (n+3)(2 n+3 )
( +2) ( +1)
R n R n
2 2
Substituting,
2
2u max n2 R 2 2n umax
V avg = 2
= =0 . 8167 umax
R (n+1)(2 n+1 ) (n+1)(2 n+1)
and
( )
−3
2u3max 2 n2 u max 2 2
n R (n+1)3 (2 n+1)3 (9+1)3 (2×9+1)3
α= = 4 = =1 . 037≃1 . 04
R2 (n+1)(2 n+1) ( n+3)(2 n+3) 4n ( n+3)(2 n+3 ) 4×94 (9+3)(2×9+3)
Discussion Note that ignoring the kinetic energy correction factor results in an error of just 4% in this case in the kinetic
energy term (which may be small itself). Considering that the uncertainties in some terms are usually more that 4%, we can
usually ignore this correction factor in turbulent pipe flow analyses. However, for laminar pipe flow analyses,  is equal to
2.0 for fully developed laminar pipe flow, and ignoring  may lead to significant errors.
12-65
12-64 The demand for electric power is usually much higher during the day than it is at night, and utility companies often
sell power at night at much lower prices to encourage consumers to use the available power generation capacity and to
avoid building new, expensive power plants that will be used only a short time during peak periods. Utilities are also willing
to purchase power produced during the day from private parties at a high price.
Suppose a utility company is selling electric power for $0.06/kWh at night and is willing to pay $0.13/kWh for power
produced during the day. To take advantage of this opportunity, an entrepreneur is considering building a large reservoir
50 m above the lake level, pumping water from the lake to the reservoir at night using cheap power, and letting the water
flow from the reservoir back to the lake during the day, producing power as the pump–motor operates as a turbine–
generator during reverse flow. Preliminary analysis shows that a water flow rate of 2 m3/s can be used in either direction,
and the irreversible head loss of the piping system is 4 m. The combined pump–motor and turbine–generator efficiencies
are expected to be 75 percent each. Assuming the system operates for 10 h each in the pump and turbine modes during a
typical day, determine the potential revenue this pump–turbine system can generate per year.
Solution An entrepreneur is to build a large reservoir above the lake level, and pump water from the lake to the
reservoir at night using cheap power, and let the water flow from the reservoir back to the lake during the day, producing
power. The potential revenue this system can generate per year is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow in each direction is steady and
incompressible. 2 The elevation difference between the lake 3 2
and the reservoir can be taken to be constant, and the
elevation change of reservoir during charging and Reservoir
discharging is disregarded. 3 The given unit prices remain Pump- 50 m
constant. 4 The system operates every day of the year for turbine
Lake 4 1
10 hours in each mode.
Properties We take the density of water to be  = 1000
kg/m3.
12-66
Analysis We choose points 1 and 2 at the free surfaces of the lake and the reservoir, respectively, and take the surface
of the lake as the reference level. Both points are open to the atmosphere (P1 = P2= Patm) and the velocities at both locations
are negligible (V1 = V2 = 0). Then the energy equation in terms of heads for steady incompressible flow through a control
volume between these two points that includes the pump (or the turbine) and the pipes reduces to
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
+α 1 + z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 + z 2 + hturbine, e + h L
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Pump mode:
h pump, u=z 2 +hL =50+4=54 m
®
h turbine, e=z 1 −h L=50−4=46 m
Turbine mode: (switch points 1 and 2 so that 1 is on inlet side) ®
The pump and turbine power corresponding to these heads are
Ẇ pump, u ρ V̇ gh pump, u
Ẇ pump, elect = =
η pump-motor ηpump-motor
(1000 kg/m3 )(2 m 3 /s)(9 . 81 m/s2 )(54 m ) 1 N
¿
0 .75 2 (
1 kW
1 kg⋅m/s 1000 N⋅m/s
=1413 kW
)( )
Ẇ turbine=η turbine-gen ṁ ghturbine, e =ηturbine-gen ρ V̇ ghturbine, e
¿ 0 .75(1000 kg/m3 )(2 m3 /s)(9 .81 m/s2 )(46 m )

(11 kg⋅m/s
N
)(11000kW N⋅m/s )=677 kW
2
Then the power cost of the pump, the revenue generated by the turbine, and the net income (revenue minus cost) per year
become
Cost=Ẇ pump, elect Δt×Unit price=(1413 kW )(365×10 h/year)($0.06/kWh )=$309,447/year
Revenue=Ẇ turbine Δt ×Unit price=(677 kW )(365×10 h/year )($0.13/kWh)=$321,237/year
Net income = Revenue – Cost = 321,237 – 309,447 = $11,790/year $11,800/year

