STORY'Ol~~

THE STORY OF
CLmIZATION
CIVILIZATION

T, Oriental Heritage
Our Oriental
Our Heritage

•
1

I • tOT'1
t of civilization
ory of civilization in Egypt
m and the
Egypt and the Near
Near East
East
w the d, 2th
t(1 the uh of
dt, of Alexander,
Ale%tl1lder, and
ttnd in India, China
in India, China and Japan
tmd Japan
the beginning
ftom the
f.'om beginning to our 0'Um
to our day; 'With
own dll'J; an..introducti01J,
with 1m introduction

· on the 'R4tUre ttnd foundations of civilization

By Will.Durant
ByWillDurant

VOLUl\1E
VOLUME IIII

.,IMON
.IMON AND SCHUSTER
NEW YORK:
NEW YORK : 1935
1935
 ALt
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SECOND PllNTiNG
 CHAPTER XIX

The Life
The Life of
of the
the Mind
Mind
I. HINDU
I. SCIENCE
HrNDU SCIENCE

ItsIts religious origms-Astrono111ers-'ltlatbC111aticiS11Z-Tbe "Ara-

religiOflS origms-Astronowers-Mathwmticisin-The "Ara-
hie" numerals
bic" ml1nerals-Tbe syste11r.-Algcbra-Geo111etry-
deci111111 system-
The decimal Algebra-Geometry
Physics - Chemistry
Physics
- Pbysiology - Vedic
Che111;Stry - Physiology 111cdicinc-
Vedic medicine-
Physicirms-Surgeons
Physicians Surgeons - Anestbetics-
Anesthetics Vacci,1flt;01J
Vaccination
-HypnOtiS11Z
-Hypnotism

science is both
I NDIA'S work
INDIA'S
an
work in
an independent
in science
independent and and secular
priests. Religion being the the core
both very

core of
is

secular pursuit,
very old
pursuit, old
of Hindu
old and
old as
and very
very young:
young: young
as aa subsidiary
Hindu life,
young as
subsidiary interest
lifc, those
interest of
those sciences
sciences ,vcrc
of her
as
her
were culti-
culti-
priests. Religion being
vated first
vated first that
that contributed
contributed to to religion: astrononlY grew
religion: astronomy grew out
out of the wor-
of the \vor-
ship
ship
of the heavenly bodies,
of the heavenly bodies, and
and the
the observation
observation of
of their
their Dlovemcnts
movements aimed
aimed
to fix
to fix the
the calendar
calendar ofof festival
festival and
and sacrificial
sacrificial days; granlnlar and philology
days; grammar and philology
developed out of the insistence that
developed out of the insistence
that every praycr and
every prayer and formula,
formula, though
though
couched
couched in in aa dead
dead language,
language,
should
should be
be textually
textually and
and phonetically
phonetically cor-
cor-
1
rect. As
rect,
1
As inin our
our 1\1iddlc
Middle Ages,
Ages, the scientists
the scientists of India,
of India, for better and
for better and for
for

worse, were
worse, were her
her priests.
priests.

Astronolny
Astronomy was was anan incidental offspring of astrology',
incidental offspring of astrology, and and slowly
slowly emanci-
emanci-
pated itself
itself under
under Greek
Greek influence. l~he
influence. The earliest
earliest astronomical
astronomical treatiscs,
treatises, the
the
pated
SiddlJll1ltflS
Siddhmtas (ca. 4z 5 B.C.), ,,,ere
(ca, 425 B.C.),
\vcrc bnscd
based on Greek science,:S
on Greek science, and
3
and Varahamihira,
Varahamihira,
whose
whose compendiunl \vas
was significantly entitled C01nplete
entitled Complete System of
SystC1lz of Natural
Natural
compendium significantly
Astrology,
Astrology, frankly acknowledged his
frankly acknowledged
his dependence upon the
dependence upon the Greeks. Greeks. The
greatest
greatest
of
of Hindu
Hindu tu;trononlcrs
astronomers and and mathClllaticians,
mathematicians, Aryabhata,
Aryabhata, discussed
discussed in in

verse
verse such
such poetic ~'Ubjeets as
poetic subjects
as quadratic equations, sines,
quadratic equations, sines, and the value of
and the value of 1\; K;
he
he explained eclipses,
explained eclipses,
solstices
solstices and
and equinoxes,
equinoxes, announced
announced the sphericity of
the sphericity
of the
the
,earth
earth and its diurnal
and itc; diurnal revolution
revolution on its axi.~,
on its axis, and
and wrote,
wrote, inin daring anticipation
daring anticipation
of
of Renaic;sance
Renaissance science: "The ~pherc
science: "The
sphere
of
of the stars is stational)", and
the stars is
stationary, and the the earth,
earth,
n
by its
Jts revolution, produ~e.c; the
the dail}' rising and setting of planets and stars. 4
revolution, and of and stars,"•
by produces daily rising setting planets
His
His most
most famous
famous successor, Brahmagupta, systematized
successor, Brahmagupta, systematized
the
the astronomic
astronomic knowl-
knowl-
edge its development by rejecting Aryabhata's the-
edge of of India,
India, butbut obstructed
obstructed its development by rejecting Aryabhata's the-
516
CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XIX) THE LIFE OF THE MIND
THE 52.7
527

ory of the revolution

ory revolution of of the
the earth.
earth. These
These men and their followers
and their followers adapted
adapted
usage the Babylonian
to Hindu usage Babylonian division
division of
of the
the skies
skies into
into zodiacal
zodiacal constella-
constella-
tions;
tions; they calendar of
they made a calendar of twelve
twelve months,
months, each
each ofof thirty days, each
thirty days,
each of
of
thirty
thirty hours,
hours, inserting
inserting an intercalary
intercalary month
month every
every
five
five years; they
years; they
calculated
calculated
with remarkable accuracy
accuracy the the diameter
diameter ofof the
the moon,
moon, thethe eclipses
eclipses
of
of the
the moon
and the
the sun,
sun, the position
position of
of the
the poles,
poles,
and
and the
the position
position
and
and motion
motion of
of the
the
5
major
major stars.·
stars. They expounded
They expounded the
the theory, though
theory, though
not
not the law,
the law, of
of gravity
gravity
when they
they wrote in the Siddbantas:
in the Siddhantas: "The earth,earth, owing
owing toto its
its force
force of
of gravity,
gravity,
all things to
draws all things to itself.'"
itself."*

To make these
these complex calculations
complex calculations the the Hindus
Hindus developed
developed a a system
system
of
of mathematics superior,
superior, in
in everything except geometry,
everything except geometry, to to that
that of
of the
the
7
Greeks.' Among
Greeks. Among the the most
most vital
vital parts of our Oriental heritage are the
parts of our Oriental heritage are the
"Arabic" numerals
numerals and the the decimal
decimal system,
system, both
both ofof which
which came
came toto us,
us,
througIl
through the
the Arabs,
Arabs, from
from India.
India. The miscalled
miscalled "Arabic"
"Arabic" numerals
numerals are
are
found
found on
on the
the Rock Edicts
Edicts of
of Ashoka (256 B.C.), a
(256 B.C.), thousand years
a thousand before
years before
their occurrence in
their occurrence in Arabic
Arabic literature.
literature. Said
Said the
the great
great
and
and magnanimous
magnanimous
Laplace:
Laplace:

It
It is India that
is India that gave
gave usus the
the ingenious
ingenious method
method of of expressing all
expressing all
numbers by
numbers by ten
ten symbols,
symbols, each
each receiving
receiving a
a value
value of
of position
position
as
as well
well
as
as an absolute
absolute value;
value; aa profound
profound and important
important idea which appears
idea which appears
so
so siIl)ple to
to us
us now that
that we ignore its
its tme
true merit.
merit. its very
But its
But
siniple ignore very
simplicity,
simplicity, the
the great
great ease
ease which it it has
has lent
lent toto all
all computations, puts
computations, puts
our
our aritllDletic
arithmetic in the first
in the first rank
rank of useful inventions;
of useful inventions; and we shallshall
appreciate the
appreciate the grandeur of this
grandeur of this achievement
achievement the
the more when we re-
re-
member that it
that it escaped
escaped the
the genius
genius of
of Archimedes
Archimedes and Apollonius,
and Apollonius,
of the
two of the greatest produced by
greatest men produced by antiq',uty.'
antiquity.
8

decimal system
The decimal was known to
system was to Aryabhata and Brahmagupta
Aryabhata and Brahmagupta long
long
before
before its appearance in
its appearance the writings
in the writings ofof the
the Arabs
Arabs andand the Syrians; it
the Syrians; wa.~
it was
adopted by
adopted China from
by China Buddhist missionaries;
from Buddhist missionaries; and
and Muhammad Ibn Ibn Musa
Musa
al-Khwarazmi, the
al-Khwarazmi, the greatest
greatest mathematician
mathematician of of his
his age
age (d.
(d. ca.
ca. 850 A.D.),
850 A.D.),
seems to
seems have introduced
to have introduced it it into
into Baghdad.
Baghdad. The oldestoldest known use use of
of the
the
zero in
zero in Asia
Asia or
or Europe*
Europe· is is in
in anan Arabic
Arabic document
document dated dated 873
873 A.D., three
A.D., three
years
years
sooner
sooner than
than its
its first
first known appearance
appearance in
in India;
India; but
but by general con-
by general con-
sent
sent the
the Arabs
Arabs borrowed
borrowed this
this toO
too from
from India,·
India, and
and the
the most
most modest
modest and
and
most valuable
most valuable ofof all
all numerals
numerals is is one
one of
of the
the subtle gifts of
subtle gifts of India
India to
to mankind.
mankind.
• It
* was used
It: was used by
by the Mayas of
the Mayas of America
America inin the first century
the first century A4>> Dr. Breasted
AJJ.'" Dr. Breasted at-at-
tributes a knowledge of
tributes a knowledge of the
the place
place value
value of numerals to
of numerals to the
the ancient Babylonians (Saturday
ancient Babylonians (Stltt.Wdtly
Review of Literature,
RftJ;t1'U1 of York, July
Lit6rllturt, New York, July 13,
J3, 1935, p. 15).
1935, p. 15)·
528
528 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XIX

