Noise LEBW4973-03

Contents
Noise .................................................................................... 1
Sound ............................................................................... 2
Sound Waves and Measurement ...................................... 3
Amplitude & Frequency .............................................. 4
Sound Pressure Level ................................................. 4
Weighting Networks ................................................... 5
Octave Band Levels .................................................... 5
Sound Power ............................................................. 6
Sound Addition .......................................................... 7
Sound Power and Pressure Conversions ........................... 8
Noise .............................................................................. 10
Caterpillar Noise Data ....................................................... 11
Free Field ................................................................ 11
Sound Pressure Level (LP)
— Mechanical orInlet & Exhaust ................................ 11
Measurements ......................................................... 11
Engine Installations .............................................................. 12
Typical Design Approach .................................................. 13
Considerations ............................................................. 13
Source/Path/Receiver Model .......................................... 13
Large-Engine Installation ................................................... 15
Site Criteria ................................................................. 16
Noise Control....................................................................... 17
Airborne Noise Control...................................................... 18
Mechanical Noise ......................................................... 19
Intake Noise ................................................................ 20
Exhaust Noise.............................................................. 20
Silencers ..................................................................... 20
Dissipative............................................................... 21
Reactive .................................................................. 21
Sound Absorption Treatments ....................................... 21
Barriers and Enclosures ................................................. 22
Structure-Borne Noise Control ........................................... 24
Foundation .................................................................. 24
Simple Isolation System ................................................ 25
Compound Isolation System .......................................... 26
Comparison of Isolation Systems ................................... 27
Foreword
This section of the Application and Installation Guide generally describes
Noise, its causes and suggested corrections on Caterpillar® engines listed
on the cover of this section. Additional engine systems, components and
dynamics are addressed in other sections of this Application and Installation
Guide.
Engine-specific information and data are available from a variety of
sources. Refer to the Introduction section of this guide for additional
references.
Systems and components described in this guide may not be available or
applicable for every engine.
Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

Discretion is recommended when distributing. Materials and specifications
are subject to change without notice.
CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, "Caterpillar Yellow," the "Power

Edge" trade dress as well as corporate and product identity used herein, are
trademarks of Caterpillar and may not be used without permission.
Noise Application and Installation Guide
Noise
There is increasing world-wide pressure to reduce noise in our environment.
This is evidenced by a pattern of legislation that imposes an obligation on
manufacturers and suppliers to produce machinery that does not generate
noise levels that induce hearing loss.
Caterpillar has played a leading part in the field of noise control on engines
and engine installations. This effort spans many years and continues to
benefit both engine users and the communities in which the engines are
used.
The intent of this guide is to provide a greater understanding of noise and
noise control.
This is achieved in three major parts:
• Review the basic theory and nomenclature of noise.
• Define the sources of engine-related noise.
• Outline appropriate noise control methods.
SECTION CONTENTS
Sound ............................... 2 Caterpillar Noise Data ......... 11

• Sound Waves & • Free Field
Measurement • Sound Pressure Level
• Sound Power and Pressure • Measurements
Conversions
Noise................................10
• Hazards
• OSHA Limits
© 2010 Caterpillar®
All rights reserved. Page 1
Application and Installation Guide Noise
Sound
Noise is sound. Specifically, any
unwanted sound. Any discussion of
noise reduction or noise control is,
essentially, sound control. So to
describe noise, we must first
understand sound.
Sound is a pressure which makes
the membrane in the human ear
deflect. Sounds begin as a vibration
like the ringing of a bell. As the bell
vibrates, it disturbs the air around
the bell. This disturbance radiates
through the air and is sensed by the
ear. The fluctuation in pressure is
interpreted by the brain as sound.
Other terms to describe sound
pressure are sound level, strength,
power, amplitude and loudness.
Sound pressure is a pressure and it
can be reported in units on the
following scales: Figure 1
• 20 µPa (micropascal) It is important to understand that an
• 1 Atmospheric Pressure increase of 10 units anywhere on the
• 1 bar decibel scale is not just “a little”
louder, it is 10 times louder in terms
• 100 kPa
of sound intensity, representing a
• 14.5 psi factor of 10 times the power of
• Threshold of Hearing generated sound, than the initial
• 0 dB (decibels relative value. On the other hand, the human
to 20 micropascal) ear is a non-linear instrument, and this
increase of dB is sensed as a doubling
The ear can also tolerate pressures of loudness (based on statistical
a million times higher. This testing of audiences exposed to
extensive, non-linear, range requires sound of varying loudness).
a logarithmic scale to measure the
sound pressure. The scale is divided In addition to being non-linear,
in units called decibels (dB). A human hearing is also frequency
decibel is the relative measurement sensitive.
of amplitude of sound. Figure 1 The frequency of sound refers to
illustrates sound pressure in dB and the rapidity or cycles of an
psi for some common sounds. oscillation in a unit of time. The
Page 2 All rights reserved.
conventional unit is Hertz (Hz). One Sound Waves and

Hz is equal to one cycle per second. Measurement
Also referred to as pitch, rapidly As sound waves radiate from a
oscillating sounds have a higher source, their strength decreases as
pitch than lower oscillating sounds. the distance increases.
Frequency sensitivity is illustrated For every doubling of the measuring
in Figure 2. The graph shows three distance from the center of radiating
sounds of equal loudness. Note that machine, its noise reduces by 6 dB.
lower frequencies must be produced This rule is generally valid for
at higher decibel levels to be heard measurements taken at a distance
equally with higher frequencies. In from the center greater than the
general, sounds with frequencies in largest dimension of the device.
the 1,000-4,000 Hz range are the
easiest to hear; sounds with very Refer to Figure 3. For example, the
low frequencies are the hardest to first sound reading for an installation
hear. whose greatest dimension is “X”
should be taken at a distance from
Sounds of Equal Loudness the center of the noise source equal
to X. (correct illustration change 117
to 114, and show distances from
the center of the device.)
Figure 2
Figure 3
The range of frequency dependant At that point, the following rule

hearing sensitivity in humans, as applies:
Illustrated in the figure above, is For each doubling of the distance
encoded in the commonly used A- from the first measuring point,
scale, as shown in the figure, below. sound strength is reduced by 6dB.
Xxxxxxxxxxxx A-scale The following table illustrates this
relationship another way.
Distance Strength Amplitude & Frequency