Discussion It appears that this pump-turbine system has a potential annual income of about $11,800. A decision on such
a system will depend on the initial cost of the system, its life, the operating and maintenance costs, the interest rate, and the
length of the contract period, among other things.
12-67
12-65 A fireboat is to fight fires at coastal areas by drawing seawater with a density of 1030 kg/m3 through a
10-cm-diameter pipe at a rate of 0.04 m3/s and discharging it through a hose nozzle with an exit diameter of 5 cm.
The total irreversible head loss of the system is 3 m, and the position of the nozzle is 3 m above sea level. For a pump
efficiency of 70 percent, determine the required shaft power input to the pump and the water discharge velocity.
Solution A fireboat is fighting fires by drawing sea water and discharging it through a nozzle. The head loss of the
system and the elevation of the nozzle are given. The shaft power input to the pump and the water discharge velocity are to
be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The effect of the kinetic energy correction factors is negligible,
 = 1.
Properties The density of sea water is given to be  =1030 kg/m3. 2
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the sea and point 2 3m
at the nozzle exit. Noting that P1 = P2 = Patm and V1 0 (point 1 is at the 1
free surface; not at the pipe inlet), the energy equation for the control
volume between 1 and 2 that includes the pump and the piping system Fireboat
reduces to
2 2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2 V2
+α 1 + z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 + z 2 + hturbine, e + h L h pump, u=z 2 −z 1 +α 2 + h L
ρg 2g ρg 2g 2g
®
where the water discharge velocity is
V̇ V̇ 0 . 04 m 3 /s
V 2= = 2 = =20 . 37 m/s≃20 . 4 m/s
A 2 πD2 /4 π (0 . 05 m)2 /4
Substituting, the useful pump head and the corresponding useful pump power are determined to be
(20 .37 m/s )2