Algebra was
Algebra was developed
developed in
in apparent independence both the
apparent independence by both by
the Hindus
Hindus and
and
the Greeks;-
the Greeks;* but
but our
our adoption
adoption of
of its
its Arabic
Arabic name
name (al-jabr,
(al-jabr, adjustment) in-
adjustment) in-

dicates that it
dicates that it came
came toto western
western Europe
Europe from
from the
the Arabs-i.e.,
Arabs i.e., from
from India-
India
as in
lO
rather than
rather than from Greece.
Greece. The great
10

great
Hindu leaders
leaders in this field,
in this field, as in as-
as-

tronomy, were
tronomy, were Aryabhata,
Aryabhata, Brahmagupta
Brahmagupta andand Bhaskara.
Bhaskara. The last
last (b.
(b. I1114
114
1I
A.D.), appears
A.D.), appears
to
to have
have inverlted
inveilted the
the radical
radical sign,
sign,
and
and many algebraic symbols.
many algebraic symbols."
These
These men created
created the
the conception
conception ofof a negative quantity,
a negative without which
quantity, without which
algebra would have been been impossible;:ut they formulated
they rules for
for finding
18

algebra would have impossible;

formulated rules finding
permutations
permutations and
and combinations; they
combinations; they found
found the
the square
square root
root of
of 2, and
2, and solved,
solved,
in the
in the eighth century A.D., indeterminate equations of
eighth century A.D., indeterminate equations
the second
of the second degree
degree that
that
u
,vere unknown to to Europe until
until the days of Euler a thousand years later. 14
were unknown Europe the days of Euler a thousand years later,

They
They expressed their science in poetic fann, and gave to mathematical prob-
expressed their science in poetic form, and gave to mathematical prob-
lenls
lems aa grace
grace characteri&tic
characteristic of
of India's
India's Golden Age. These
Golden Age. These twot\vo may
may serve
serve asas
examples
examples of
of simpler
simpler Hindu algebra:
algebra:

Out
Out ofof aa S\varm
swarm of of bees
bees one-fifth part settled
one-fifth part settled on
on a Kadamba bios...
a Kadamba blos-
som;
som; one-third
one-third on
on a
a Silindhra
Silindhra flower;
flower; three
three times the difference of
times the difference of
those numbers
those numbers flew
flew toto the bloonl of
the bloom of a Kutaja. One
a Kutaja. bee, \vhich
One bee, which re-
re-
mained, hovered
mained, hovered about
about in in the
the air.
air. Tell me, channing
Tell me, charming ,vaman,
woman, the the
number of
number of bees.
bees, • . . Eight rubies,
. . .
Eight rubies, ten
ten emeralds,
emeralds, and
and a
a hundred
hundred
pearls, which
pearls,
which areare in
in thy car-ring, my
thy ear-ring, were purchased
beloved, were
my beloved, purchased by by
me for thee at
for thee at an
an equal nnl0unt;
equal amount; and
and the
the sum of
of the
the prices of the
prices of the
three sorts
three sorts ofof gelns
gems ,vas
was three
three less half aa hundred;
than half
less than tell Inc
hundred; cell me the
the
price
price
of
of each,
each, auspicious
aaspicious
W{)Jllao.
woman.
15
m

The Hindus
Hindus were
were not
not so so successful in geometry.
successful in geometry. In measurement and
the measurement
In the and
con.c;truction
coastruction of of altars
altars the
the priests
priests
formulated
formulated the
the P}·thagorean
Pythagorean theorem
theorem (by
(by
which the
which the square
square of
of the hypotenuse of
the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle
a right-angled triangle equals
equals the
the
sum of the squares
of the of the
squares of the other
other sides)
sides) several years before
hundred years
several hundred before the
the birth
birth
u
of
of Christ.
Christ.
14
Aryabhata, probably
Aryabhata, probably influenced
influenced by
by the
the Greeks,
Greeks, found
found the
the area
area
of
of a triangle, aa trapeziul11
a triangle, trapezium and
and a
a circle,
circle, and
and calculated
calculated the
the value
value of
of 'It'
*r (the
(the
relation of
relation of diameter
diameter to to circulnfcrcnce
circumference in in aa circle)
circle) at 3.1416-^ figure
at 3.1416-a
figure not
not
equaled
equaled in
in accuracy
accuracy until
until the
the days
days of
of Purbach
Purbach (1423-61)
(1423-61) in
in Europe.l'
Europe." Bhas- Bhas-
kara crudely
kara crudely anticipated the differential calculus,
anticipated the differential Aryabhata drew
calculus, Aryabhata drew up up 11a
table of
table of sines,
sines, and the Sur'Y"
and the Surya Siddbmzta provided aa systcDl
Siddhanta provided system of
of trigonolnetry
trigonometry
more advanced than anything
advanced than anything known to
to the
the Greeks.'"
" 1
more Greeks.
Two systems of Hindu thought propound physical
systems of thought propound physical theories suggestively
theories
suggestively
similar to those of Greece. Kanada,
similar to those of Greece. founder of
Kanada, founder of the Vaishcshika philosophy,
the Vnimcshika philosophy,
held that
held the world
thAt the world was composed of
was conlpnscd of atoms ~c; mmny
atoms as many in kind as
in kind the various
as the various

•* The first
first algebraist known to us,
algebraist the Greek
us, the Greek Diophantus
Diophancus (3do A.D,), antedates
(360 A0>,) antedates Aryab-
t Aryab-
ham by
hata by a
a century;
century; but
but Cajori
Cajori believes chat he
believes that took his
he took his lead
lead from
from India. 1I
India."
 CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XIX) THE LIFE OF THE MIND 5529
19

elements. The Jains

elements. Jains more
more nearly approximated to Democritus by teaching
nearly approximated to Democritus by teaching
that all
that all atoms were of
atoms were of the
the same
same kind, producing different
kind, producing different effects
effects by by diverse
diverse
modes of
modes of combination.
combination" Kanada
18
believed light
Kanada believed light
and
and heat
heat to
to be
be varieties
varieties of
of the
the
:same
'same substance; Udayana
substance; Udayana taught taught that
that all
all heat
heat comes
comes from
from the
the sun;
sun; and
and
Vachaspati, like
Vachaspati,
Newton, interpreted
like Newton, light as composed of
interpreted light as composed
minute particles
of minute particles
emitted by
emitted by substances
substances and
and striking
striking
the
the eye.-
eye .* Musical
Musical notes
notes and
and intervals
intervals were
analyzed
analyzed and calculated in
mathematically calculated
and mathematically in the
the Hindu treatises on music;·
Hindu treatises music;*
and
and thethe "Pythagorean Law"
Law" was
was formulated
formulated by which
which the
the number of vi-
of vi-
"Pythagorean by
brations,
brations, and
and therefore
therefore the
the pitch
pitch
of
of the
the note,
note, varies
varies inversely
inversely as
as the
the length of
length of
the string between
the string between the point the point of
of attachment
attachment and
and the
the point
point of
of touch.
touch.
There
There is is some evidence that
some evidence that Hindu
Hindu mariners
mariners of the first
of the first centuries
centuries A.D. A.D. used
used
1i
aa compass
compass mademade by by an iron fish
an iron fish floating in a vessel of
floating in a vessel
of oil
oil and pointing north.
and pointing north*
Chemistry
Chemistry developed from two sources-medicine and industry. Some-
developed from two sources-medicine and industry.
thing
thing
has
has been
been said about
said about the chemical
the chemical excellence
excellence of cast iron
of cast iron in in ancient
ancient
India, and about the high industrial development
India, and about the high industrial development of Gupta times, of Gupta times, when India
India
was looked to, even
even by Rome, as the most skilled of nations in
was looked to, by Imperial
Imperial Rome, as the most skilled
of the
the nations in

~ch chemical
such chemical industries
industries as as dyeing, tanning, soap-making, glass
dyeing, tanning, soap-making, glass and
and cement.
cement.
As early
As as the second century B.e. Nagarjuna devoted an
early as the second century B.C. Nagarjuna devoted
an entire
entire volume

to mercury. By
to mercury. By the
the sixth
sixth century
century the
the 'Hindus
Hindus were
were far
far ahead
ahead of Europe
of Europe in in

industrial chemistry;
industrial chemistry; they they were
were masters
masters of calcination, distillation, sublimation,
of calcination, distillation, sublimation,
steaming,
steaming, fixation,
fixation, thethe production
production of
of light without heat, the
light without heat,
the mixing
mixing of of
anesthetic
anesthetic and and soporific powders,
soporific powders, and
and the
the preparation
preparation of
of metallic
metallic sal~,
salts, com-
com-
pounds and
pounds and alloys.
alloys.
The tempering
tempering of of steel was brought
steel was brought in in ancient
ancient IndiaIndia to to aa
perfection unknown in Europe
in Europe till
till our
our own times; King
times; King Porus
Porus is
is said
said to
to have
have
perfection
selected,
selected, as as aa specially valuable gift
specially valuable gift
for
for Alexander,
Alexander, not not gold
gold or silver, but
or silver, but
thirty pounds
thirty pounds
of
of steeL-
steel.
88
The Moslems
Moslems took took much of this Hindu
of this Hindu chemical
chemical
science and
science and industry
industry to to the Near East
the Near East andand Europe;
Europe; thethe secret
secret of of manufactur-
manufactur-
ing
ing 'COamascus"
'Damascus" blades,
blades, for
for example,
example, was
was taken
taken by
by the
the Arabs
Arabs from
from the
the Per-
Per-
sians, and by
sians, and the Persians
Persians from
from India. 1Ia 8**
by the India.