Amplitude and frequency are the
x 120 only sound properties that can be
2x 114 measured using ordinary techniques.
4x 108
Microphones produce voltage
proportional to the sound waves that
Sound is mostly directional, act upon it. The voltages indicate
meaning that the sound tends to the amplitude, of the sound pressure
move more in one direction than waves. The number of waves, or
another. High frequency sound is cycles, in a given amount of time
more directional than low frequency indicate the frequency.
sound.
Sound Pressure Level
The contour of the sound wave
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) is a
can be complex as shown in Figure
measure of the energy of a particular
4. By measuring the sound pressure
sound relative to a reference sound.
level around the engine, the contour
In almost all situations SPL is
of the sound wave can be
expressed in decibels and compared
determined.
to a standardized value of 20 µPa
It is not only the source of the (micropascal) or 2 x 10-4 microbars
sound which will give the direction, which is equal to 0 dB.
but also any kind of reflective
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) in
surface in the area of the engine, i.e.
decibels equals:
floor, walls or ceiling.
Contour of a Sound Wave
The relationship between µPa and

dB is such that multiplying the sound
pressure (µPa) by 10 will add 20 dB
to the dB level.
Because of their logarithmic
nature, differences in two decibel
ratings will indicate the wave
strength ratio between two
measured sound levels.
Figure 4 While the non-linearity of the scale

may be difficult at first, it will
become useful once the following
relationships are learned.
Difference In Two The most commonly used network

Signal Levels Pressure Level Ratio weighting is A. The A-scale is
In Decibels intended to mimic the response of
1 1.12 to 1 the human ear. It is also known as
3 1.41 to 1 (A-scale), dB(A). Characteristics of
6 2.00 to 1 weighting network A is shown in
10 3.16 to 1 Figure 6. Note that the A-network is
12* 4.00 to 1 most sensitive at 2,000 Hz, the
20 10.00 to 1 point where humans typically have
40 100.00 to 1 the highest hearing sensitivity, and
* Illustrated in Figure 5. reduces rather dramatically at lower
frequencies, to the point that at 63
Hz the A-filter corrects the measured
level downward by 26 dB.
Response Characteristics of
Weighting Network Filter “A”
Figure 5
Weighting Networks
Since human hearing is nonlinear
and more sensitive to high
frequencies than low frequencies,
measurements are adjusted, or
weighted, to match the sensitivity
of the ear, or other function.
Sound pressure is measured by 1 Figure 6
microphone.
The signal from the measuring Octave Band Levels
microphone is then passed to an Measuring noise by spectral plots
amplifier and an attenuator which is of the sound pressure in various
calibrated in decibels. frequency bands is more descriptive
Next, the signal is passed to one of sounds than just the single values
of four weighting networks referred from the A, C, or other networks.
to as A, B, C and D. Each network Generally the simplest frequency
modifies, or filters, the input signal division is by Octave frequency
accordingly. bands.
Measurements are made with regarding the directivity of radiation

filters subdividing sounds over the from a device.
entire audible range into This is analogous to a light bulb;
standardized frequency bands, wattage (power) is a constant, while
permitting the pressure levels of only intensity (pressure) will vary with
the sound within each subdivision to distance, and the lens directivity.
be measured. In the case of the
Sound power is the starting point
Octave Spectrum, each filter spans
for consideration of the sound
one octave. Figure 7 shows octave
pressure which will be measured at
bands having center frequencies
a given location, from one or many
from 63 Hz to 8000 Hz.
noise emitting machines.
Standard Octave Bands Sound Power, is expressed as
(ANSI Standard S1.11 IEC 225) Octave Band spectrum values, and
sometimes Sound Power is given
with A-network filtered values. The
Sound Power emissions of a device
are determined by measurements
made around the operating device in
free field conditions or inside a
reverberation chamber. Certifialbel
measurements are performed in
comformance with ASTM or ISO
standards.
The normal expression of Sound
Power Level (PWL) is given is
decibel units
PWL = 10*LOG10( Acoustic Watts
Emitted / 10-12 Watts)
With sound power, 80 dB
Figure 7 expresses an acoustic radiation of
0.0001 watts. In this scale, a
Sound Power difference of 3 dB is a ratio of 2:1;
While sound pressure is the actual 10 dB a ratio of 10:1.
pressure measured at a point
The chart in Figure 8 illustrates
including direct and indirect
differences in decibels and ratios in
(reflected) sounds, and is what the
sound pressure and power. Sound
ear hears. Sound Power is used to
power, in decibels, is a measure of
measure the total noise emission
the total sound radiation from a unit;
from a device, and its value is not
while sound pressure, also in
affected by distance from the device
decibels, is the strength of a sound
or by reflections. Sound Power
wave after it travels a specified
ratings have no information
distance from the unit.
The two decibel scales are related must also include the addition of
despite the discussed differences. acoustic energy. This is done by
The change in one will produce the taking the logarithm of the algebraic
same numerical change in the other. sum of the acoustical powers.
For example, if the sound power of Therefore, adding dB(A) levels
an engine was increased by 10 dB, requires some logarithmic
the sound pressure of that noise at manipulation; the determination of
any given point would also increase their antilogs, then their addition,
10 dB. and finally the determination of the
total’s logarithm.
A graph showing the combined
effect of up to ten equal sound
sources is shown in Figure 9. As
illustrated in the graph, two engines,
each individually producing 100
dB(A), would effectively produce
103 dB(A) when operating together.
These two sets of dB addition
apply to Sound Pressure at a
particular measuring position, in
comparison to the sound pressure at
that location from the individual
devices. They also apply to Sound
Power of more than one sound
emitting device on a single site.
Figure 8
Addition of Equal Sounds
Sound Addition
Sound from multiple sources will
have an additive effect on the
overall sound level heard by the
human ear.
For example, when standing by an
engine, the sound heard from other
engines operating in the same area
will be increased, but the extent of
the perceived increase will depend
on the spacing of the engines and
where the person is in relation to the
spacing.
In addition, it must be noted that
overall sound levels in dB(A) cannot Figure 9
be determined by simple addition. It
Figure 10 illustrates the combined pressure level as SPL. These terms