h pump ,u =(3 m )+(1) +(3 m)=27 . 15 m
2(9. 81 m/s 2 )
Then the required shaft power input to the pump becomes
12-68
Discussion Note that the pump power is used primarily to increase the kinetic energy of water.
12-69
Review Problems
12-66E The water level in a tank is 70 ft above the ground. A hose is connected to the bottom of the tank, and the nozzle at
the end of the hose is pointed straight up. The tank is at sea level, and the water surface is open to the atmosphere. In the
line leading from the tank to the nozzle is a pump, which increases the water pressure by 15 psia. Determine the maximum
height to which the water stream could rise.
Solution A hose is connected to the bottom of a water tank open to the atmosphere. The hose is equipped with a
pump and a nozzle at the end. The maximum height to which the water stream could rise is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is incompressible with negligible friction.
2 The friction between the water and air is negligible. 3 We take the 2
head loss to be zero (hL= 0) to determine the maximum rise of water
jet.
Properties We take the density of water to be 62.4 lbm/ft3.
1
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the tank, and h
point 2 at the top of the water trajectory where V2 = 0. We take the
reference level at the bottom of the tank. Noting that the fluid at both
points is open to the atmosphere (and thus P1 = P2 = Patm) and that the 70 ft
fluid velocity at the free surface is very low (V1 0), the energy
equation for a control volume between these two points (in terms of
heads) simplifies to
2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
+α 1 +z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 +z 2 + hturbine, e +h L → z 1 +h pump, u=z 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
where the useful pump head is
h pump, u=
ΔP pump 15 psi
ρg
= (
(62 . 4 lbm/ft 3 )(32 . 2 ft/s 2 ) 1 psi )( 1 lbf )
144 lbf/ft 2 32 .2 lbm⋅ft/s2
=34 . 6 ft
Substituting, the maximum height rise of water jet from the ground level is determined to be
z 2=z 1 +hpump, u =70+34 . 6=104 .6 ft≃105 ft
Discussion The actual rise of water will be less because of the frictional effects between the water and the hose walls and
between the water jet and air.
12-70
12-67 A pressurized 2-m-diameter tank of water has a 10-cm-diameter orifice at the bottom, where water discharges to
the atmosphere. The water level initially is 3 m above the outlet. The tank air pressure above the water level is maintained at
450 kPa absolute and the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. Neglecting frictional effects, determine (a) how long it will take
for half of the water in the tank to be discharged and (b) the water level in the tank after 10 s.
Solution Water discharges from the orifice at the bottom of a pressurized tank. The time it will take for half of the
water in the tank to be discharged and the water level after 10 s are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is incompressible, and the frictional effects are negligible. 2 The tank air pressure above the
water level is maintained constant.
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the tank, and point 2 at the exit of orifice. We take the positive
direction of z to be upwards with reference level at the orifice (z2 = 0). Fluid at point 2 is open to the atmosphere (and thus
P2 = Patm) and the velocity at the free surface is very low (V1 0). Then,
2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 P1 Patm V 2
+ + z1= + + z2 → + z 1= + → V 2=√ 2 gz 1 +2 P1 , gage / ρ
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g ρg ρg 2 g
V =√ 2gz+2P
or, 2 1 ,gage /ρ
where z is the water height in the tank at any time t. 1
Water surface moves down as the tank drains, and the value of z changes from H Air, 450 kPa
initially to 0 when the tank is emptied completely.
We denote the diameter of the orifice by D, and the diameter of the tank by
Do.The flow rate of water from the tank is obtained by multiplying the discharge
velocity by the orifice cross-sectional area, Water tank z0= 3 m
2 D0
πD
V̇ = A orifice V 2 =
4
√ 2 gz+2 P1, gage /ρ
Then the amount of water that flows through the orifice during a differential time
interval dt is D=10 cm
2
πD 2
dV =V̇ dt=
4 √2 gz+2 P1 , gage / ρ dt
(1)
which, from conservation of mass, must be equal to the decrease in the volume of water in the tank,
2
πD0
4 (2)
where dzis the change in the water level in the tank during dt. (Note that dz is a negative quantity since the positive direction
of z is upwards. Therefore, we used –dz to get a positive quantity for the amount of water discharged). Setting Eqs. (1) and
(2) equal to each other and rearranging,
√
2
πD2 πD D 20 1
√ 2 gz +2 P1 , gage / ρ dt=− 0 dz → dt=− 2
dz
4 4 D 2 gz +2 P1, gage /ρ
The last relation can be integrated since the variables are separated. Letting tfbe the discharge time and integrating it from t
= 0 when z = z0 to t = t when z = z gives
√ 2 z 0 2 P1 , gage
g
+
ρg 2
−
g √
2 z 2 P1 , gage D 2
+
ρg 2
= 2t
D0
( )
2 P1 ,gage 2
2(450−100) kN/m 1000 kg⋅m/s2
= =7 . 274 s2
2 3 2 2 1 kN
where ρg (1000 kg/m )(9 . 81 m/s )
The time for half of the water in the tank to be discharged (z = z0 /2) is
√ √
2
2(3 m ) 2 2(1 . 5 m ) 2 (0 .1 m)
+7 . 274 s − +7 . 274 s = t
9 . 81 m/s 2 9 .81 m/s2 (2 m)2 t =22.0 s
(b) Water level after 10s is
√ √
2
2(3 m ) 2 2z 2 (0 .1 m )
+7 . 274 s − +7 . 274 s = (10 s )
9 . 81 m/s 2 9 .81 m/s2 (2 m)2 z =2.31 m
Discussion Note that the discharging time is inversely proportional to the square of the orifice diameter. Therefore, the
discharging time can be reduced to one-fourth by doubling the diameter of the orifice.
12-71
12-72
12-68 A very large tank contains air at 102 kPa at a location where the atmospheric air is at 100 kPa and 20°C. Now a
2-cm-diameter tap is opened. Determine the maximum flow rate of air through the hole. What would your response be if air
is discharged through a 2-m-long, 4-cm-diameter tube with a 2-cm-diameter nozzle? Would you solve the problem the same
way if the pressure in the storage tank were 300 kPa?