Anatomy and
Anatomy and physiology, like some aspects of
physiology, like some aspects
of chemistry,
chemistry, werewere by-products
by-products
of
of Hindu medicine. As
Hindu medicine. As far
far back
back as the sixth
as the century B.e.
sixth century Hindu physicians
B.C. Hindu
physicians
described
described ligaments,
ligaments,
sutures,
sutures, lymphatics,
lymphatics,
nerve
nerve plexus,
plexus,
fascia,
fascia, adipose
adipose and
vascular tissues,
vascular tissues, mucous
mucous andand synovial
synovial
membranes,
membranes, and
and many
many more muscles
than any
than any modern cadaver is
modem cadaver is able to show.-
able to show. The doctors
doctors of
88
of pre-Christian
pre-Christian
India shared
India shared Aristotle's
Aristotle's mistaken
mistaken conception
conception of
of the
the heart
heart as
as the
the seat
seat and organ
organ
of
of consciousness, and supposed
consciousness, and that the
supposed that
nerves $Scended
die nerves Ascended to to and descended
{rom the heart.
from the heart. But
But they understood remarkably
they understood well the
remarkably well the processes
processes of of diges-
diges-
tion-the different
tionthe different functions
functions of of the
the gastric juices,
gastric juices,
the
the conversion
conversion of chyme
chyme
into chyle, and
into of this
and of this into
into blood." Anticipating Weismann by
Anticipating 2400 years,
by %400
84
blood. years,
chyle,

•*#.,
E.g., in
in The
The Ocean
Ocean of Music (Srmzgita-,lltf2akttra)
of Music (Samsptt-ratnaktra) of of Sharamgadeva (121Q-47)·
Sharamgadeya (1210^7).
 530
530 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CBAP.XIX
(CHAP.XIX
Atreya (ca.
Atreya SOO B.C.)
(cae 500 B.e.) heldheld that the parental
that the seed isis independent
parental seed independent of of the
the parent's
parent's
body,
body, and
and contains
contains in
in itself,
itself, in
in miniature,
miniature, the
the whole
whole parental organism.·
parental organism.
88
Ex-
Ex-
amination for
amination for virility
virility was was recommended
recomnlended as as aa prerequisite
prerequisite for for marriage
marriage in in men;
men;
and the
and the Code
Code of of Manu
l\1anu warned marrying mates
against marrying
'Yarned against mates affected
affected withwith tuber-
tuber-
culosis, epilepsy, leprosy,
culosis, epilepsy, leprosy, chronic dyspepsia, piles,
chronic dyspepsia, piles, oror loquacity.
loquacity.- Birth
18
Birth con- con-
trol in
trol in the
the latest
latest theological
theological fashion fashion was was suggested
suggested by by the Hindu medical
the Hindu medical
schools of
schools of 500
500 B.C.
B.C. in in thethe theory
theory that during twelve
that during twelve daysdays of of the
the menstrual
menstrual
cycle impregnation is
is inlpossible.= F~tal
Foetal development
development was
was described
described ,vith
with
cycle impregnation impossible.*
considerable accuracy;
considerable accuracy; it it ,vas
was noted
noted that
that the
the sex
sex of
of the
the fCEtus
foetus remains
remains for
for a
a
time undetermined,
time undetermined, and and itit was ,vas claimed
claitned thatthat in sonle cases
in some cases the sex of
the sex of thethe
w
embryo
embryo could
could be
be influenced
influenced by
by food
food or
or drugs.
drugs.*
The records
The records of of Hindu
Hindu medicine
medicine begin begin withwith the the Atharva-veda;
AtbarvQ-'fJeda; here, here, em- em-
bedded in
bedded mass of
in aa mass nlagic and
of magic incantations, isis aa list
and incantations, list ofof diseases
diseases with
with theirtheir
symptoms. Medicine
symptoms. Medicine arose arose as as an
an adjunct
adjunct to to magic:
magic: the the healer
healer studied
studied and and
used earthly
used earthly means
nleans of of cure
cure to help his
to help his spiritual
spiritual formulas;
fonnulas; laterla.ter he relied
he relied more
more
and more
and more uponupon such
such secular nlcthods, continuing
secular methods, continuing the magic spell,
the magic spell,
like
like ourour
bedside manner,
bedside manner, as as a a psychological
psychological aid. aid. Appended
Appended to to the AthaT'tJa-'IJeda is
the Atharva-veda the
is the

Ajur-veda
Ajur-veda ("The("The Science
Science of
of Longevity").
Longevity"). In
In this
this oldest
oldest system
system of
of Hindu
Hindu
medicine illness is
medicine illness is attribtltcd
attributed to disorder in
to disorder in one
one of of the
the four
four humors
humors (air, (air,
water, phlegm and blood), and trcat1l1ent
water, phlegm and blood), and treatment is recommended is recommended \vith
with herbs and
herbs
channs.
charms. ManyMany of its diagnoses nnd
of its cures are still used in
diagnoses and cures are still used
in India, with a
India, ,vith a success
success
that is sonlctitneS
that is sometimes the the envy
envy of
of Western
Western phy·sicians.
physicians.
The Rig-veda
Rig-veda names over
over
thousand such
aa thousand such herbs,
herbs, and
and adV()C~ltcs
advocates ,vater
water as
as the
the best
best cure
cure for
for most
most diseases.
diseases.

Even
Even in Vedic nInes
in Vedic times physicians and surgeons ,verc
physicians and surgeons
being differentiated
were being differentiated from
magic doctors,
magic doctors, and
and \vere
were living
living
in
in houses
houses surrounded
surrounded by gardens
by gardens in in which
*
they
they cultivated
cultivated nlcdicinnl
medicinal plant...•
plants.
5

The great
great names
names in in J~indll medicine are
Hindu nledicinc are those
those of
of Sushruta.
Sushruta in in the
the fifth
fifth

century
century before,
before, and
and Charaka
Charaka in in the
the second
second century after Christ.
century after Christ. Sushruta,
Sushruta,
professor
professor of
of medicine
medicine in
in the
the University
University of
of Bcnarcs,
Benares, wrote
wrote down in
in San-
San-
skrit
skrit aa system of diagnosis and
and therapy whose clements had
had descended
descended
system of diagnosis therapy whose elements
to
to him
him from
from his
his teacher Dhanwantari. I~is
teacher Dhnn\vantari. His book
book dealt
dealt at
at length
length with
with sur-
sur-
gery, obstetrics, diet, bathing,
gery, obstetrics, diet, bathing, drugs, drugs, infant
infant feeding
feeding and
and hygiene,
hygiene, and
and
medical
medical education....
education." Charnka
Charaka conlposed
9

composed a Samhita (or

a Savlbjta (or encyclopedia)
encyclopedia) of of
medicine,
medicine, which
which is
is still
still used
used in
in India,"
India, and
and gave
31

gave to
to his
his followers
followers an
an almost
almost
Hippocratic
Hippocratic conception
conception of
of their
their calling:
calling:
"Not
"Not for
for self,
self, not
not for
for the
the ful-
ful-
filment
filment of
of any earthly
any earthly desire
desire of
of gain,
gain,
but
but solely
solely for
for the
the good
good of
of suffering
suffering
humanity should you
humanity should you treat
treat your
your patients, and so excell all."· Only less
patients, and so excell all"* Only less
illustrious
illustrious than
than these
these are Vagbhata (6~S
are \'aghhata A.D.), who prepared
(625 A.D.), prepared a a medical
medical
compendium
compendium in
in prose
prose and
and verse,
verse, and
and Bhava
Bhava Mism
Misra (1550 A.D.), whose
(r 5 So A.D.), whose
CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XIX) THE LIFE
LIFE OF
OF THE MIND
THE MIND 53I
531

voluminous work on anatomy, anatomy, physiology

physiology and and medicine
medicine mentioned,
mentioned, aa
hundred years before Harvey,
years before Harvey, the the circulation
circulation of of the
the blood,
blood, and and pre-
pre-
scribed
scribed mercury for
mercury for that
that novel·disease,
novel syphilis,
disease, syphilis, which had recently been
which had recently been
brought in
brought in by
by the
the Portuguese as
Portuguese as part of Europe's heritage to India.- 88

part of Europe's heritage to India.

Sushruta described
described many many surgical operations-cataract, hernia, lithot-
surgical operations cataract, hernia, lithot-
omy,
omy, Czsarian
Caesarian section,
section, etc.-and
etc. and 111
121 surgical instruments, including
surgical instruments, including
lancets,
lancets, sounds,
sounds, forceps,
forceps, catheters,
catheters, and and rectal
rectal andand vaginal speculums."
vaginal speculums."
Despite
Despite Brahmanical
Brahmanical prohibitions
prohibitions he
he advocated
advocated the
the dissection
dissection of
of dead
dead
bodies
bodies asas indispensable in in the
the training of surgeons. He was first
was the first to
the
indispensable training of surgeons. to
graft upon
graft upon a
a tom
torn ear
ear portions
portions of
of skin
skin taken
taken from
from another
another part
part
of
of the
the
body;
body; and from him and his
him and his Hindu
Hindu successors
successors rhinoplasty-the surgical
rhinoplasty the surgical
reconstruction
reconstruction of of the nose-descended into
the nose-descended modern medicine.-
into modem medicine.
85
"The
"The
ancient
ancient Hindus," says Garrison,
Hindus," says Garrison, "performed "performed almost
almost every major
every major opera- opera-
tion
tion except
except ligation
ligation of of the
the arteries."·
arteries."* Limbs
Limbs were
were amputated, abdominal
amputated, abdominal
sections
sections were performed, fractures
performed, fractures were
were set,
set, hemorrhoids
hemorrhoids and
and fistulas
fistulas were
were
removed. Sushruta laid
removed. Sushruta laid down elaborate
elaborate rules
rules for
for preparing an operation,
preparing an operation,
and his
his suggestion that
suggestion that the
the wound be
be sterilized
sterilized
by fumigation is
by fumigation is one
one of of
the earliest known efforts
the earliest efforts at at antiseptic surgery.'" Both Sushruta and
87

