Chapter 2

PRECIPITATION

1
 Chapter 2: Learning Outcomes
2

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• List the types of precipitation
• Define and explain some characteristics of precipitation
• Explain the factors that affect precipitation
• Describe how rainfall is measured and the types of
instruments
• Estimate areal rainfall from point measurements using
different methods
• Compute missing rainfall values and test for consistency
PRECIPITATION
3

• Precipitation denotes all forms of water that reach the

earth from the atmosphere.
• It is also the process by which water is removed from
the atmosphere to the earth. It is the supply of water, to
the oceans and the continents derived from the
atmosphere. The release of moisture in the atmosphere
is varied.
• The usual forms are rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost, and
dew.
Forms of Precipitation
4

Liquid Precipitation ( in most cases was frozen inside the

cloud):
• Rain: Drops of water
• Drizzle: Drops of water that are .5mm in diameter
• Dew: Condensation of water vapor on a cool surface.
Solid Precipitation (temperature below freezing, except hail)
• Snow Grains: Small crystals of ice that are similar to a
drizzle.
• Snowflakes: Agglomeration of grains, the equivalent of rain.
• Sleet: Frozen rain
• Hail: Spherical lumps of ice composed on concentric layers.
Precipitation Characteristics
5

• Intensity = rate per unit time (e.g., mm/h)

• Duration = length of time over which
precipitation occurs
• Amount = average intensity * duration
e.g., 1.5 mm/h * 6 h = 9 mm
• Distribution – relative occurrence of precipitation
in space or time (e.g, seasonal)
Precipitation Formation
6

The conditions for precipitation to take place may

be summarized stepwise as follows:
1. Supply of moisture
2. A means of lifting this air higher
3. Condensation
4. Condensation nuclei
5. Growth of the small droplets by collision and
coalescence.

*Coalescence is the process by which two or more droplets, bubbles or particles

merge during contact to form a single daughter droplet, bubble or particle.
Precipitation Formation
7
 Factors Affecting Precipitation
8

The precipitation at a place and its form depend upon a number of

meteorological and other factors, such as
• Latitude – precipitation decreases with increasing latitude because
temperature reduces atmospheric moisture.
• Elevation – due to orographic cooling.
• Distance from moisture source. Precipitation is usually lower at
greater distances from the ocean.
• Prevailing wind direction – if it is into the sea.
• Relation to mountain ranges – windward sides typically cloudy &
rainy with leeward side typically dry and sunny.
• Relative temperatures of land and bordering oceans.
Factors affecting Precipitation
9

The precipitation at a place and its form depend

upon a number of meteorological and other
factors, such as
• Wind
• Temperature
• humidity and pressure in the area enclosing the
clouds and
• the ground surface at the given place.
Measurement of Rainfall – (Precipitation)
10

Symons Gauge
Rain Non - Recording
Gauge
Recording Weighing Bucket
Tipping Bucket
Float Type

Radar and Satellite

Measurements
Requirements for gauge construction
11

• The rim of the collector should have a

sharp edge.
• The area of the aperture should be known
with an accuracy of 0.5 %.
• Design is such that rain is prevented from
splashing in or out.
• The reservoir should be constructed so as
to avoid evaporation.
Non-Recording Rainguages
12

• Often have a funnel opening into

a cylinder gauge.
• Come in a variety of shapes and
sizes
• Calculate the rainfall (in mm) by
dividing the volume of water
collected by the area of the
opening of the cup. (The gauge
marking often accounts for this).
Non-Recording Rainguages
13

• Overflow can, Inner tube ,Funnel ,Graduated

stick/rod
Advantages
• Initial cost is low
• Usually, recording cannot be interrupted due to
mechanical / electrical defect.
• Disadvantages
The non-recording gauge gives only the total depth of
rainfall (for the previous 24 hours) and does not give
the intensity and duration of rainfall during different
time intervals of the day.
Recording Gauges - Types
14

Recording gauges are of three different

types:
• the weighing type,
• the tilting bucket type
• the float type.
Recording Gauges - Types
15

Tipping
Weighing bucket
bucket

Tipping
bucket
Recording Gauges - Advantages
16

• Automatic recording obviates the necessity of an

attendant.
• It indicates intensity of rainfall at any time as well as the
total rainfall while the non-recording gauge gives only
the total rainfall.
• It is the only means to get rainfall data from inaccessible
places in hilly areas.
• Element of human error is eliminated.
• Capacity of the gauge is big.
• It measures the time period also.
• It can operate over extended periods without attention.
Recording Gauges - Disadvantages
17

• High initial cost

• Recording may be interrupted due to
mechanical or electrical defects.
• For the tipping bucket intermittent tipping may
cause loss of water.
Errors In Precipitation Measurement By Rain Gauges
18

Instrumental errors

Errors in scale reading

Dent in receivers

Dent in measuring cylinders

About 0.25mm of water is initially required to wet the surface of

gauge
Errors In Precipitation Measurement By Rain Gauges
19

Rain gauges splash from collector

Frictional effects

Non verticality of measuring cylinders (10° inclination gives

1.5% less precipitation)