effect of two unequal sound are equivalent to the terms LW and LP
sources. used in this section of the guide.
For example, the combination of a When the sound power level (LW) is
100 dB(A) sound source and a 106 known, the sound pressure level (LP)
dB(A) sound source would result in a at any distance from a point source
107 dB(A) sound level. To add a (such as exhaust noise) can be
third sound source, use the same calculated.
process to combine it with the total The equation for determining the
of the first two. sound pressure level of exhaust
noise without any correction for
Addition of two Unequal Sounds ambient temperature and pressure
is:
L P in dB(A) = L W in dB(A) – 10Log 10 (CπD 2 )
Where:
C = 2 for exhaust source adjacent
to a flat surface, such as a
horizontal exhaust pipe
adjacent to a flat roof
or
C = 4 for exhaust source some
distance from surrounding
Figure 10
surfaces, such as a vertical
exhaust stack some distance
Sound Power and Pressure
above roof
Conversions
D = Distance from exhaust noise
Sound level information is
source (m)
presented both in terms of sound
power level, LW (dB(A)), and sound
pressure level, LP (dB(A)). LW is the For C = 4
total sound power being radiated LP = LW – 20 Log10 D – 11
from a source and its magnitude is
independent of the distance from the
source. Relative loudness LP measurement requires only a
comparison between engines is simple sound level meter. However,
simply a comparison of their sound this measurement is the sum of
power levels at equivalent operating sound waves arriving from every
conditions. direction; It is dependent on the
Note: Some Caterpillar Technical acoustic characteristics of the
Data Sheets will refer to sound environment and varies with position
power level as SWL and sound relative to the noise source. LP
cannot be used to describe the If the sound pressure level of a

strength of a noise source without point source at some distance is
specifying relative position and room known, the sound pressure level at
acoustic properties of the test another distance can be calculated
environment. A disadvantage is that using this formula:
sound pressure level conversion is LP2 = LP1 – 20 x Log10 (D2÷D1)
valid for a point source or at large
Where:
distances from a distributed source,
such as a machine. In the case of LP1= known sound pressure level,
large machines, the conversion is dB(A)
valid to one dB or less so long as the LP2= desired sound pressure level,
measurement distance is equal at dB(A)
leat four times the maximum lenth of D1= known distance, m (ft)
the machine.
D2= desired distance, m (ft)
Noise
Noise, or unwanted sound, can composed of two or more periods of
disrupt verbal communication and noise at different levels, the
produce adverse psychological combined effect is calculated by:
effects. Excessive noise can even D(8) = (C1/T1) + (C2/T2) + ... + (CN/TN).
cause physical damage.
Where:
Psychological effects include
irritability, anxiety and difficulty CN= Duration of exposure at a
concentrating. specified sound level
The physiological impact of noise TN= Total time of exposure
can include short-term hearing loss, permitted at a specified sound
possible long-term hearing loss and level (Refer to the following
headaches. Hearing loss from table)
exposure to noise is frequency The noise exposure is acceptable
sensitive. when D(8) is equal to or less than 1.
As mentioned before, exposure
to excessive noise can cause
Duration of Daily
permanent hearing damage and Allowable Level dB(A)
Exposure (hours)
adversely affects working efficiency
and comfort. Recognizing this, the 8 90
6 92
U.S. Government created the
4 95
Occupational Safety and Health Act 3 97
(OSHA) which established limits for 2 100
industrial environments. 1.5 102
When an individual’s daily noise 1 105
exposure, designated D(8), is 0.5 110
0.25 115
Caterpillar Noise Data

Caterpillar provides noise values Mechanical
(LP) for engines at different ratings. Sound pressure level data is
The noise levels are: obtained by operating the engine in
Free Field an open “free” field and recording
Free field means that it is a 100% sound pressure levels at a given
open area with no sound reflections distance. The data is recorded with
or other modifying factors. It is the exhaust sound source isolated.
important to recognize that most Inlet & Exhaust
engines or packaged units are Sound pressure level data is
installed in a building, vessel or other recorded with the mechanical sound
location, where sound does reflect source isolated.
off surrounding surfaces, so on-site
Measurements
sound measurements will be higher
All measurements are for
than the published free field noise
“without” radiator fan arrangements.
levels.
Sound Pressure Level (LP) —
Mechanical or Inlet & Exhaust
Sound pressure level is presented
under two index headings,
mechanical and exhaust.
Engine Installations
Some installations require very little noise abatement, for example, a
remote facility far from people. Very sensitive installations, on the other
hand, may require extensive noise abatement measures. Because of the
variety of noise criteria that may apply to a given site, it is impossible to
provide a description of abatement measures meeting all site criteria. It is the
responsibility of the facility designer to ensure that the specific criteria of the
site are met.
It is strongly advised that a noise control expert be involved in the facility
design process from the beginning if the engine unit is to be installed in a
building or area that is noise sensitive. Since internal combustion engines
produce high noise levels at low frequencies, many traditional noise control
approaches are relatively ineffective. Every aspect of facility design must be
reviewed with special emphasis on low-frequency attenuation characteristics
in order to meet site criteria.
This section provides information for designing Caterpillar large-engine unit
installations to meet site noise criteria. Large-engine units include an engine
and some piece of driven equipment, such as a generator or a compressor.
Guidelines for installation design are provided, along with information on
using noise data on Caterpillar units.
SECTION CONTENTS
Typical Design Approach .....13 Large Engine Installation...... 15