Solution A tap is opened on the wall of a very large tank that contains air. The maximum flow rate of air through the
tap is to be determined, and the effect of a larger diameter lead section is to be assessed.
Assumptions Flow through the tap is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible friction (so that the flow rate
is maximum, and the Bernoulli equation is applicable).
Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kPam3/kgK.
100 kPa
Analysis The density of air in the tank is 20C
P 102 kPa 2 cm
ρair = = =1 . 21 kg/m3 1 2
RT (0 . 287 kPa⋅m3 /kg⋅K )(293 K) 2 cm
Air
102 kPa
We take point 1 in the tank, and point 2 at the exit of the tap along
the same horizontal line. Noting that z1 = z2 (or, the elevation effects 4 cm
are negligible for gases) and V1 0, the Bernoulli equation between
points 1 and 2 gives
P1 V 12
ρg 2 g
P V2
+ +z 1 = 2 + 2 +z 2
ρg 2 g
→
P 1 P2 V 22
= +
ρg ρg 2 g
→ V 2=
√ 2( P1 −P2 )
ρ air
Substituting, the discharge velocity and the flow rate becomes
V 2=
√ ρ air
=
2
√
1.21 kg/m 3 1 kN (
2( P1 −P2 ) 2(102−100 ) kN/m2 1000 kg⋅m/s2
=57 .5 m/s )
πD2 π ( 0 . 02 m)2
V̇ = AV 2 = V 2= (57 . 5 m/s )=0 . 0181 m3 /s
4 4
This is the maximum flow rate since it is determined by assuming frictionless flow. The actual flow rate will be less.
Adding a 2-m long larger diameter lead section will have no effect on the flow rate since the flow is frictionless
(by using the Bernoulli equation, it can be shown that the velocity in this section increases, but the pressure decreases, and
there is a smaller pressure difference to drive the flow through the tab, with zero net effect on the discharge rate).
Discussion If the pressure in the tank were 300 kPa, the flow is no longer incompressible, and thus the problem in that
case should be analyzed using compressible flow theory.
12-73
12-74
12-69 Water is flowing through a Venturi meter whose diameter is 7 cm at the entrance part and 4 cm at the throat. The
pressure is measured to be 380 kPa at the entrance and 200 kPa at the throat. Neglecting frictional effects, determine the
flow rate of water.
Solution Water is flowing through a venturi meter with known diameters and measured pressures. The flow rate of
water is to be determined for the case of frictionless flow.
Assumptions 1 The flow through the venturi is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible friction (so that the
Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 The flow is horizontal so that elevation along the centerline is constant. 3 The pressure
is uniform at a given cross-section of the venturi meter (or the elevation effects on pressure measurement are negligible).
Analysis We take point 1 at the main flow section and point 2 at the throat along the centerline of the venturi meter.
Noting that z1 = z2, the application of the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives
2 2 2 2
P1 V 1 P V V −V
+ +z 1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 → P1 −P2 =ρ 2 1
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2
(1)
The flow is assumed to be incompressible and thus the density is constant. Then the conservation of mass relation for this
single stream steady flow device can be expressed as
V̇ V̇
V̇ 1 =V̇ 2= V̇ → A1 V 1 = A2 V 2=V̇ → V 1= and V 2=
A1 A2
(2)
Substituting into Eq. (1),
380 kPa
P1−P 2= ρ
( V̇ / A2 )2 −( V̇ / A1 )2 ρ V̇ 2
2
=
2 A 22
1−
A 22
A 21 ( ) 200 kPa
V̇ 1 7 cm 4 cm
Solving for gives the desired relation for the flow rate,
2
V̇ = A 2
√ 2( P1 −P 2 )
ρ[ 1−( A 2 / A1 )2 ]
(3)
The flow rate for the given case can be determined by substituting the given values into this relation to be
πD 22
√
2(P 1−P2 )
√ ( )
2 2
π (0 .04 m ) 2(380−200) kN/m 1000 kg⋅m/s 2
V̇ = 4
= 3 4 1 kN
=0 . 0252 m 3 /s
4 ρ[1−( D2 /D 1 ) ] 4 (1000 kg/m )[ 1-(4/7 ) ]
Discussion Venturi meters are commonly used as flow meters to measure the flow rate of gases and liquids by simply
measuring the pressure difference P1 - P2 by a manometer or pressure transducers. The actual flow rate will be less than the
value obtained from Eq. (3) because of the friction losses along the wall surfaces in actual flow. But this difference can be
as little as 1% in a well-designed venturi meter. The effects of deviation from the idealized Bernoulli flow can be accounted
for by expressing Eq. (3) as
V̇ =C d A 2
√ 2( P1 −P2 )
2
ρ [1−( A 2 / A 1 ) ]
where Cd is the venturi discharge coefficient whose value is less than 1 (it is as large as 0.99 for well-designed venturi
meters in certain ranges of flow). For Re > 105, the value of venturi discharge coefficient is usually greater than 0.96.
12-75
12-70 Water flows at a rate of 0.011 m3/s in a horizontal Pipe whose diameter increases from 6 to 11 cm by an
enlargement section. If the head loss across the enlargement section is 0.65 m and the kinetic energy correction factor at
both the inlet and the outlet is 1.05, determine the pressure change.
Solution Water flows through the enlargement section of a horizontal pipe at a specified rate. For a given head loss,
the pressure change across the enlargement section is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow through the pipe is steady and incompressible. 2 The pipe is horizontal. 3 The kinetic energy
correction factors are given to be 1 = 2 =  = 1.05.
Analysis We take points 1 and 2 at the inlet and exit of the enlargement section along the centerline of the pipe.
Noting that z1 = z2 , the energy equation for a control volume between these two points (in terms of heads) simplifies to
2 2 2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2 α (V 1 −V 2 )
+α 1 +z 1 +h pump, u= +α 2 +z 2 +hturbine, e +h L → P2 −P1 =ρ − ρ gh L
ρg 2g ρg 2g 2
where the inlet and exit velocities are
V̇ V̇ 0 . 011 m3 /s
V 1= = 2 = =3 . 890 m/s Water
A1 πD1 /4 π (0 . 06 m)2 /4 0.011 m3/s 1 6 cm 2 11 cm
V̇ V̇ 0 . 011 m 3 /s
V 2= = 2 = =1. 157 m/s
A 2 πD2 /4 π (0 . 11 m)2 /4
Substituting, the change in static pressure across the enlargement section is determined to be
P2 −P 1=(1000 kg/m 3 ) ( 1. 05[(3 . 890 m/s)2 −(1. 157 m/s)2 ]