antiseptic surgery. Both Sushruta and

Charaka mention the
Charaka mention the use
use ofof medicinal
medicinal liquors
liquors
to
to produce insensibility
produce insensibility to
to
pain.
pain. In
In 92,7
927 A.D.
A.D. two surgeons trepanned
surgeons trepanned the
the skull
skuU of
of a
a Hindu
Hindu king,
king,
and
and
made him
made him insensitive
insensitive to to the
the operation by administering
operation by administering a
a drug
drug called
called
Samobini.··
Samohini.**
For the
For detection of
the detection of the
the 112.0
1120 diseases that
diseases that he enumerated, Sushruta
he enumerated, Sushruta
40
recommended
recommended diagnosis by inspection, palpation,
diagnosis by inspection, palpation, and
and auscultation.
auscultation. Tak-
40
Tak-
u
U
ing of
ing of the
the pulse
pulse was
was described
described in in aa treatise
treatise dating
dating 1300
1300 A.D.
A.D. Urinalysis
Urinalysis
was aa favorite
was favorite method
method of of diagnosis;
diagnosis; Tibetan physicians were
Tibetan physicians were reputed
reputed able able
to cure
to any patient
cure any patient without
without having
having seen anything more
seen anything more of him than
of him than his his
water.- In
water. In the
48
the time
time ofof Yuan
Yuan Chwang
Chwang Hindu Hindu medical
medical treatment
treatment began began
with aa seven-day
with seven-day fast; in this
fast; in this interval
interval the the patient
patient often recovered; ifif the
often recovered; the
illness continued,
illness drugs were
continued, drugs were at at last
last employed.
employed.o Even Even then
44
drugs were
then drugs were
used very sparingly;
used very sparingly; reliance
reliance was
was placed largely upon diet, baths,
placed largely upon diet, baths, enemas, enemas,
inhalations, urethral and
inhalations, urethral vaginal injections,
and vaginal injections, andand blood-lettings
blood-Iettings by leeches
by leeches
or cups."" Hindu
or cups. physicians were
Hindu physicians especially skilled
were especially skilled in
in concocting
concocting anti- anti-
40tes for
dotes for poisons; they still
poisons; they still excel
excel European physicians in
European physicians in curing snake-
curing snake-
bites." Vaccination,
bites.
48
Vaccination, unknown
unkno\vn to to Europe
Europe before
before the
the eighteenth
eighteentll century,
century,

• Hospitals
* Hospitals were erected in
were erected CeylOn as
in Ceylon early as
IS eariy 42,7 B.O,
IS 417 and' in northern
I.e., and'ih India as
northern India early
as early
W
as J:6 B.c."
as 226 B.C
53
53*1 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
( CHAP. XIX

\vas known in
was in India
India as as early as
early as 550 A.D., if
550 A.D., if we may judge from
may judge from a a text
text
attributed
attributed to to Dhanwantari,
Dhan\vantari, one one ofof the
the earliest
earliest Hindu physicians: "Take
Hindu physicians: "Take
the fluid
the fluid of the poel'
of the pock on on the
the udder
udder of of the cow ••• upon
the CO\V . . .upon thethe point
point of of aa
lancet,
lancet, and and lance with it
lance \vith it the
the arms bet\veen the
arms between the shoulders
shoulders and and elbows
elbows until until
the blood
the blood appears;
appears; then, mixing the
then, mixing the fluid
fluid with
with the the blood,
blood, the the fever
fever of of the
the
small-pox
small-pox \vill
will be
be produced."·11
produced."
411

Modern
Modern European physicians
European physicians believe
believe that
that
caste separateness was prescribed
caste separateness 'leas because of
prescribed because of the
the Brahman
Brahman belief belief inin invis-
invis-
ible agents transmitting dise'lsc;
ible agents transmitting disease; many many of of the laws of
the laws sanitation enjoined
of sanitation enjoined
by
by Sushruta
Sushruta and
and "lVlanu"
"Mann" seem
seem to
to take
take for
for granted
granted what
what \\'c modems,
we moderns, who who
love ne\v words
\vords for for oldold things,
things, call
call the
the germ theory of disease/ H)TP-
of disease.'"
7
love new germ theory Hyp-
notism as
notism as therapy seelns
seems to
to have
have originated anlong the
the Hindus, \vha
Hindus, who oftenoften
therapy originated among
took their
took their sick
sick toto the temples to
the tClllples to be cured by
be cured hypnotic suggestion
by hypnotic suggestion or or
C8
"temple-sleep," as
as inin Egypt and Greece. The Englishnlen ,vho intro-
48

"temple-sleep," Egypt and Greece. Englishmen who intro-

hypnotherapy into
duced hypnotherapy into England-Braid,
England Braid, Esdaile Esdaile and Elliot~on- "un_
and Elliotson "un-
doubtedly
doubtedly got got their
their ideas,
ideas, and
and some
some of
of their
their experience,
experience,
fronl
from contact
contact
with India.""
with India,"
48

The general picture of

general picture
of Indian medicine is
Indian medicine is one
one of rapid development
of rapid development
in the Vedic
in the Vedic and and Buddhist periods, followed
Buddhist periods, followed by by centuries
centuries of
of slow
slow and and
cautious
cautious improvement.
improvement. How much Atreya, Dhanwantari and
Atreya, Dhanwantari and Sushruta
Sushruta
owed
owed to to Greece,
Greece, and
and ho'v
how much Greece
Greece o\ved
owed to
to them,
them, we do
do not
not know.
know.
In the time of Alexander,
In the time of Alexander, says Garrison, says Garrison, "Hindu
"Hindu physicians
physicians and
and surgeons
surgeons
enjoyed
enjoyed a
a well-deserved
well-deserved reputation
reputation for
for superior kno\vledge
superior knowledge and
and skill,"
skill," and
and
even Aristotle is
even Aristotle believed by
is believed
by sonle
some students
students to
to have
have been
been indebted
indebted to
to
nn
thcm. So
them." too with
So too with the the Persians
Persians and and the Arabs: it
the Arabs: Let difficult
it is difficult to to say
say how
much Indian
much medicine o\ved
Indian medicine owed to to the physicians of
the physicians of Baghdad,
Baghdad, and
and through
through
them to
them to the
the heritage
heritage of of Babylonian
Babylonian medicine
medicine in
in the
the Near
Near East;
East; on
on the
the oneone
hand certain
hand remedies, like
certain remedies, like Opil.lm and
opium and nlercury,
mercury, and
and some
some modes
modes of
of diag-
diag-
nosis, like
nosis, like feeling
feeling
the
the pulse, appear
pulse, appear
to
to have
have entered
entered India
India from
from Persia;
Persia; on
on
the other
the other we find find Persians
Persians and and Arabs
Arabs translating
translating into
into their
their languages, in
languages, in

the eighth
the eighth century
century A.D.,A.D., the
the thousand-year-old
thousand-year-old compendia compendia of of Sushruta
Sushruta and and
"
Charaka,1l
Charaka The great Caliph
great Caliph
Haroun-al-Rashid
Haroun-al-Rashid accepted
accepted the
the preeminence
preeminence
of
of Indian medicine and
Indian medicine scholarship, and
and scholarship, and imported
imported Hindu physicians to
Hindu physicians to
organize hospitals
organize hospitals and
and nlcdical
medical schools
schools in
in Baghdad.- Lord
Baghdad." Lord Ampthill
Ampthill con-
con-
cludes
cludes thatthat medieval
medieval and and modem
modern Europe
Europe O\vesowes its its systen1 of medicine di..
system of medicine di-

rectly to
rectly to the Arabs, and
the Arabs, through them
and through them to to India.-
India* Probably
Probably this this noblest
noblest
and most uncertain
and most uncertain of the sciences
of the sciences hadhad an an approximately equal
approximately equal antiquity, antiquity,
and
and developed
developed in
in contenlporary
contemporary contact
contact and
and mutual influence,
mutual influence, in in SUDlcria,
Sumeria,
Egypt
Egypt and
and India.
India*
CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XIX) THE LIFE OF THE MIND 533
533

u. THE SIX SYSTEMS OF BRAHMANICAL PHILOSOPHY

II.

The antiquity
The antiquity of
of Indian pbilosophy -
Inditm philosophy Its prominent
- Its role -
prominent r6le Its
- Its
-
scholars - Forms
scholars -
Forms - Conception
Conception of -
orthodoxy - The
of orthodoxy The as-
as-
sumptions of
sumptions of Hindu
Hindu philosopby
philosophy

The priority
The priority of
of India
India is clearerisin philosophy
clearer in philosophy than
than in medicine,
medicine, though
thoughin
here too origins
here too origins are
are veiled,
veiled, and
and every
every conclusion
conclusion isis an
an hypothesis.
hypothesis. Some
Some
Upanishads are older
Upanishads are older than
than any extant form any extant
form of
of Greek
Greek philosophy,
philosophy, and
and
Pythagoras,
Pythagoras, Pannenides
Parmenides and
and Plato seem to
Plato seem to have
have been
been influenced
influenced by Indian
by Indian
metaphysics; but
metaphysics; but the
the speculations
speculations of of Thales,
Thales, Anaximander,
Anaximander, Anaximenes,
Anaximenes,
Heraclitus, Anaxagoras
Heraclitus, Anaxagoras and
and Empedocles not
Einpedocles not only
only antedate
antedate the secular
the secular
philosophy of
philosophy of the
the Hindus,
Hindus, but bt;lt bear
bear aa sceptical
sceptical and physical stamp
and physical stamp sug-sug-
gesting
gesting any any other
other origin
origin than
than India.
India. Victor
Victor Cousin
Cousin believed
believed that
that "we are
are
constrained to
constrained to see
see in
in this
this cradle
cradle of of the
the human
human race
race thethe native
native land
land of of the
the
highest philosophy."1t
highest philosophy."
61
It
It is
is more
more probable
probable that
that no
no one
one of
of the
the civilizations
civilizations
known to to usus was
was thethe originator
originator of any of
of any of the
the elements
elements of of civilization.
civilization.