• Considerations • Site Criteria
• Source/Path/Receiver Model
Typical Design Approach

Considerations • Identify and select appropriate
A typical approach to designing an noise abatement measures.
engine installation is: Guidelines for attenuation of
noise, both through
• Recognize the special
commercially available
requirements of engine
equipment and through facility
installations. The first step is
construction, are provided.
to become aware of the
special noise characteristics of Source/Path/Receiver Model
engine installations. Possible A simple source/path/receiver
sources, paths, and receivers model is useful in noise control
of large-engine noise are programs for basic understanding of
reviewed. the problem. Such a model is
• Identify site noise criteria. For illustrated in Figure 11.
example, is the installation in
a remote or a populated area?
Is it within a building sensitive
to noise (for example, a
laboratory or a hospital)?
What regulations, standards,
or restrictions apply to noise? Figure 11
The noise criteria form an
essential part of the design Following are some general
goals. Since criteria vary from observations regarding this simple
site to site, this guide cannot model.
identify all the criteria that • Sources generally emit both
apply to a particular site. airborne and structure-borne
However, some guidelines for noise (the latter form of noise
site noise criteria are also commonly referred to as
provided. vibration). Each form of noise
• Obtain noise data on the may result in undesirable
engine unit. Noise data airborne noise at the receiver,
provided by Caterpillar is which is the primary concern
available in the Technical here.
Marketing Information (TMI)
system. Note: Data is free
field and will be affected by
structures, walls and
enclosures. Acoustical design
engineer needs to take this
into account.
• Noise generally travels from • Sources, paths, and receivers

the source to the receiver of noise all have frequency-
along several paths dependent response
simultaneously. Every properties. Sources such as
significant noise path must be large internal combustion
treated in order to engines typically emit high-
successfully reduce levels at amplitude, low-frequency
the receiver. This is analogous noise, while most path
to electrical switches in attenuators (e.g., walls or
parallel: all switches must be silencers) are more effective
open to stop current flow. at high frequencies than at
• A path may involve a series of low frequencies. Finally,
structural or acoustic receivers such as building
elements. Any element in the structures or the human ear
path can be controlled in order are more sensitive at some
to attenuate noise along that frequencies than at others.
path. This is analogous to • The role of the facility
electrical switches in series, designer usually is to control
where any open switch can the paths of noise, since the
stop the current flow. source generally cannot be
• It is essential to identify the altered and the noise
receivers and to determine restrictions at the receiver are
what noise limits apply to often fixed.
them. This dictates the
attenuation required along
each path.
Large-Engine Installation
For facility design purposes, the outside the engine room, a person
large-engine unit may be modeled as elsewhere in the building or a
a number of different sub-sources, community resident. Noise paths to
each having one or more different receivers outside the room include
paths to possible receivers, as walls, ceilings, tunnels, and
shown in Figure 12. This particular ventilation system ducts.
illustration relates to external noise, The acoustic environment inside
but the external environment in this the room consists of a direct sound
problem could also be an interior field, sound radiated straight from
space in another part of the facility. the source to the receiver, and a
It permits the introduction of some reverberant sound field, sound
important concepts of the noise reflected from room boundaries.
problem.
The reverberant sound field is
Airborne mechanical noise (1), (4) affected by the room acoustics of
and (5) is radiated from the engine the space, principally, the sound
unit; some surfaces radiate far more absorptive properties of the room
noise than others. Receivers of boundaries. The direct sound field,
airborne mechanical noise may be however, is independent of the room
located in the same room as the unit acoustics.
- for example, an operator, a person
Large Engine Unit Modeled as Sub-Sources
Figure 12
Inlet and exhaust noise (2) and (3) It is imperative that the site criteria
are also airborne components, and be defined before facility design is
generally are significant noise undertaken. Either under- or over-
sources on large internal combustion designing the facility can be
engines. In addition to the airborne unnecessarily expensive if excessive
noise transmitted along the inlet and abatement equipment is specified or
exhaust piping, noise may be if construction has to be redone in
radiated from the piping, or from order to meet site criteria. The key is
structures connected to the piping. to determine the requirements of the
Structure-borne noise (6) is site and design toward that goal.
emitted from the source and Because of the extensive variation
propagates through connecting in the form and the level of
structures to airborne sound applicable restrictions and standards
radiating surfaces. In the case of the around the world, it is beyond the
engine unit, structure-borne noise scope of this document to provide a
travels first through the spring detailed coverage of this area. It is
mounts to the foundation. Next, the the responsibility of the facility
noise energy may travel to the designer to identify the criteria that
building structure, either directly if apply to a particular installation. The
the foundation is supported directly facility must meet regulations
on the building structure or after governing the installation site, and
traversing resilient material or soil if may also voluntarily meet criteria
the foundation is isolated from the and guidelines promoting safety and
building structure. At that point the comfort of the receivers. A poorly
structure-borne energy is radiated as designed facility meeting local
airborne noise. ordinances while disregarding
standards of comfort and safety for
Site Criteria residents can still be the target of
The site criteria determine the community complaint.
extent of noise control measures and
treatments required for a given
installation. The criteria may be
defined by law or by acceptability
standards.
Generally, for large-engine units,
the criteria addresses the comfort of
exposed people. These may be in
adjacent residential areas or in
occupied spaces in other parts of the
facility. However, criteria may also
address safety issues, either for
people, as in hearing protection or
for equipment, as in protection from
vibration.
Noise Control
A properly designed facility provides adequate attenuation for all possible
paths of noise in order to meet the site noise criteria. It has been emphasized
throughout this discussion that this requires attention to both airborne and
structure-borne noise. Either form can result in excessive airborne noise
within the facility or in the exterior environment. The following paragraphs
are intended to provide some basic guidelines and cautions regarding facility
design for noise control.
SECTION CONTENTS
Airborne Noise Control ........18 Structure-Borne