2 )(
−(9 .81 m/s 2 )(0 . 65 m)
1N
)(1 kPa
1 kg⋅m/s 1000 N/m 2
2 )
=0 . 865 kPa
Therefore, the water pressure increases by 0.865 kPa across the enlargement section.
Discussion Note that the pressure increases despite the head loss in the enlargement section. This is due to dynamic
pressure being converted to static pressure. But the total pressure (static + dynamic) decreases by 0.65 m (or 6.38kPa) as a
result of frictional effects.
12-76
12-71 Air flows through a pipe at a rate of 120 L/s. The pipe consists of two sections of diameters 22 cm and 10 cm with
a smooth reducing section that connects them. The pressure difference between the two pipe sections is measured by a water
manometer. Neglecting frictional effects, determine the differential height of water between the two pipe sections. Take the
air density to be 1.20 kg/m3.
Solution Air flows through a pipe that consists of two sections at a specified rate. The differential height of a water
manometer placed between the two pipe sections is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow through the pipe is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible friction (so that the
Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 The losses in the reducing section are negligible. 3 The pressure difference across an air
column is negligible because of the low density of air, and thus the air column in the manometer can be ignored.
Properties The density of air is given to be air = 1.20 kg/m3. We take the density of water to be w = 1000 kg/m3.
Analysis We take points 1 and 2 along the centerline of the pipe over the two tubes of the manometer. Noting that
z1 = z2 (or, the elevation effects are negligible for gases), the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives
2 2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 ρair (V 2−V 1 )
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → P1 −P2 =
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2
(1)
We let the differential height of the water manometer be h. Then the pressure difference P2 – P1 can also be expressed as
P1−P 2= ρw gh
(2)
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) and solving for h,
22 cm
ρair ( V 22−V 21 ) ρ (V 2−V 12 ) V 22 −V 21 1 2 10 cm
=ρ w gh → h= air 2 = Air
2 2 gρw 2 gρw / ρair 120 L/s
Calculating the velocities and substituting,
V̇ V̇ 0 . 120 m 3 /s h Water
V 1= = 2 = =3 . 157 m/s
A1 πD1 /4 π(0. 22 m)2 / 4
V̇ V̇ 0. 120 m 3 /s
V 2= = 2 = =15 . 28 m/s
A 2 πD2 /4 π (0 . 1 m)2 /4
2 2
(15.28 m/s) −(3. 157 m/s)
h= =0.01367 m≃1.37 cm
2(9 .81 m/s )2 (1000/1.20 )
Therefore, the differential height of the water column will be 1.37 cm.
12-77
Discussion Note that the differential height of the manometer is inversely proportional to the density of the manometer
fluid. Therefore, heavy fluids such as mercury are used when measuring large pressure differences.
12-78
12-72 A 3-m-high large tank is initially filled with water. The tank water surface is open to the atmosphere, and a sharp-
edged 10-cm-diameter orifice at the bottom drains to the atmosphere through a horizontal 80-m-long pipe. If the total
irreversible head loss of the system is determined to be 1.5 m, determine the initial velocity of the water from the tank.
Disregard the effect of the kinetic energy correction factors.
to the atmosphere through a long pipe with a specified head loss. The initial discharge velocity is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is incompressible. 2 The draining pipe is horizontal. 3 There are no pumps or turbines in the
system. 4 The effect of the kinetic energy correction factor is negligible,  = 1.
Water
3m
80 m
10 cm 2
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the tank, and point 2 at the exit of the pipe. We take the reference level
at the centerline of the orifice (z2 = 0. Noting that the fluid at both points is open to the atmosphere (and thus P1 = P2 = Patm)
and that the fluid velocity at the free surface is very low (V1 0), the energy equation between these two points (in terms of
heads) simplifies to
2 2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2 V2
+α 1 + z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 + z 2 + hturbine, e + h L → z 1=α 2 +h L
ρg 2g ρg 2g 2g
where 2 = 1 and the head loss is given to be hL= 1.5 m. Solving for V2 and substituting, the discharge velocity of water is
determined to be
V 2=√ 2g( z 1 −h L )= √2(9.81 m/s 2 )(3−1.5) m=5.42 m/s