philosophy been so strong as in

But nowhere
But nowhere else has the
else has the lust
lust for
for philosophy been so strong as India.
in India.
It is, with
Itis, with thethe Hindus,
Hindus, not not an an ornament
ornament or or aa recreation,
recreation, but but aa major
major interest
interest
c
and practice of
and practice life itself;
of life itself; and and sages
sages receive
receive in in India
India thethe honor
honor bestowed
bestowed*
in the West
in the West uponupon men of wealth or
of wealth or action.
action. What other nation has
other nation has ever
ever
thought of
thought of celebrating festivals with gladiatorial debates between
celebrating festivals with gladiatorial debates
between the the lead-
lead-
ers
ers of rival philosophical
of rival philosophical schools?schools? We read read in the Upanishads
in the Upanishads how the
the
King
King of the Videhas,
of the Videhas, as as part of
part of a a religious feast, set one day apart for
religious feast, set one day apart
for aa
philosophical disputation among Yajnavalkya,
philosophical disputation among Yajnavalkya, Asvala, Artabhaga
Asvala, Artabhaga and
Gargi (the
Gargi (the Aspasia of India); to the victor the King promised-and
Aspasia of India); to the victor the King promised
and gave-
gave-
DO
aa reward
reward of of a a thousand
thousand cows cows and and many pieces
many pieces of
of gold.
gold.
08
It
It was the the usual
usual
course
course forfor a
a philosophical
philosophical
teacher
teacher in
in India
India to
to speak
speak rather
rather than
than to
to write;
write;
instead
instead of of attacking
attacking his
his opponents through
opponents through the
the safe
safe medium of
of print,
print, he
he
was
was expected
expected to
to meet
meet them
them in
in living debate,
living debate,
and
and to
to visit
visit other
other schools
schools in
in
order
order to to submit
submit himself
himself to to controversy
controversy and and questioning;
questioning; leadingleading philoso-
philoso-
phers
phers
like
like Shankara
Shankara spent
spent much of
of their time
their time in
in such
such intellectual
intellectual jour-jour-
neys.IT
neys.
87
Sometimes
Sometimes kings joined in
kings joined in these
these discussions
discussions withwith the modesty be-
the modesty be-
coming
coming a
a monarch
monarch in
in the
the presence
presence of
of a
a philosopher-if
philosopher if we may credit
may credit the
the
reports
reports of
of the
the philosophers.
philosophers.
The victor
victor in a vital debate was as great
in a vital debate was as great a a
hero among his
hero among his people as
people as
aa general
general returning
returning fromfrom the the bloody
bloody triumphs
triumphs
08
ofwar.
of war.
88

eighteenth cen~tY'
*
In
In a
a Rajput
Rajput painting of the
painting of
the eighteenth century we see
see a
a typical
typical Indian
1

Indian
"School
"School ofof Philosophy" -the
Philosophy"-the teacher
teacher sits
sits on
on a
a mat under
under a
a tree,
tree, and his
his
534
534 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XIX
(CHAP.XIX

pupils squat on
pupils squat
on the
the grass
grass before him. Such
before him. Such scenes
scenes were
were to be witnessed
to be witnessed
everywhere, for
everywhere, for teachers
teachers of
of philosophy
philosophy were
were as
as numerous
numerous inin India
India as
as mer-
mer-
chants in Babylonia.
chants in Babylonia. No other
other country
country has
has ever
ever had
had so
so many
many schools
schools ofof
thought. In one of Buddha's dialogues we learn
thought. In one of Buddha's dialogues
learn that
that there
there were
were sixty-
sixty-
two distinct
two distinct theories
theories ofof the
the soul
soul among
among the
the philosophers
philosophers ofof his
his time."
time.-
"This philosophical
"This philosophical nation par excellence"
nation par excellence," says
says Count
Count Keyserling,
Keyserling, "has
"has
more Sanskrit
more Sanskrit words
words forfor philosophical
philosophical and
and religious
religious thought
thought than
than are
are
found in Gree~, Latin and German combined."11 81
found in Greek, Latin and German combined."

Since Indian
Since Indian thought
thought waswas transmitted
transmitted rather
rather by oraI tradition
by oral tradition than
than by \\Frit-
by writ-
ing,
ing,
the
the oldest
oldest form
form in
in \vhich
which the
the theories
theories of
of the
the various
various schools
schools have
have come
come
down to
down to us is that
us is that of srttras-aphoristic
of mtras "threads" \vhich teacher
aphoristic "threads" which
teacher oror student
student
jotted down, not
jotted down,
not as
as aa. means
means of of explaining
explaining his
his thought
thought to another,
to another, but as
but as an
an
aid to
aid memory. These
his own memory.
to his These extant sutras arc
extant sutras are of varying age,
of varying age, some
some asas old
old
as 200
as 200 A.D., some as
A.D., some recent as
as recent as 1400; in all
1400; in all cases
cases they arc much
they are nluch )'ounger than
younger than
the traditions
the traditions ofof thought
thought thatthat they
they summarize,
summarize, for
for the
the origin
origin of
of these
these schools
schools
of philosophy
of philosophy is is as old as
as old Buddha, and
as Buddha, and some
some of of them,
them, like
like the
the Sltflkbya, were
Sankhya, were
probably well-established
probably well-established \\'hcn
when he
he was
was born.-
born."

All systems of Indian philosophy are ranged by the I-lindus in t'\vo

All systems of Indian philosophy arc ranged by the Hindus in two
categories: Astika systems, which affinn, and N
categories: Astika systems,
astikll systems, which
which affirm, and Nastika systems, which
deny.· We have already studied the Nastika systems, which were chiefly
deny** have already studied the Nastika systems, which were chiefly
those of
those the Charvakas,
of the Charvakas, thethe Buddhists,
Buddhists, andand the Jains. But,
the Jains. But, strange to say,
strange to say,
these
these systems
systems were
were called
called N astika,
Nastika, heterodox
heterodox and
and nihilist,
nihilist, not
not because
because they
they
questioned
questioned
or
or denied
denied the
the existence
existence ofof God (which
(which they
they did),
did), but because
but because

they questioned,
they denied or ignored the
or ignored authority of
the authority of the Veda*. Many
the Vedas. Many of of
questioned, denied
the
the Astika
Astika systems
systems also
also doubted
doubted or
or denied
denied God;
God; theythey were
were nevertheless
nevertheless
called
called orthodox because they
orthodox because accepted
they accepted the
the infallibility
infallibility
of the Scriptu:res,
of the Scriptures,
and
and the
the institution
institution ofof caste;
caste; and
and no
no hindrance
hindrance was
was placed
placed against the
against the free
free

thought, that acknowledged these

thought, however
however atheistic,
atheistic, of of those
those schools
schools that acknowledged these
fundamentals
fundamentals of of orthodox
orthodox Hindu
Hindu society.
society. Since
Since a
a wide
wide latitude was al-
latitude was al-

lowed in
lowed in interpreting the holy books, and clever dialecticians could find
interpreting the holy books, and clever dialecticians could find
in the Vedas
in the Vedas anyany doctrine
doctrine which
which they
they sought,
sought, the the only
only practical require-
practical require-
ment for
ment for intellectual
intellectual respectability
respectability was
was the
the recognition
recognition of
of caste;
caste; this
this being
being
the
the real
real government
government of
of India,
India, rejection
rejection of
of it
it \vas
xvas treason,
treason, and
and acceptance
acceptance
of
of it
it covered
covered a a multitude
multitude of of si~.
sins. In
In effect
effect,t therefore,
therefore, the the philosophers of
philosophers of
India enjoyed far
India enjoyed far more liberty than
more liberty their Scholastic
than their Scholastic analogues
analogues in in Europe,
Europe,

• .tf.m, it is; n'

it is; uti, itit isis not.
tfastij not.
CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XK) THE LIFE OF THE MIND
THE S3~
535

though less,
though perhaps, than
less, perhaps, than the
the thinkers
thinkers of
of Christendom under the
Christendom under the enlight-
enlight-
ened
ened Popes
Popes ofof the
the Renaissance.
Renaissance.
the "orthodox"
Of the "orthodox" systems
systems or or darshrmas
darshanas ("demonstrations"),
("demonstrations") six six be-
be-
,

came
came so prominent
prominent thatthat inin time
time every
every Hindu
Hindu thinker
thinker whowho acknowledged
so acknowledged
the authority
the authority of
of the
the Brahmans
Brahmans attached
attached himself
himself to
to one
one or
or another
another of these
of these
schools.
schools. AllAll six
six make certain
certain assumptions which
assumptions
which are
are the
the bases
bases of
of Hindu
Hindu
thought:
thought: that
that the
the Vedas
Vedas are
are inspired; that reasoning is less reliable as aa
inspired; that reasoning is less reliable as
guide
guide to
to reality
reality and
and truth
truth than
than the
the direct
direct perception and
perception and feeling of an
feeling of an
individual properly prepared
individual properly prepared for for spiritual receptiveness and subtlety by
spiritual receptiveness and subtlety by
ascetic practices and
ascetic practices and years
years of
of obedient
obedient tutelage; that the purpose of
tutelage; that the purpose of
knowledge
knowledge and
and philosophy
philosophy is
is not
not control
control of the world so
of the world so much as as release
release
from
from it;
it; and that the
and that the goal
goal of
of thought
thought is
is to
to :find
find freedom
freedom from
from the
the suf-
suf-
fering
fering of
of frustrated
frustrated desire
desire by achieving
by achieving freedom
freedom from
from desire
desire itself.
itself. These
These
are the philosophies
are die philosophies to to which
which men come when when they they tire
tire ofof ambition,
ambition,
struggle, wealth, "progress,"
struggle, wealth, "progress,"
and
and "success."
"success."