• Mechanical Noise Noise Control .................... 24
• Intake Noise • Foundation
• Exhaust Noise • Simple Isolation System
• Silencers • Compound Isolation System
• Sound Absorption • Comparison of Isolation
Treatments Systems
• Enclosures & Barriers
Airborne Noise Control

Noise Criteria
Octave Bands in Cycles Per Second 31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Highly Critical Hospital or Residential
71 63 44 37 35 34 33 33 33
Zone
Night, Residential 73 69 52 44 39 38 38 38 38
Day, Residential 76 71 59 50 44 43 43 43 43
Commercial 81 75 65 58 54 50 47 44 43
Industrial-Commercial 81 77 71 64 60 58 56 55 54
Industrial 87 85 81 75 71 70 68 66 66
Ear Damage Risk 112 108 100 95 94 94 94 94 94
Airborne noise control is a statistical descriptions of noise, and

straightforward and well-developed therefore does not address
area compared with structure-borne resonance effects.
noise control. There is abundant For some installations, airborne
information available on sound noise must be controlled at several
absorption and transmission receiver points: inside the engine
properties of common construction room, in other rooms in the building
materials, and there are accepted and outside the building. The
and proven procedures for applying simplest way to reduce airborne
that information. noise within a building is through
However, it is important to good building layout. Equipment
recognize that much of the rooms should be situated far from
conventional information and sensitive receiver locations in the
procedures were developed for building. This takes advantage of the
higher-frequency noise, and thus fact that propagating sound energy
may not be appropriate for engine diminishes with distance from the
units, which produce strong low- source. In addition, there are two
frequency acoustic energy. For other methods of controlling airborne
example, structural and acoustic noise: with high transmission loss
resonances (conditions of minimum walls and with absorption.
dynamic stiffness) may coincide It is helpful to review some
with pure-tone frequency terminology before discussing the
components of the engine noise, sound transmission characteristics of
resulting in very efficient transfer of walls. The transmission loss (TL) of
energy. Conventional building a partition is a measure of the ratio
acoustics generally is based on of energy incident on the wall to
that transmitted through the wall, of the wall, at openings for pipes or
expressed in dB. The less relative electrical outlets, and across shared
sound transmitted through the wall, ceilings (so-called flanking paths). A
the higher the TL of the wall. TL is a wall with a leakage area equal to
function of frequency. 0.01% of that of the wall area
The sound transmission class cannot exceed STC = 40, no matter
(STC) of a partition is a single- how high the STC of the wall
number rating calculated from the construction.
partition TL. A reference contour is A partition may include elements
adjusted against the measured TL with various transmission loss
data, and the STC rating equals the characteristics, for example,
value of the adjusted contour at 500 windows and doors. The
Hz. The STC rating does not include transmission loss of the partition
information in frequency bands must be calculated taking all
below 125 Hz. This rating is useful elements into consideration.
for designing walls that provide To estimate the total airborne
insulation against the sounds of noise transmission loss of a facility,
speech and music. It is inappropriate subtract the noise value for each
for industrial machinery with low- receiver from the estimated room-
frequency energy such as engine average sound pressure level. If
units. TL data should be used there is more than one space, the
instead, whenever possible. sum of the individual contributions
In typical partitions, sounds at must not exceed the criterion.
higher frequencies are attenuated
more than sounds at lower Mechanical Noise
frequencies. The highest Many techniques for isolating
transmission loss values are found in generator set vibrations are
cavity wall (two-leaf) constructions, applicable to mechanical noise
where the two separate wall layers isolation.
are well isolated. The transmission Modest noise reductions result
loss values increase with the masses from attention to noise sources, i.e.,
of the individual leafs, the depth of reducing fan speeds, coating casting
the airspace, and the characteristics areas, and ducting air flows. But for
of any sound-absorptive material in attenuation over 10 dB(A), units
the airspace. must be totally isolated.
It should be noted that noise leaks One effective method utilizes
can severely degrade the concrete blocks filled with sand to
performance of a partition. Materials house the generator set. In addition,
are tested for their transmission loss the unit must incorporate vibration
characteristics in a controlled isolation techniques.
laboratory setting, with all edges A rough guide comparing various
sealed. But in typical construction, isolation methods is illustrated in
sound leaks may occur at the edges Figure 13.
Completely enclosed engines are Intake Noise

impractical due to openings required Intake noise attenuation is
for pipes, ducts, and ventilation. achieved through either air cleaner
Enclosures with numerous openings elements or intake silencers.
rarely attain over 20 dB(A)
Noise attenuation due to various
attenuation.
air cleaners and silencers can be
supplied by the component
Isolation Methods
manufacturer.
Air intake silencers, particularly
glass-filled absorbers, must be
located upstream of the air cleaners
to prevent glass or debris from
entering the engine.
Careful consideration must be
given to air intake silencers to
ensure they do not excessively
restrict air flow.
Exhaust Noise
Exhaust noise is typically airborne.
Exhaust noise attenuation is
commonly achieved with a silencer
typically capable of reducing exhaust
noise 15 dB(A) when measured
3.3 m (10 ft) perpendicular to the
exhaust outlet. Locating the silencer
near the engine minimizes
transmission of sound to the exhaust
piping.
Since the number of cylinders and
engine speeds result in varied
exhaust frequencies, specific effects
of silencers must be predicted by the
silencer manufacturer.
Silencers
Figure 13 Silencers are used to attenuate
airborne noise in piping and duct
systems. Their effectiveness
generally is frequency sensitive, so it
is essential that they be matched to
the frequency content of the noise.
There are two major categories of 63 to 8000 Hz, tested in accordance