Discussion Note that this is the discharge velocity at the beginning, and the velocity will decrease as the water level in
the tank drops. The head loss in that case will change since it depends on velocity.
12-79
12-73 Reconsider Prob. 12–72. Using appropriate software, investigate the effect of the tank height on the initial
discharge velocity of water from the completely filled tank. Let the tank height vary from 2 to 15 m in increments of 1 m,
and assume the irreversible head loss remains constant. Tabulate and plot the results.
Solution The previous problem is reconsidered. The effect of the tank height on the initial discharge velocity of water
from the completely filled tank as the tank height varies from 2 to 20 m in increments of 2 m at constant heat loss is to be
investigated.
g=9.81 "m/s2"
rho=1000 "kg/m3"
h_L=1.5 "m"
D=0.10 "m"
V_initial=SQRT(2*g*(z1-h_L)) "m/s"
Tank height, Head Loss, Initial velocity

z1, m hL, m Vinitial, m/s
2 1.5 3.13
3 1.5 5.42
4 1.5 7.00
5 1.5 8.29
6 1.5 9.40
7 1.5 10.39
8 1.5 11.29
9 1.5 12.13
10 1.5 12.91
11 1.5 13.65
12 1.5 14.35
Discussion The dependence of V on height is not linear, but rather V changes as the square root of z1.
12-80
12-74 Reconsider Prob. 12–72. In order to drain the tank faster, a pump is installed near the tank exit. Determine the
pump head input necessary to establish an average water velocity of 6.5 m/s when the tank is full.
to the atmosphere through a long pipe equipped with a pump with a specified head loss. The required pump head to assure a
certain velocity is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is incompressible. 2 The draining pipe is horizontal. 3 The effect of the kinetic energy correction
factor is negligible,  = 1.
Water
3m
Pump
2
100 m
10 cm
Analysis We take point 1 at the free surface of the tank, and point 2 at the exit of the pipe. We take the reference level
at the centerline of the orifice (z2 = 0), and take the positive direction of z to be upwards. Noting that the fluid at both points
is open to the atmosphere (and thus P1 = P2 = Patm) and that the fluid velocity at the free surface is very low (V1 0), the
energy equation between these two points (in terms of heads) simplifies to
2 2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2 V2
+α 1 +z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 + z 2 + hturbine, e + h L → z 1 +h pump, u=α 2 +h L
ρg 2g ρg 2g 2g
where 2 = 1 and the head loss is given to be hL= 1.5 m. Solving for hpump, u and substituting, the required useful pump head
is determined to be
√ √
2
V (6 .5 m/s )2
h pımp ,u = 2 −z 1 +h L= −(3 m)+(1. 5 m)=0. 808 m
2g 2(9 .81 m/s2 )
Discussion Note that this is the required useful pump head at the beginning, and it will need to be increased as the water
level in the tank drops to make up for the lost elevation head to maintain the constant discharge velocity.
12-81
12-75 An oil pump is drawing 18 kW of electric power while pumping oil with ρ = 860 kg/m3 at a rate of 0.1 m3/s. The
inlet and outlet diameters of the pipe are 8 cm and 12 cm, respectively. If the pressure rise of oil in the pump is measured to
be 250 kPa and the motor efficiency is 95 percent, determine the mechanical efficiency of the pump. Take the kinetic
energy correction factor to be 1.05.
Solution A pump is pumping oil at a specified rate. The pressure rise of oil in the pump is measured, and the motor
efficiency is specified. The mechanical efficiency of the pump is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The elevation difference across the pump is negligible. 3 All the
losses in the pump are accounted for by the pump efficiency and thus hL = 0. 4 The kinetic energy correction factors are
given to be 1 = 2 =  = 1.05.
Properties The density of oil is given to be  = 860 kg/m3.
18 kW
2
Pump
Motor
1
Oil
Analysis We take points 1 and 2 at the inlet and the exit of the pump, respectively. Noting that z1 = z2, the energy
equation for the pump reduces to
2 2 2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2 P2 −P 1 α (V 2 −V 1 )
+α 1 + z 1 +h pump, u= + α 2 + z 2 + hturbine, e + h L h pump, u= +
ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g
®
where
3
V̇ V̇ 0. 1 m /s
V 1= = 2 = =19 . 9 m/s
A1 πD1 /4 π (0 . 08 m)2 /4
3
V̇ V̇ 0. 1 m /s
V 2= = 2 = =8 . 84 m/s
A 2 πD2 /4 π (0 . 12 m )2 /4
12-82
12-83
Substituting, the useful pump head and the corresponding useful pumping power are determined to be
( )
2 2
250,000 N/m 2 1 kg⋅m/s 2 1 . 05[(8 .84 m/s ) −(19 . 9 m/s) ]
h pump, u= + =29 .6−17 . 0=12 .6 m
(860 kg/m 3 )( 9. 81 m/s 2 ) 1 N 2(9. 81 m/s2 )
Ẇ pump,u = ρ V̇ gh pump, u =(860 kg/m3 )(0.1 m 3 /s )(9.81 m/s 2 )(12 .6 m )