Loss of water by evaporation

Leakage in measuring cylinder

Wind speed reduces measured amount of rain in the rain gauges

Radar and Satellite Measurements
20
• Radar Measurements: A weather radar is a type of radar used to
locate precipitation, calculate its motion, estimate its type (rain,
snow, hail, etc.), and forecast its future position and intensity.
Weather radars are mostly Doppler radars, capable of detecting
the motion of rain droplets in addition to intensity of the
precipitation. Both types of data can be analyzed to determine
the structure of storms and their potential to cause severe
weather.
• Satellite Measurements : A weather satellite is a type of satellite
that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the
Earth.
Measurements of Rain - Definitions
21

• Hyetograph – A plot showing the variation of

rainfall intensity (mm/hr) with time
• Isohyet - A plot of contours of equal precipitation.
• Rainfall mass curve – Is a graph showing the
cumulative depth of rainfall against time, plotted
in chronological order.
Recording Gauges - Concepts
22

• The rainfall is usually recorded cumulatively

(mass curve) from which the hyetograph (a plot
of the rainfall with time) is easily derived
Measurements of Rain
23

Point Measurements
• Data from a single nearby rain gauge are often
sufficiently representative to allow their use in
the design of small projects.
Areal Measurements
• Several precipitation gauges are employed over
very large catchments. Weighted average of
these gauge measurements are used to
estimate the precipitation.
 Variation of rainfall
24

A catchment of a river is shown with four rain gauges, for

which an assumed recorded value of rainfall depth have
been shown in the table. It is on the basis of these discrete
measurements of rainfall that an estimation of the average
amount of rainfall that has probably fallen over a catchment
has to be made. Three methods are commonly used, which
are discussed in the following section.
Average rainfall depth
25

The time of rainfall record can vary and may

typically range from 1 minute to 1 day for non –
recording gauges, Recording gauges, on the other
hand, continuously record the rainfall and may do
so from 1 day to 1 week, depending on the make of
instrument. For any time duration, the average
depth of rainfall falling over a catchment can be
found by the following three methods.
• The Arithmetic Mean Method
• The Thiessen Polygon Method
• The Isohyetal Method
Areal Measurements - Arithmetic mean
26
Areal Measurements - Thiessen method
27

•Locate all rainfall stations on a

base map and record the rainfall
amount.
• Connect each station by straight
lines with the several nearest
stations to form a series of
triangles.
•Erect perpendicular bisectors on
each of these lines and extend
them to the intersect with other
bisectors, thus forming a series
of irregular polygons
Areal Measurements - Thiessen method
28

A 99mm

B 75mm

D 62.5mm
C 85mm
Areal Measurements - Thiessen method
29
Areal Measurements - Thiessen method
30

Station ID Area of Polygon

A 100 m2
B 50 m2
C 345 m2
A 99mm D 200m2

B 75mm

D 62.5mm
C 85mm
Average rainfall depth
31
Average rainfall depth – Isohyetal Method
32

• This is considered as one of the most accurate methods, but it is

dependent on the skill and experience of the analyst. The method
requires the plotting of isohyets as shown in the figure and calculating
the areas enclosed either between the isohyets or between an isohyet
and the catchment boundary.

• The areas may be measured with a planimeter if the catchment map is

drawn to a scale.
Areal Measurements - Isoheyetal method
33

• The most basic method of representing the

spatial distribution.
This is generally the most accurate method
but is also the most laborious.
Areal Measurements - Isoheyetal method
34

•Locate all rainfall stations

on a base map and record
the rainfall amount.

•Draw isohyets (lines of

equal rainfall) by
proportioning the
distances between
adjacent gauges
according to differences in
catch.
Areal Measurements - Isoheyetal method
35

•Locate all rainfall stations

on a base map and record
the rainfall amount.
Estimating Missing Rainfall Data
36

Some precipitation stations may have short breaks

in the records because of absence of the observer
or because of instrumental failures. It is often
necessary to estimate this missing record.

There are two methods for estimation of missing

data.
• Arithmetic Mean Method
• Normal Ratio Method
Arithmetic Mean Method
37

According to the arithmetic mean method the

missing precipitation 'Px' is given as:

Px  P1  P2  ...  Pm 
1
m
• Using data from three surrounding gauges
should give good results
Normal Ratio Method
38

This method is used if the normal annual rainfall at the surrounding

stations differ from the normal annual rainfall of the station in
question by more than 10%. The rainfalls are weighed by the ratio of
the normal annual rainfalls.