silencers: dissipative and reactive. with ASTM E-477. DIL is the
Dissipative difference in sound level with and
without a silencer installed in pipe or
Dissipative silencers use
duct with air flow. Some
absorptive, fibrous material to
manufacturers rate silencers as
dissipate energy as heat. They are
being “industrial”, “commercial”, or
effective only for high frequency
“residential” grade. In such a cases,
applications, such as 500 to
the DIL of the silencer should still be
8000 Hz.
requested in order to determine the
Reactive grade of silencer most suitable for
Reactive silencers, on the other the installation.
hand, use a change in cross-
To determine the DIL required by a
sectional area to reflect noise back
particular application, information is
to the source. They are typically
required on the actual (unsilenced)
used for low-frequency applications,
and desired noise levels at the
such as internal combustion engines,
emission point. The difference
and they may incorporate perforated
between these values is the silencer
tubes to increase broadband
DIL. The desired source level is
performance.
determined from the criteria
The effectiveness of a reactive governing the site.
silencer depends on its diameter,
When used to attenuate exhaust
volume, and overall design. Some
noise, the silencer must be sized to
specific designs include:
accommodate the specified volume
• Multi-chamber silencers to of flow without imposing excessive
provide maximum sound backpressure. The flow area for a
attenuation with some flow given backpressure can be
restriction. calculated from the engine exhaust
• Straight-through silencers flow (CFM) and the exhaust
provide negligible flow temperature. The pressure drop will
restriction with slightly lower determine the required size of the
sound attenuation. silencer.
• Stack silencers to be inserted Sound Absorption Treatments
directly into a stack and Acoustically absorptive surfaces
withstand a harsh convert acoustic energy into heat,
environment. and are generally described by sound
• Combination heat-recovery absorption coefficients in octave
silencers are designed for hot bands. Absorptive surfaces may be
gas exhaust. used to reduce the reverberant
Most manufacturers offer silencer (reflected) sound field within a room.
dynamic insertion loss (DIL) As mentioned above, reducing the
information in octave bands from reverberant field within a room can
also reduce the noise field outside
the room. It should be noted that Barriers and Enclosures

absorptive materials do not Barriers and enclosures block and
attenuate the direct sound field. reflect direct-radiated sound from a
The absorption of a room may be noise source. A barrier provides a
estimated on an octave-band basis “shadow zone” of sound attenuation
from the absorption coefficients and between the source and the
the area of each room surface, such receiver, much as light casts a
as ceilings, walls and floors. shadow behind a wall.
Alternatively, the room absorption Full enclosures may be used
may be determined through around the source (the engine) or
reverberation time measurements. around the receiver (the operator or
Using this information and the personnel in affected areas). Partial
source sound power data, the noise barriers may be used to protect
reduction that can be obtained by noise sensitive areas by locating
adding absorption to a room may receivers in the shadow zone.
be determined. Information on the
The effectiveness of a barrier in
absorption coefficients of a material
blocking noise transmitted through
or element may be obtained from
it is a function of its sound
the manufacturer.
transmission characteristics. Both
A wide variety of commercially enclosures and barriers should be
available sound absorbing elements lined with absorptive material to be
are available for almost every fully effective.
application. Ceiling treatments
In the case of an enclosure without
include lay-in tiles or boards for
absorption, the reverberant field
suspended ceilings, tiles that can be
inside the enclosure can greatly
directly affixed to the ceiling surface
increase the interior sound pressure,
and suspended absorbers.
so that noise outside the enclosure
Acoustic wall panels range from is also increased.
“architectural” panels with attractive
In the case of a barrier without
finishes to perforated metal panels
absorption, the noise is simply
filled with absorbing materials.
reflected elsewhere. Transmission
Concrete blocks with slotted faces
loss and absorption are the main
and acoustical fill may be used to
selection criteria for barriers and
add sound absorption to normal
enclosures, and each is a function
concrete block wall construction.
of frequency.
Sound absorbing elements are
Opening in enclosures should be
selected on the basis of their sound
acoustically treated, for maximum
absorption coefficient in the octave
effectiveness. Also, when using
bands of interest. In addition, the
sound barriers it is important to
elements must survive their
control “flanking paths” (sound
environment, be easy to maintain,
paths around the barrier).
and offer acceptable flame spread
properties.
There are many types of For example, a 120 dB(A) free field
commercially available enclosures engine, if placed inside a “20 dB(A)
and barriers. Complete enclosures drop” enclosure, will not be reduced
for specific types of mechanical to 100 dB(A). The room acoustic
equipment are available, some of effect can raise the level inside to
which include silenced air inlets/exits 123 dB(A) or more. This could result
and a reactive silencer for exhaust in 103 dB(A) or higher outside. It is
noise. Several types of modular important to specify actual sound
panels are available that may include levels “outside” the enclosure, not
sound absorbing material on one or the enclosure’s sound reduction
both sides of the panel. Outdoor capability.
barriers, designed to resist wind and Along with acoustical
seismic forces, are also available to performance, practical issues must
block or reflect noise outdoors. be considered in using barriers or
CAUTION: Enclosure manufacturers enclosures. Engine enclosures
may publish “dB drop data.” require ventilation to dissipate the
However, this may not take into heat that builds up within the
account the room acoustic effects. enclosure. The enclosure must be
Room acoustic effects will make the accessible for maintenance and
installation louder when an enclosure inspection, and may require panic
is placed over a free field noise latches on doors. Acoustic materials
source. within the enclosure must be fire-
resistant.
Structure-Borne Noise Control