(10001kg⋅m/s
kN
2)(11 kWkN⋅m/s )=10 .6 kW
Then the shaft pumping power and the mechanical efficiency of the pump become
Ẇ pump,shaft =ηmotor Ẇ electric =(0.95)(18 kW )=17.1 kW
Ẇ pump, u 10 . 6 kW
ηpump = = =0 .620=62 . 0%
Ẇ pump, shaft 17 . 1 kW
Discussion The overall efficiency of this pump/motor unit is the product of the mechanical and motor efficiencies,
which is 0.95  0.620 = 0.589 = 58.9%.
12-84
12-76 A wind tunnel draws atmospheric air at 20°C and 101.3 kPa with a large fan located near the exit of the tunnel. If
the air velocity in the tunnel is 80 m/s, determine the pressure in the tunnel.
Solution A wind tunnel draws atmospheric air by a large fan. For a given air velocity, the pressure in the tunnel is to
be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow through the pipe is steady, incompressible, and irrotational with negligible friction (so that the
Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2 Air is and ideal gas.
Properties The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kPam3/kgK.
Windtunnel
1
20C
101.3 kPa 80 m/s 2
Analysis We take point 1 in atmospheric air before it enters the wind tunnel (and thus P1 = Patm and V1 0), and point
2 in the wind tunnel. Noting that z1 = z2 (or, the elevation effects are negligible for gases), the Bernoulli equation between
points 1 and 2 gives
2 2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 ρV 2
+ +z 1 = + +z 2 → P 2=P1 −
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g 2 (1)
where
P 101 .3 kPa
ρ= = =1 .205 kg/m3
RT (0 . 287 kPa⋅m3 /kg⋅K )(293 K)
Substituting, the pressure in the wind tunnel is determined to be
2
P2 =(101. 3 kPa )−(1 .205 kg/m3 )
(80 m/s )
2 (1N
)(
1 kPa
1 kg⋅m/s 1000 N/m 2
2 )
=97 . 4 kPa
Discussion Note that the velocity in a wind tunnel increases at the expense of pressure. In reality, the pressure will be
even lower because of losses.
12-85
12-77 A pump-storage plant uses a turbine to generate hydropower during the day, letting water from the upper reservoir
flow through the turbine into the lower reservoir as sketched. The plant then pumps water back up to the upper reservoir
during the night. In a typical pump-storage plant, the same turbomachine is used as both the pump and the turbine, and is
called a pump–turbine. The plant is profitable because the demand for electric power is much higher during the day than it
is at night, and utility companies sell power at much lower prices at night to encourage customers to use the available power
generation capacity and to avoid building new expensive power plants that would be used only a short time during peak
periods. Utilities are also willing to purchase power produced during the day from private parties at a high price. Suppose a
utility company is selling electric power for $0.030/kWh at night and is willing to pay $0.120/kWh for power produced
during the day. A pump-storage plant has a gross head of 90.0 m and can handle a volume flow rate of 4.6 m3/s in either
direction. The irreversible head losses in the system are estimated as 5.0 m in either direction at this flow rate. The
efficiency of the combined pump–motor is 88 percent, and that of the combined turbine–generator is 92 percent. The plant
runs in pump mode for 10 h each night and runs in turbine mode for 10 h each day. It operates 340 days in a year. How
much net revenue ($) does this pump-storage plant generate in one year?
Solution A pump-storage plant generates power during the day and pumps water back up to the upper reservoir
during the night. The net revenue generated by this pump-storage plant is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 Both reservoir surfaces are open to the atmosphere and the
velocities at both locations are negligible. 3 Water is an incompressible substance.
Properties The density of water is 998 kg/m3.
Analysis We choose a wise control volume (see sketch) such that the inlet and outlet are just below the free surfaces of the
upper and lower reservoirs, and we take the surface of the lower reservoir as the reference level for z so that z at the lower
reservoir is 0. Both surfaces are open to the atmosphere (P1 = P2= Patm) and the velocities at both locations are negligible
(V1V2 0) since the reservoirs are large. We also slice our CV through the pump-turbine shaft. The energy equation in head
form for steady incompressible flow through a control volume between these two points that includes the pump (or the
turbine) and the pipes is
P1 V2 P V2
 1 1  z1  hpump, u  2   2 2  z2  hturbine, e  hL
g 2g g 2g (1)
12-86
Pump mode: We take inlet (1) at the lower reservoir surface and outlet (2) at the upper reservoir surface. Equation (1)
reduces to
hpump, u  H gross  hL
(2)
Turbine mode: The flow is reversed, so we take inlet (1) at the upper reservoir surface and outlet (2) at the lower reservoir
surface. Equation (1) reduces to
hturbine, e  H gross  hL
(3)
The pump and turbine electrical power corresponding to these heads are
W pump, u  pump, u V ghpump, u

mgh
W pump, elect   
 pump-motor pump-motor  pump-motor
(4)
and
 turbine, e   turbine-gen  gV hturbine, e
W turbine, elec  turbine-genW turbine, e  turbine-gen mgh
(5)
respectively, where we are using the combined efficiency of the motor and the turbomachine.
We let tturbine be the total time that the turbine is running, and we let tpump be the total time that the pump is running. We also
let Cday be the cost ($ per kWh) during the day (an income), and we let Cnight be the cost ($ per kWh) during the night (an
expense). Then the net income (revenue minus cost) per year becomes
Net income = Revenue  Cost  W turbine, elect Cday tturbine  W pump, elect Cnight tpump
V ghpump, u
  turbine-gen  gV hturbine, e Cday tturbine  Cnight tpump
pump-motor

  gV  turbine-gen  H gross  hL  Cday tturbine 
 H gross  hL  C t 
night pump
  pump-motor 
(6)
where we have plugged in Equations (2) through (5). Equation (6) is our answer in variable form. Finally, we plug in the
numbers,

Net income =  gV  turbine-gen  H gross  hL  Cday tturbine 
 H gross  hL  C t 
night pump
  pump-motor 
 kg  m  m 
3
 $0.120   h  90.0  5.0  m  $0.03   h  
  998 3  9.807 2   4.6  0.92 90.0  5.0  m    10  340 day     10   340 day 
 m  s  s   kW  h   day  0.88  kW  h   day  
2
 N  s   kW  s 
    $940,699.80  $940, 000
 kg  m   1000 N  m 
where we have carefully applied some unity conversion factors.
Discussion The revenue is almost a million dollars per year, and there are several pump-storage facilities throughout the
USA. They serve as a “battery” for storage of electrical power, and are more efficient than batteries or other kinds of power
storage.
12-87
12-88
Design and Essay Problems
12-78 to 12-80
Solution Students’ essays and designs should be unique and will differ from each other.
12-80 The power generated by a wind turbine is proportional to the cube of the wind velocity. Inspired by the
acceleration of a fluid in a nozzle, someone proposes to install a reducer casing to capture the wind energy from a larger
area and accelerate it before the wind strikes the turbine blades, as shown in Fig. P12–80. Evaluate if the proposed
modification should be given a consideration in the design of new wind turbines.
Solution We are to evaluate a proposed modification to a wind turbine.