1  Nx Nx Nx 
Px   P1  P2  ...  Pm 
m  N1 N2 Nm 
• Nx = normal (longterm) annual rainfall at station x
• Nm = normal (longterm) annual rainfall at the m surrounding
stations
• Pm = storm rain at station m
A minimum of three surrounding stations are generally used in the
normal ratio method
Example
39

• The raingauge at station X did not function for a part of a

month during which a storm occurred. Using the table
below estimate the storm rainfall at station X.
Solution
40

• The annual rainfall at stations B and C varies by more than

10% of that at station X and as such normal ratio method is
applicable.
-10% +10%
103.5 115 126.5
Example
41

• Find out the missing storm precipitation of station 'C'

given in the following table:

Station A B C D E
Storm precipitation (cm) 9.7 8.3 ---- 11.7 8.0
Normal Annual precipitation (cm) 100.3 109.5 93.5 125.7 117.5
Solution
42
• Determine first whether arithmetic mean or normal ratio method is to be
applied.
• 10% of Nc = 93.5 x 10/100 = 9.35
• After the addition of 10% of Nc we get 93.5 + 9.35 = 102.85
• And by subtracting 10% we get a value of 84.15
• So Na, Nb, Nd or Ne values are to be checked for the range 102.85 to 84.15.
• If any value of Na, Nb, Nd or Ne lies beyond this range, then normal ratio method
would be used. It is clear from data in table above that Nb, Nd and Ne values
are out of this range so the normal ratio method is applicable
Station A B C D E
Storm precipitation (cm) 9.7 8.3 ---- 11.7 8.0
Normal Annual precipitation (cm) 100.3 109.5 93.5 125.7 117.5
-10% +10%
84.15 93.5 102.85
1  93.5 93.5 93.5 93.5 
Pc  (9 . 7 )  (8 . 3)  (11 . 7 )  (8 . 0 )
4 100.3 109.5 125.7 117.5 

Pc  7.8 cm
Example
43

• Precipitation station "X" was inoperative for part of a month

during which a storm occurred. The storm totals at three
surrounding stations A, B and C were respectively 10.7, 8.9 and
12.2 cm. The normal annual precipitation amounts at stations X,
A, B and C are respectively 97.8, 112, 93.5 and 119.9 cm. Estimate
the storm precipitation for station 'X'.
Solution
44

• Pa = 10.7 cm Na = 112 cm
• Pb = 8.90 cm Nb = 93.5 cm
• Pc = 12.2 cm Nc = 119.9 cm
• Px = ? Nx = 97.8 cm
• 10% of Nx = 97.8 x 10/100 = 9.78 cm.
• Nx - Na = 97.8 - 112 = -14.2 cm is More than + 10% of Nx
(no need of calculating Nx - Nb and Nx – Nc)

1  97.8 97.8 97.8 

Pc   (10.7)  (8.9)  (12.2)
3  112 93.5 119.9 
Pc  9.5 cm
Test for Consistency of Records
45

If the conditions relevant to the recording of a

raingauge station have undergone a significant change
during the period of record, inconsistency would arise
in the rainfall data of that station.
Some of the common causes for inconsistency of
record are:
• shifting of a raingauge station to a new location
• the neighbourhood of the station undergoing a
marked change
• change in the ecosystem due to forest fires,
landslides, etc. and
• occurrence of observational error from a certain
data.
Double-mass curve technique
46

• The checking for inconsistency of a record is

carried out by the double-mass curve technique.
This technique is based on the principle that
when each recorded data comes from the same
parent population, they are consistent.
– A group of n (usually 5 to 10) base stations in the
neighborhood of the problem station X is selected.
– Annual rainfall data of station X and also the average
rainfall of the group of base stations covering a long
period is arranged in order.
Double-mass curve technique
47

Slope = m2

Correction factor m1

Slope = m1 for adjustment m2

• It is apparent that the more homogeneous the base

station records are, the more accurate will be the
corrected values at station X. A change in slope is normally
taken as significant only where it persists for more than
five years.
 10- 10-
Z Station Z Station Modified Z-
Station Station
Year Precip. Cum. Station Prec. Cum.
48
F
Average Cum.
(mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm)
1987 21 23 21 23 21.0 26.8
1986 25 30 46 53 25.0 51.8
1985 28 32 74 85 28.0 79.8
1984 40 44 114 129 40.0 119.8
1983 38 39 152 168 38.0 157.8
1982 35 36 187 204 35.0 192.8

=Z Prec. *0.965/1.247
1981 31 31 218 235 31.0 223.8
1980 30 26 248 261 30.0 253.8
1979 24 21 272 282 18.4 272.2
1978 20 17 292 299 15.3 287.5
1977 25 21 317 320 19.2 306.7
1976 30 25 347 345 23.0 329.7
1975 35 27 382 372 26.8 356.5
1974 39 31 421 403 29.9 386.4
1973 37 29 458 432 28.4 414.8
1972 35 28 493 460 26.8 441.6
 Double-mass Curve for Station Z
49

600
Cumulative annual precipitation, Station Z (mm)

500 y = 1.2469x - 81.272

400
y = 0.9659x - 6.5427
300

200

100

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
10- stations average cumulative annual precipitation (mm)
 Adjiusted Curve
50

500
Cumulative annual precipitation, Station Z (mm)

450
y = 0.9594x - 0.226
400 R² = 0.9997
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
10- stations average cumulative annual precipitation (mm)
Adjusted Linear (Adjusted)