1.
1. The NYQya System
The Nyaya System
Hindu logician
A Hindu logician

The first
The first of
of the "BrahmanicaT systems
the "Brahmanical" systems in in the
the logical order of Indian
logical order of Indian
thought (for (for their chronological order is uncertain,
their chronological order is uncertain, and they
and they areare inin all
all essen-
essen-
thought
tials contemporary)
tials
contemporary) is
is aa body
body of
of logical
logical theory
theory extending
extending over
over two millenni-
millenni-
ums. Nyaya means
ums. Nyaya means an an argument,
argument, a a way
way of of leading the mind
leading the mind to to aa conclusion.
conclusion. Its Its

most famous
most famous text text is
is the Nyaya Sutra
the Nyaya Sutra ascribed without surety
ascribed without surety to
to a
a Gautama
Gautama
dated variously between
dated variously between the the third
third century before, and
century before, the first
and the first century after,
century after,
Christ,"
Christ.
68
Like
Like all
all Hindu
Hindu thinkers,
thinkers, Gautarna
Gautama announces,
announces, as
as the
the purpose
purpose of of his
his
work, the
work, the achievement
achievement of of NiT'IJll1lfI"
Nirvana, or or release
release from the
from the tyranny
tyranny of of desire,
desire, here
here
to be
to reached by
be reached by clear
clear and
and consistent
consistent thinking;
thinking; but
but we suspect
suspect that
that his
his simple
simple
intent
intent waswas to to offer
offer aa guide
guide to
to the
the perplexed
perplexed wrestlers
wrestlers in
in India's
India's philosophical
philosophical
debates.
debates. He formulates
formulates for for them
them the principles of
the principles argument, exposes
of argument, exposes thethe
tricks of
tricks contr~versy, and
of controversy, and lists
lists the the common fallacies fallacies ofof thought.
thought. Like
another Aristotle, he
another Aristotle, he seeks
seeks the
the strUcture
structure of reasoning in
of reasoning the syllogism,
in the syllogism, and
finds the crux
crux of argument in
of argument in the
the middle
middle term;·
term;* like another James James or
finds the like another or Dewey
Dewcy
he looks
he looks uponupon knowledge
knowledge and
and thought
thought as
as pragmatic tools
pragmatic tools and organs
organs of
human need
human and wil~
need and will, toto be tested by
be tested by their
their ability
ability to
to lead
lead to
to successful
successful ac-
ac-
tion." He
tion.** He isis a realist, and
a realist, and will
will have
have nothing
nothing to to do with
with the
the sublime
sublime ideaidea that
that
the world
the world ceases ceases to
to exist
exist when
when no
no one
one takes
takes the
the precaution
precaution to
to perceive
perceive it.
it.

• The Nyaya syllogism,

The Nyfl'1l1 however. has has five propositions: theorem,
theorem, reason,
reason, major
major premiss,
* five propositions:
syllogism, however, premiss,
minor premiss
minor premiss and
and conclusion.
conclusion. E.g.:
E.g.:
(I)
(i) Socrates
Socrates is nlortal,
is moral, (z)
(2) for he
for he is a man;
is man; (3)
(3) all
all

men are
mea mortal; (4)
are mortal; (4) Socrates is a
Socrates is a man;
man; (s)(5) therefore
therefore Socrates
Socrates is mortal.
is mortal.
 536 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
( CHAP. XIX
XIX

Gautama's
Gautama's predecessors in Nyaya
predecessors in Nyaya were
were apparently
apparently atheists;
atheists; his
his successors
successors be-
be-
came epistemologists. S1
epistemologists."
His
His achievement
achievement was
was to
to give
give India
India an
an organon
organon of
of in...
in-
vestigation
vestigation and
and thought,
thought, and
and a
a rich
rich vocabulary
vocabulary of
of philosophical
philosophical
terms.
terms.

2.
2. TJ,e
The Vaisheshika
Vaisheshika System
System
De1110critus
Dewocritus inin India
India

As Gautama is is the
the Aristotle
Aristotle ofof India,
India, soso Kanada
Kanada is is its Democritus. His
its Democritus. His
name,
name, which means means the the "atom-eater,"
"atom-eater," suggests
suggests
that
that hehe nlay
may be
be a
a legendary
legendary
construct
construct of of the
the historical
historical intagination. The date
imagination. date atat \vhich
which the the Vaishesbika.
Vaisheshika
system
system was fomlulated
formulated has has not
not been
been fixed
fixed ,vith
with excessive
excessive accuracy: we are
accuracy: are
told
told that it \vas
that it was not not before
before 300 n.c.,
300 B.C., and
and not
not after
after 800 A.D.
A.D. Its
Its name
name came
came
whesha, meaning
from visIJesbtl, meaning particularity: the world, in Kanada's theory, is full of
particularity: the world, in Kanada's theory, is full of
a.a number of of things, but they are all, in some fonn, tllere combinations of
things, but they are all, in some form, mere combinations of
atoms;
atoms; thethe forms
forms change,
change, butbut the
the atoms
atoms remain
remain indestructible.
indestructible. Thoroughly
Thoroughly
Democritean,
Democritean, Kanada
Kanada announces
announces that
that nothing
nothing exists
exists but
but "atoms
"atoms and and the
the void,"
void,"
and that
that the
the atonlS
atoms nlove
move notnot according
according to
to the
the \vilI
will ofof an
an intelligent deity,
intelligent deity,
but
but through
through an
an impersonal
impersonal force
force or
or law-Ad,·jsbta,
hw-Adrishta, "the
"the invisible."
invisible." Since
Since there
there
is no conservative like
is no conservative like the
the child
child of
of aa radical,
radical, the
the later
later exponents of
exponents of V llislJe-
Vaishe-
sbika,
sbika, unable
unable to to sec
sec ho\v
how aa blind
blind force
force could
could give
give
order
order and
and unity
unity to
to the
the
cosmos, placed aa \vorld
cosmos, placed world of of minute
minute souls
souls alongside
alongside the
the \vorld
world of
of atoms,
atoms, and
and
supervised
supervised bothboth worlds with an
worlds ,vith an intelligent
intelligent
God.'"
God.* So
1

So old
old is die "pre-estab-
is dlC
"pre-estab-
lished
lished harnlony n of
harmony" of Leibnitz.
Leibnitz.

3. Sankhya System
3. The Sankl,ya System
Its high
Its repute -lvletapbysics
bigb repute Metaphysics
-
- E'lJoI'l/,ti01Z
Evolution - AtbciS7Jl -
- Atheism -ldealimz
Idealism
-Spirit-Body,
Spirit Body, 'lIli,1d
wi?jd andand sOfa-The goal of
soul The goal plJilosopby
of philosophy
-I,zjlue1lce
-Influence of of tJ,e
the SanklJya
Smkhya
This, says a HinduhL~orian, "is the most significant system of philos-
This, says a Hindu historian, uis the most significant system of philos-
ophy that India has produced."etT Profe&~r Garbe, who devoted a large
Garbe, \vho devoted a large
7

ophy that India has produced."" Professor

part
part of
of his
his life
life to
to the
the study
study of
of the
the Sankbya, consoled himself
Sankhya, consoled himself with
with the
the
thought that
thought that "in
"in Kapila's
Kapila.'s doctrine, for the
doctrine, for the first
first time
time in
in the hi.~tory of
the history of the
the
world
world,t the
the complete independence
complete independence and
and freedom
freedom of
of the
the human
human mind, its
mind, its
full confidence
full confidence in its own
in its o,vn powers,
po,vers, were
were exhibited.""
exhibited."· ItIt isis the
the oldest
1

oldest of
of
the six
the systems,· and
six systems, and perhaps
49
perhaps the
the oldest
oldest philosophical
philosophical system
system of of all.*
all.' Of
Of
*
-Its earliest extant literature. the S,nkb,lI-k"iRIl of the comnlcntator Ish\"ara Krishna,
Its earliest extant literature, the Sankhya-kttrika of the commentator Ishvara Krishna,

dates back only to the fifth century end the Sankb,'-lUtr/U once attributed to Kapila
A.D., and the Sankbya-tutras once attributed to Kapila
dates back only to the fifth century A.D.,
are older than our fifteenth
not older than our fifteenth century;
are not but the tlrigins of the "}'!t'tC111 apparent!y
century; but the origins of the system apparently
antedate Buddhism iaclf.'lo TIle Buddhist
antedate Buddhism itself.
10
The Buddhist texts t<:pcatcdl~· refer to
and the Afababbarat'"''''
texts and the Mahabbtrat*** repeatedly rafer to
and Winternitz
it, and
it, Wintemitz finds
finds its influence in
its influence in Pythagoras.**
Pythagoras.'ftIb
CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XIX) THE LIFE
THE LIFE 0'1'
OF THE MIND
THE MIND 537
537

Kapik himself
Kapila himself nothing
nothing is is known,
known, except that Hindu tradition, which has
except that Hindu tradition, which has
aa schoolboy's
schoolboy's scorn scorn for
for dates, credits him
dates, credits him with
with founding
founding the the Sankbya
Sankhya
philosophy
philosophy in
in the
the sixth
sixth century
century B.e.
71
B.C
ft

Kapila
Kapila is is at·
at once
once aa realist
realist and scholastic. He begins almost
and aa scholastic. medically
begins almost medically
by laying
by laying it down,
it down, in
in his
his first
first aphorism,
aphorism, that
that "the
"the complete
complete cessation
cessation of
of
pain
pain .••
... is
is the
the complete
complete goal goal of
of man."
man." He rejects as inadequate
rejects as inadequate the at-
the at-
tempt
tempt to
to elude
elude suffering by physical
suffering by physical means;
means; he
he refu~es, with much
refutes, with much logical
logical
prestidigitation,
prestidigitation, the
the views
views of
of all
all and
and sundry
sundry on
on the
the matter,
matter, and then
and then pro-
pro-
ceeds
ceeds toto construct,
construct, in in one
one unintelligibly
unintelligibly
abbreviated
abbreviated sutra
sutra after
after another,
another,
his
his own metaphysical system. It
metaphysical system. It derives derives its
its name
name from from hishis enumeration
enumeration
(for this is the meaning
(for this is the meaning of sankhya)
of sankhya) of of the
the twenty-five Realities (Tattwas,
twenty-five Realities (Tattwas,
"Thatnesses")
"Thatnesses") which, which, in in Kapila's judgment,
Kapila's judgment, make
make up
up the world.
the world. He ar- ar-
ranges
ranges these
these Realities
Realities in
in a
a complex relationship that may possibly
complex relationship that may possibly be clari- be clari-
fied by
fied by the
the following
following scheme:
scheme:

(I) A. SUBSTANCE (Prakriti,

(1) A. (Prakriti, "Producer"),
"Producer"), aa universal
universal physical principle
physical principle
which, through
which, through its
its evolutionary powers
evolutionary powers (Gunas), produces
(Gunu), produces
(2)
(2) I.I. Intellect (Bfiddhi), the
Intellect (Buddbi), the power
power of
of perception;
perception;
which,
which, through
through itsits evolutionary powers (Gunas), produces
evolutionary powers (Gunas), produces
i. The Five
i. Five Subde
Subtle Elements, or Sensory
Elements, or Sensory Powers
Powers ofof the
the Internal
Internal
World:
World:
(4)
(4) i. Sight,.
I. Sight,
(5)
(5) 2.
2. Hearing,
Hearing,
(6)
(6) Smell,
3. Smell,
3.