Analysis Using the mass and the Bernoulli equations, it can be shown that this is a bad idea – the velocity at the exit
of nozzle is equal to the wind velocity. (The velocity at nozzle inlet is much lower). Sample calculation using EES using a
wind velocity of 10 m/s:
V0=10 "m/s"
rho=1.2 "kg/m3" V0 =10 m/s
V2 =10 m/s
g=9.81 "m/s2"
A1=2 "m2" V1 =5 m/s
A2=1 "m2"
A1*V1=A2*V2
P1/rho+V1^2/2=V2^2/2
m=rho*A1*V1
m*V0^2/2=m*V2^2/2
Results: V1 = 5 m/s, V2 = 10 m/s, m = 12 kg/s (mass flow rate).
Discussion Students’ approaches may be different, but they should come to the same conclusion – this does not help.
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12-1

PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL

12-5C What is stagnation pressure? Explain how it can be measured.

Solution We are to discuss and compare the operation of a manometer.

Substituting the given values, the nozzle exit velocity is

where the pressure rise at the tip of the Pitot-static probe is

¿313.9 N/m2 ≃314 Pa

Setting the two velocities equal to each other gives

Calculating the velocities and substituting,

Solving for Pstag, gage and substituting,

since 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 and 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h.

V 2,max = √2gh=√ 2(9.81 m/s2 )(3 m )=7.67 m/s

Pipe diameter Discharge time

Analysis (a) For T = 20 0C , Pv= 2.338 x 103 Pa (abs)

We should check if these velocities would be possible,

which is higher than 25 m. Therefore, this main can serve water to

Solving for V2 and substituting, the discharge velocity is determined to

Then the initial rate of discharge of water becomes

Substituting the given values, the flow velocity is determined to be

Solving for P1,gage and substituting,

dmin= ṁin dt ṁin

dmtank =ṁin dt−ṁout dt

Solution We are to define and discuss irreversible head loss.

Solution We are to define and discuss useful pump head.

12-41C What is the kinetic energy correction factor? Is it significant?

Solution We are to analyze a suggestion regarding a garden hose.

Properties We take the density of water to be  = 1000

since, in the absence of a turbine,

¿(1000 kg/m3 )(0 .025 m 3 /s)(9 . 81 m/s2 )[(25+5 ) m ]

Head Loss, Pumping power Efficiency

Ẇ pump,u =ηpump Ẇ pump, shaft =(0.82)(15 hp)=12.3 hp

V̇ V̇ 0 . 040 m 3 /s 480 kPa

Substituting, the head loss in the reducer is determined to be

¿(1000 kg/m3 )(0 .040 m 3 /s)(9 . 81 m/s2 )(0 . 963 m )

¿ 68 .7 kN/m2 =68 . 7 kPa

Substituting and noting that

Substituting and noting that

The useful pumping power needed to overcome this head loss is

¿(1000 kg/m3 )(0 .020 m 3 /s )( 9. 81 m/s2 )(0 . 204 m)

Ẇ pump =V̇ ΔP=(0. 020 m3 /s)(2000 Pa )

V 2=√ 2g( z 1 −z 2−h L )/α=√ 2(9.81 m/s2 )(4−0.2 m)/1.2=7.88 m/s 2 V2 10 cm

The pressure drop corresponding to a differential height of 1.2 m in the

¿[(13 , 560−1000 ) kg/m3 ](9 . 81 m/s2 )(1 . 2 m)

¿ 148 kN/m 2 =148 kPa

Substituting into Eq. (1), the turbine head is determined to be

¿ 0 .83 (1000 kg/m3 )(0 .6 m 3 /s)(9 . 81 m/s2 )(11. 2 m)

Ẇ pump,u =ηpump Ẇ pump=(0.78 )(12 hp)=9.36 hp

Then the power used to overcome it becomes

¿(62 . 4 lbm/ft3 )(1 .2 ft 3 /s)(32 .2 ft/s 2 )(36 . 75 ft )

Analysis The mass flow rate of water through the system is

Ėmech,loss =23 kW−(30 kg/s)(9 .81 m/s )(57 m)

Solving for V2 and substituting, the discharge velocity is determined to

Then the initial rate of discharge of water becomes

Ẇ pump, u =η pump-motor Ẇ electric=(0.78)(5 kW)=3.9 kW

In the absence of a turbine,

where the average velocity is

From integral tables,

(a+bx )n+2 a (a+bx ) n+1