The purpose of a vibration isolation are usually filled with a resilient
system (whether simple or material to prevent debris falling into
compound), or a wave barrier, is to and “shorting out” the gap. Semi-
control the transmission of structure- rigid fiberglass board is normally
borne noise from the engine unit to used to fill wall gaps, while asphalt-
the building structure, either directly impregnated fiberglass board is
or through the ground. normally used between on-grade
Those measures are intended to slabs, foundations, and footings.
control noise close to the source, Many times, large buildings already
where control measures generally incorporate expansion joints to allow
are most effective. However, even for thermal expansion and
with effective isolation mounting of contraction. These may be used to
the engine unit it still may be attenuate structure-borne noise by
necessary to provide additional placing the source and receivers on
structure-borne noise attenuation in opposite sides of the expansion
the building construction. joint. It is essential that construction
elements, pipes, or any other rigid
Conceptually, the simplest way
connections do not bridge these
to attenuate structure-borne noise
discontinuities.
along a path is to increase the
distance between the source and In addition to the source and the
receiver, since the amplitude of path, receiver locations can also be
structure-borne noise decreases treated to control structure-borne
with increasing distance from the noise in some situations. For
vibration source. The attenuation of example, a “floating floor”
noise in concrete-frame buildings has construction may be used to isolate
been found to be about 5 dB per the receiver (e.g., a person or some
floor for frequencies up to 1000 Hz. piece of vibration-sensitive
Attenuation for vibrations traveling equipment) from building vibration.
along continuous concrete floor
Foundation
slabs typically range from 1.5 to
Foundation Design is a very
2 dB/meter. In general, there is less
important and often overlooked
attenuation along horizontal building
aspect of large-engine unit facility
structures.
design. Large-engine units, as noted
Another way to attenuate above, emit relatively strong low
structure-borne noise is through frequency energy — structure-borne
structural discontinuities. A as well as airborne. If the facility
discontinuity, or impedance design does not account for both
mismatch, causes a reflection of forms of noise, it is likely that site
energy back toward the source, noise criteria will not be met.
thereby controlling noise
transmission. Such discontinuities
Note: Foundation design for additional stiffness. Thus a

installations where noise is not an foundation that is adequate for
issue is discussed in the Mounting supporting the static load of the unit
Application and Installation Guide. will be satisfactory for many
Unfortunately, structure-borne installations where noise is not a
transmission and radiation is much critical concern.
more difficult to analyze than In installations where noise is
airborne noise. Whereas it may be a major concern, attention must
relatively straightforward to estimate be directed toward all elements
the airborne noise transmission loss of the isolation system and to the
of the building structure and various structural paths between the
types of noise control systems, and foundation and the rest of the
thereby assess the adequacy of a building structure. Adequate
facility design, reliable quantitative isolation often can be achieved
estimates of structure-borne noise with a simple system, but some
transmission may be extremely installations may require a
difficult or impossible to obtain with compound isolation system. Both
current technology, particularly at types are discussed briefly in the
low frequencies. Thus, the usual following paragraphs.
approach for noise-sensitive
installations is to over-design for Simple Isolation System
structure-borne noise, to ensure that An isolation system with one
it is not a problem. This means dynamic mass and one set of
taking care to control every possible isolation mounts is termed a simple
structure-borne noise path. isolation system. The transmissibility
Especially in this area, designers are function for an ideal simple isolation
strongly urged to consult qualified system is shown in Figure 14.
professional noise control engineers Transmissibility describes the ratio
for noise-sensitive installations. of force transmitted to the
foundation (assumed rigid) to the
Engine units usually are mounted
force generated in the excitation
on concrete pad or metal deck
source. Thus low transmissibility
foundations, using spring mounts
is desirable.
between the unit base and the
foundation. Some of the smaller At low frequencies the
engine units come with isolators transmissibility has a value of
between the engine/generator and unity—that is, force is transmitted
base and do not require additional across the isolator without a change
spring mounts for the unit base. in amplitude. Around the resonant
Since the unit base provides frequency of the system, the
sufficient stiffness for alignment and transmissibility reaches a maximum;
relative deflection of the engine and that is, the transmitted force is
the driven equipment, there is no substantially greater than the applied
need to rely on the foundation for force, depending on the amount of
damping in the mounts. The
resonance frequency is determined resilient elements, unless the