(7)
(7) 4- Taste, and
4. Taste, and
(8)
(8) 5. Touch;
5. Touch; (Realities ( I) to
(Realities (i) to \ (8) cooperate to
(8) cooperate
1
produce (10)
to produce (10)
(24) ))
to (24)
to
(9)
(9) ii. (Manas), tjie
ii. Mind (Manas), t.he power
power of
of conception;
conception; .
iii. The Five
iil Organs of
Five Organs of Sense (corresponding with
Sense (corresponding Realities (4)
with Realities (4)
(8) ):
to (8)):
to
(10)
(10) I.
i. Eye,
Eye,
(XI)
(n) Ear,
z. Ear,
2.

(12)
(12) 3. Nose,
3. Nose,

(13)
(13) 4- Tongue, and
4. Tongue, and
(14)
(14) Skin;
S. Skin;
5.

iv. The
iv. The Five
Five Organs
Organs of
of Action:
Action:
(IS)
(15) I.
i. Larynx,
Larynx,
( 16)
(16) 2.
2. Hands,
Hands,
(17)
(17) Feet,
3- Feet,
3.

(18)
1
( 8) 4- Excretory organs, and
4. Excretory organs, and
53
5388 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
THE (CHAP.XIl
(CHAP. Xtt

(19)
(19) s. Generative
5. Generative organs;
organs;
v.
v. The Five
Five Gross Elements of
Gross Elements of the
the External
External World:
World:
(20)
(20) i. Ether,
I. Ether,
(21)
(21) 2. ~,
2. Air,
(%2)
(22) 3.
3. Fire
Fire and
and light,
light,
(23)
(23) +
4. Water,
Water, and
(24)
(24) s.5. Earth.
Earth.
(25)
(25) B.
B. SPIRIT (Punisha, "Person"),
(Pur'llsba, "Person"), a
a universal
universal psychical
psychical principle which,
principle which,
though
though unable
unable to
to do
do anything
anything of
of itself,
itself, animates
animates and
and vitalizes
vitalizes Prakriti,
Prakrhi,
its evolutionary po,vcrs to
and
and stirs
stirs its
evolutionary powers to nilall their
their activities.
activities.

At its outset this

its outset this seems
seems to
to be
be a
a purelv
purely materialistic system: the
materialistic SYStem: the world
world
of mind and self
of mind and as well
self as well as of body
as of
body and matter appears
and matter entirely as an
appears entirely as an
evolution by
evolution natural Ineans,
by natural means, aa unity
unity and
and continuity
continuity ofof clements
elements inin per-
per-
petual
petual development
development and and decay
decay from from thethe lowest
lowest to to the
the highest
highest andand back
back
again.
again. There
There is
is aa prcnl0nition
premonition of
of Lamarck
Lamarck in
in Kapila's thought:
Kapila's thought:
the
the need
need
of the organism
of the (the "Self")
organism (the "Self") generates generat~c; the
the function
function (sight, hearing,
(sight, hearing, smell,
smell,
taste
taste andand touch),
touch), and and thethe function
function produces
produces the
the organ
organ (cye, (eye, ear,
ear, nose,
nose,
tongue
tongue and
and skin).
skin). There L'
isi no
no gap
gap in
in the
the s}'stcm,
system, and
and no
no vital
vital distinction
distinction
in any
in any Hindu philosophy,
philosophy, bct\vecn
between the the inorganic the organic,
inorganic and and the between
organic, between
the vegetable
the vegetable and and thethe aninlal,
animal, or benvecn the
or between the animal
animal and and chethe human,
human,
world; these
world; these are
are all
all links
links in one chain
in olle chain ofof life,
life, spokes
spokes on on therhe \"heel
wheel of of evo-
evo-
lution
lution and di~olution, birth
and dissolution, birth and and death
death and birth. The course
and birth. course of of evolution
evolution
is
is determined
determined fatalistically
fatalistically by by thethe three
three active
active qualities or po\vers (Gunas)
qualities or powers (Gunas)
of Substance:
of purity, activity,
Substance: purity, activity, and blind ignorance.
and blind ignorance. TheseThese powerspowers are not
are not
prejudiced
prejudiced in
in favor
favor of
of development against decay;
development against decay; they produce the)1 produce the
the one
one
after the
after other in
the other in an endless cycle,
an endless like some
cycle, like some stupid Inagician dra\ving an
stupid magician drawing an
infinity
infinity of
of contents
contents fronl
from a
a hat, putting
hat, putting them
them back
back again, and repeating
again, and repeating
the process forever.
the process forever. EveryEvery state state of
of evolution
evolution contains
contains in in itself,
itself, as
as Herbert
Herbert
Spencer
Spencer was to
to say
say some
some time
time later,
later, a
a tendency
tendency to
to lapse
lapse
into
into dissolution
dissolution as
as
fa.ted counterpart
its fated
its counterpart and and end*
end.
Kapilat like
Kapila, like Laplace,
Laplace, saw saw no no need
need ofof calling
calling inin an deity
deity to to explain
explain crea-
crea-
tion or evolution;"
tion or evolution;" in this
in this most religious and philosophical
most religious and philosophical of nations it
of nations it is
is

nothing
nothing unusual
unusual to
to find
find religions
religions and
and philosophies
philosophies without
without a
a god. 1\1any
god. Many
of the
of SrmkhYfl. texts
the Sankhya texts explicitly
explicitly deny deny thethe existence
existence of of aa personal
personal creator;
creator;
creation isis inconceivable,
creation inconceivable, for for "a thing isis not
"a thing not made
made outout ofof nothing"; creator
nothing";'" creator
18

and created
and created are are one.'*
one." Kapila
Kapila contents
contents himself
himself with
,vith writing (precisely as
writing (precisely as
if he
if he were
were Immanuel
Immanuel Kant) Kant) that personal creator
that aa personal crearor cancan never
never be be demon-
demon-
strated by
strated human reason.
by human reason. For For whatever
whatever exists, says this
exists, says subtle sceptic,
this subtle must
sceptic, must
CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XEK) THE LIFE OF THE MIND 539
539
be
be either
either bound or or free,
free, andand God cannot cannot be either. H
be either. If God is is perfect,
perfect,
he had
he had no no need
need to to create
create a world; if
a world; if hehe isis imperfect he
imperfect
he is
is not
not God.
God.
If
If God were were good,good, and
and had
had divine
divine powers,
powers,
he
he could
could not
not possibly
possibly have
have
created so
created so imperfect
imperfect a a world,
world, so so rich
rich inin suffering, so cenain in death,"
suffering, so certain in
death." It It

is
is instructive
instructive to to see
see with
with whatwhat calmness
calmness the the Hindu thinkers discuss
Hindu thinkers discuss these
these
questions,
questions, seldom resorting
seldom resorting to persecution or
to persecution or abuse,
abuse, and and keeping
keeping the the
debate
debate upon upon aa planeplane reached
reached in
in our
our time
time only
only by by the
the controversies
controversies of
of the
the
maturest scientists.
maturest Kapila protects himself by
scientists. Kapila protects himself recognizing the
by recognizing the authority
authority
of the Vedlls:
of the Vedas: "The Vedas," Vedas? he he says, simply,
says, simply,
"are
"are an
an authority, since the
authority, since the
author
author of them knew the
of them the established truth."" Mter
established truth."· After whichwhich he he proceeds
proceeds
without paying
without paying any any attention
attention to the Vedas.
to the Vedas.
But
But hehe is no materialist;
is no materialist; on on the
the contrary,
contrary, he he is
is an
an idealist
idealist and
and a a spiritual-
spiritual-
ist, after
ist, after his his own unconventional
unconventional fashion. fashion, He derives
derives reality entirely from
reality entirely from
perception;
perception; our
our sense
sense organs
organs and
and our
our thought
thought give give to
to the
the world
world all
all the
the
reality,
reality,
form
form and
and significance
significance which
which it can
it can ~ver
ever have
have for
for us;
us; what
what the
the
world might
world might be be independently
independently of them is
of them is an
an idle
idle question that
question that has has no no
meaning,
meaning, and
and can
can never
never have
have an
an answer.""
answer. Again,
Again, after
after listing twenty-four
listing twenty-four
Tlltt'WQS
Tatfwas which which belong,
belong, in
in his
his system,
system, under
under physical
physical
evolution,
evolution, he
he upsets
upsets
all his incipient
all his
incipient materialism
materialism by introducing,
by introducing, as
as the
the last
last Reality,
Reality, the
the strang-
strang-
est
est and perhaps the
and perhaps most important
the most important of of them all Purusha, "Person"
them all-PUrushll, "Person" or or
Soul. It
Soul. It is not, like
is not, like twenty-three other
twenty-three other TllttwllS, produced
Tatfwas, produced by by PTflkriti
Prakriti or
or
physical force;
force; it is
it is an
an independent psychical principle, omnipresent and and
physical independent psychical principle, omnipresent
everlasting, in~pable of
everlasting, incapable acting by
of acting by itself, but indispensable
itself, but indispensable to to every
every action.
action.
For Prakriti never
For Prakriti never develops,
develops, the
the Gu1I4S
Gunas never
never act, except through
act, except through the
the in-
in-

spiration of Purusha;
of Purusha; the the physical
physical is is animated, vitalized and
animated, vitalized stimulated to
and stimulated to
spiration
evolve by
evolve ~he psychical principle everywhere." Here Kapila speaks like
78

by the psychical principle everywhere. Kapila speaks like

Aristotle: "There
Aristotle: uThere is is a
a ruling
ruling
influence
influence of
of the
the Spirit"
Spirit"
(over
(over Pr,kriti, or
Prakriti, or the
the
evolving world),
evolving world), "caused
"caused by
by their
their proximity,
proximity, just just as
as the
the loadstone
loadstone (draws
(draws
irpn
irpn to itself). That
to itself). That is, the
is, proximity of
the proximity of Purushll
Purusha to Prllkriti impels
to Prakriti impels the the
latter
latter toto go through
go through the
the steps
steps
of
of production.
production. This
This sort
sort of
of attraction
attraction be-
be-
t'W'een the
tween the twotwo leads
leads to to creation,
creation, but but in in nono other
other sense
sense is is Spirit an
Spirit
an agent,
agent,
*
or concerned in
or concerned in creation
creation at at all."··
10
all."