by the ratio of mount stiffness to connected structures are relatively
dynamic mass. stiff.
At a point above the resonance The principal source of dynamic
frequency, the transmissibility weakness in structures is resonance.
function drops below unity and Resonance is a dynamic effect
isolation benefit begins to be where the structure may be
realized. (The frequency at which hundreds or thousands of times
the function crosses unity is 1.4 weaker than it is statically (i.e.,
times the resonance frequency.) at zero Hz). Therefore, isolation
From that point the transmissibility effectiveness will suffer around
diminishes at a rate of -2 decades resonance frequencies of the
per decade of frequency. Clearly, the structures on either side of the
isolation system must be designed isolation elements. It is important to
so that the frequency of the rigid- ensure that there are no uncontrolled
body mode is much lower than the resonances in the critical frequency
lowest frequency of significant range of the isolation system.
structure-borne noise from the Figure 15 shows a measured
source, in order to realize isolation transmissibility function on an actual
benefit. simple mounting system. Several of
Actual installations differ from the six rigid-body modes are evident
the simple, ideal system in several below 3 Hz. In the frequency range
important respects. First, the above those modes, the
isolated mass actually has six rigid- transmissibility function falls off with
body degrees of freedom, rather a -2 decade per decade slope, as
than a single one as in the system with the ideal system. However,
described previously. That means note the peaks in the function
that an actual system has six starting at around 20 Hz. Those
resonance modes defining the lower- peaks are associated with structural
frequency range where no isolation resonances in one or both of the
benefit is provided. structures on either side of the
The second important difference isolation elements.
between actual systems and the
Compound Isolation System
ideal system is that the structures
Increased structure-borne noise
on either side of the isolators are not
isolation can be realized with a
perfectly rigid. The effectiveness of
compound isolation system. Such a
the system depends on the dynamic
system has an intermediate mass
compliance (inverse of dynamic
with an additional set of isolation
stiffness) of the resilient elements
mounts, thus doubling the number
relative to the compliance of the
of rigid-body modes of the isolation
attached structures. Thus, an
system. Above the rigid-body mode
isolation system may not perform
range, the transmissibility function
satisfactorily, even with very soft
has a -4 decade per decade slope—
twice the slope of the simple may occur from the foundation to
system. This is illustrated in the soil and from the soil into the
Figure 16 for an ideal system with building structure, regardless of the
only vertical translation response mass of the foundation. This is
(the response of the simple model because wave motion occurs in any
is also plotted, with a grey line, for elastic medium, and wave motion
comparison). will be transmitted into any other
Note that there are two rigid-body elastic medium in contact with the
modes in this function, one at about first. Thus, for a simple isolation
3.5 Hz and one at about 7 Hz. system, attention must be focused
Above the second mode the greater on foundation stiffness as well as
negative slope in the function is the interface between the foundation
clearly evident. and its supporting ground or
structure.
An actual compound isolation
system would have a total of 12 Another concern with any type of
rigid-body modes. An actual system isolation system is to ensure that
also would have reduced isolation there are no rigid structural
effectiveness associated with connections across the isolation
resonances in the structural system, which can in effect short-
elements on either side of the circuit the isolation system.
isolation elements, just as in a
Comparison of Isolation
simple isolation system.
Systems
A common question from facility To illustrate different isolation
designers is, "How large should the systems, consider the case of a
foundation mass be to prevent G3600 generator set package.
excessive structure-borne noise?" The total weight of the package
For a simple isolation system, where is 113,000 lb (51,300 kg). The
the foundation is rigidly supported standard mount system for the
on the building structure or package consists of 8 spring
embedded in the ground, the above mounts, each with a spring rate of
discussion indicates that the mass of
34,640 lb/in (6.08e6 N/m) and a
the foundation is not in itself capacity of 22,900 lb (10,400 kg).
important. Rather, it is the dynamic This standard system has a
stiffness of the foundation that fundamental vertical bounce mode
affects the isolation effectiveness. frequency of 4.9 Hz (for simplicity,
Another critical factor is the nature ignore the other five rigid-body
of the structural connection between modes of the system). The
the foundation and the rest of the transmissibility function for this
building structure. For example, with system is shown in Figure 14. The
a soil-embedded foundation, where function has a slope of -2 decades
there is direct ground contact all per decade of frequency above the
around the foundation, substantial resonance frequency.
structure-borne noise transmission
Now, consider a modified simple at 8.6 Hz (where the generator set

isolation system where the standard and the block vibrate out of phase).
spring mounts are replaced with air The transmissibility function for
mounts with a total effective spring the compound system is plotted in
rate of 26,000 lb/in (4.56e6 N/m). Figure 19, along with the functions
This modified system has a for the two simple systems for
fundamental vertical bounce mode comparison.
frequency of 1.5 Hz, as illustrated
Above the higher mode, the
in the transmissibility function in
transmissibility function has a slope
Figure 18, which also shows the
of -4 decades per decade of
transmissibility function for the
frequency - twice as great as that of
standard system for comparison.
a simple system. Thus, above 10 Hz
Note that above 4 Hz the air-mount
the transmissibility of the compound
system transmissibility is an order of
system is much better than that of
magnitude lower than that of the
the standard system, and the
standard spring-mount system.
difference continues to increase with
Finally, consider a compound frequency. Similarly, the
isolation system having an performance of the compound
intermediate block with a mass system is better than that of the
equal to that of the generator set simple air-mount system above
package, with 8 standard spring 20 Hz. However, below 10 Hz the
mounts between the generator set transmissibility function for the
base and the block and 10 standard compound system is substantially
spring mounts between the block worse than that of either of the
and ground. The total weight on the simple systems.
lower mounts is slightly below the
Note that while the standard
total rated capacity of those mounts.
simple spring-mount system is quite
This compound system has two
stable by itself, some additional
vertical bounce modes, one at
isolation elements might be required
3.1 Hz (where the generator set and
for adequate lateral stability in either
the block vibrate in phase) and one
the simple air-mount system or the
compound system.
Figure 14
Figure 15
Figure 16
Figure 17
Figure 18
Figure 19
! " ! # # #
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CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, "Caterpillar Yellow," the "Power

Sound ............................... 2 Caterpillar Noise Data ......... 11

conventional unit is Hertz (Hz). One Sound Waves and

The range of frequency dependant At that point, the following rule

Distance Strength Amplitude & Frequency

Contour of a Sound Wave

The relationship between µPa and

Figure 4 While the non-linearity of the scale

Difference In Two The most commonly used network

Measurements are made with regarding the directivity of radiation

Figure 10 illustrates the combined pressure level as SPL. These terms

cannot be used to describe the If the sound pressure level of a

Caterpillar Noise Data

Typical Design Approach .....13 Large Engine Installation...... 15

Typical Design Approach

• Noise generally travels from • Sources, paths, and receivers

Large Engine Unit Modeled as Sub-Sources

Airborne Noise Control ........18 Structure-Borne

Airborne Noise Control

Airborne noise control is a statistical descriptions of noise, and

Completely enclosed engines are Intake Noise

There are two major categories of 63 to 8000 Hz, tested in accordance

the room. It should be noted that Barriers and Enclosures

Structure-Borne Noise Control

Note: Foundation design for additional stiffness. Thus a

resonance frequency is determined resilient elements, unless the

Now, consider a modified simple at 8.6 Hz (where the generator set

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