Spirit is plural in
is plural
in the
the sense
sense that
that it exists in
it exists in each
each organism;
organism; but but in in all
all itit
Spirit
is alike,
alike, and
and does does notnot share in individuality. is physical; we
is share in individuality. Individuality
Individuality is physical;
are what we
are what we a.re,
are, not
not because
because of
of our
our Spirit,
Spirit, but
but because
because of
of thethe origin,
origin,

•* "The
"The evolution
evolution of Pramti," says
of Prakriti," one Hindu commentator on Kapila,
says one Kapila, "has no purpose
'lias DO
purpose
except
except
to
to provide
provide
a
a spectacle
spectacle for
for the
the soul.""
soul." Perhaps,
80
Perhaps, as NietzSChe
as Nietzsche suggested,
suggested, the
the wisest
wisest
way to
way view the
to view the world
world is as an
is AS an esthetic
esthetic and
and dramatic
dramatic spectacle.
spectacle.
540
54 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XIX
evolution
evolution and and experiences
experiences of of our
our bodies
bodies andand minds.
minds. In In Sa1zkbya
Sankhya the the mind
mind
is as
is as much
much aa part part of of the
the body
body as as any other
any other organorgan is. The
is. The secluded
secluded and and
untouched
untouched SpiritSpirit
within
within us
us is free,
is free, while
while the
the mind
mind and
and body
body are
are bound
bound by
by
the laws and GU'1las Gunas or or qualities of the physical world;81 it is not the Spirit
1
the laws and qualities of the physical world;* it is not the Spirit
that it is
body-mind. Nor is affected by
that acts
acts and
and is is detennined,
determined, it is the
the body-mind. Nor is Spirit affected
Spirit by
the decay
the decay and passing
and passing of of the body and
the body the personality;
and the personality;
it is
it is untouched
untouched by
by
the
the stream
stream of of birth
birth and
and death. "Mind is
death. "i\1ind is perishable," says Kapila, "but
perishable," says Kapila,
"but not
not
Spirit";&:: self, bound up with matter and body, is
83

Spirit"; only
only the
the individual
individual self, bound up with matter and body, is

born,
born, dies,
dies, and is is born
born again,
again, in
in that
that tireless
tireless fluctuation
fluctuation of
of physical
physical
fonns
forms
83
which constitutes
constitutes the the history
history of of the
the external
external world.
world. Kapila,
88
capable of
Kapila, capable of
doubting
doubting everything
everything else, else, never
never doubts
doubts transmigration.
transmigration.
most Hindu thinkers,
Like most thinkers, he
he looks
looks upon
upon life
life as
as aa very
very doubtful
doubtful good,
good,
if
if aa good
good at
at all. "Fe'v
all. "Few are
are these
these days
days of
of joy,
joy,
few
few are
are these
these days
days of
of sorro\\';
sorrow;
wealth isis like
like a a swollen
swollen river,
river, youth
youth is is like
like the
the crumbling
crumbling bank bank of of aa
life is like a is the
swollen river,
river, life crumbling bank."'"
is like a tree
tree on on the
the crumbling bank."* Suffering
Suffering is the
result
result ofof the
the fact
fact that
that the individual self
the individual self and mind are
and mind are bound
bound up \virh
with nltt-
mat-
up
ter,
ter, caught
caught in in tbethe blind
blind forces
forces of evolution. "'That
of evolution. What escape is there
is there fronl
from
escape
this
this suffering? Only through philosophy, a1lS\vers
suffering? Only through philosophy, answers our
our philosopher;
philosopher; only
only
through understanding
through understanding that that allall these pains and
these pains and griefs,
griefs,
all this division
all this division and and
turbulence of
turbulence of striving egos,
striving egos, arc
are Jllaya, illusion,
Maya, illusion, the
the insubstantial
insubstantial pageantry
pageantry
of life
of life and
and time.
time. "Bondage
"Bondage arisesarises from
from thethe error
error ofof not
not discriminating"*
discriminating""'-
between the
between rhe self
self that
that suffers
suffers and and thethe Spirit
Spirit that immune, between
that is immune,
is bec,vcen the the
surface that is disturbed and the
surface that is disturbed and the basis
basis that
that remains
remains unvexcd
unvexcd and and unchanged.
unchanged.
rise above
To rise these sufferings
abo\'c these only necessary
sufferings itit isis only necc..c;sary to realize that
to realize that the es-
the es-
sence of
sence of us, which isis Spirit,
l1S, which Spirit. isis safe
safe beyond
beyond good good and and evil, joy and
evil, joy pain.
and pain,
birth and
birth and death*
death. These
These acts
acts andand struggles,
struggles, these succe~~es and
these successes defeats,
and defeats,
distress only
\15
distress us only soso long
long as
as we fail to
\VC fail to see
see that
that they
they dodo not
not affect,
affect, or or come
come
from, the
from, the Spirit;
Spirit; the
the enlightened
enlightened man man willwill look
look upon
upon them
them as as from
from out-
out-
side them,
side them, like
like anan impartial
impartial spectator
spectator witnessing
witnessing aa play.play. Let Let the soul
the soul
recognize its
recognize independence of
its independence of things,
things, andand itit will
will at
at once
once be be free;
free; byby that
that
very
very act
act of
of understanding
understanding it will
will
it escape
escape from
from the
the prison
prison
of
of space
space
and
and tinlC,
time,
of pain
of pain and
and reincarnation*
reincarnation." "Liberation
"Liberation obtained
obtained through kno\"ledgc of
through knowledge of
the twenty-live Realities,"
the twenty-five Kapila, "teaches
says Kapila,
Realities," says C£teachcs the
the one only knowledge
one only kno\vledge
-that neither
-that neither II am, nor isis aught
am, nor aught mine,
mine, nor nor do exist;~· that
do II exist;"* that isis to say,
to say,
personal separateness
personal scparateness is
is an
an illusion;
illusion; all
all tl'At
that exists
exists is the
the
is va.~t
vase e,'olving
evolving and
and
dissolving froth of matter and
dissolving froth of matter and mind,
mind. of of bodies
bodies and sclve.~ on
and selves, the one
OR the side.
one side*
and on
and on the
the other
other the
the quiet
quiet eternity
eternity of of the immutAble and
the immutable and imperturbable
imperturbable
soul.
soul
 CHAP. XIX)
CHAP. XIX) THE LIFE
LIFE OF THE MIND
OF THE 54 1
54*

Such philosophy will

Such aa philosophy will bring
bring no no comfort
comfort to to one
one who may may findfind some
some
difficulty in separating himself from
difficulty in separating himself from his aching
his aching flesh
flesh and
and his
his grieving
grieving
memory;
memory; but
but it
it seems
seems to
to have
have well
well expressed
expressed
the
the mood
mood of
of speculative
speculative
India. No other
India. other body
body of of philosophic
philosophic thought,
thought, barring
barring the Vedanta, has
the Vedanta, has
· so
so profoundly
profoundly affected
affected thethe Hindu
Hindu mind.mind. In In the
the atheism
atheism andand epistemo-
epistemo-
logical
logical
idealism
idealism of
of Buddha,
Buddha, and
and his
his conception
conception
of
of Nirvana,
Nirvana, we see the
see the
influence of
influence of Kapila;
Kapila; we see in the
see itit in the Mahabharata
Mllhabbarlltll and
and the
the Code
Code of of Manu,
Manu,
in the
in Puranas- and
the Puranas* and the
the Tantras
TantrflS- which which transform Purusba and
mnsfonn Punisha and Prakriti
Prakriti
~jto the
. into the male
male 'and female principles
and female principles of of creation;* above all
creation;M above all 'in the system
in the system
of Yoga, which
of Yoga, which is merely
merely aa practical
is practical development
development of of Sankhya, built upon
Stmkhyll, built upon
its theories and couched
its theories and couched in its in its phrases. Kapila
phrases. Kapila
has
has few
few explicit
explicit
adherents
adherents
today,
today,
since
since Shankara
Shankara and
and the
the Vedrmttl
Vedanta have
have captured the Hindu mind;
captured the Hindu mind;
but
but an
an old
old proverb
proverb
still
still raises
raises its
its voice
voice occasionally
occasionally in
in India:
India: "There isis no
"There no
knowledge equal
knowledge equal to
to the Smkbyll, and
the Sankhya, and nono power
power equal
equal to the Yoga."·
to the Yoga."*

4. The
4. The Yoga Syftem
Yoga System
The Men-The antiquity
Holy Men-The
The Holy antiquity Of
of "foga"-Its meaning-The
"Yoga"-lts meanmg-The
eight stages of discipline-The aim
eight stages of discipline-The
aim of
of "Yogll"-Tbe
"Yoga"-The
miracles of
mracles of the
the "Yogr'-Tbe
"Yog?'~The sincerity of "Yoga"
sincerity of "Yoga"
In
In aa fair,
fair, still
still spot
spot
Having fixed his
fixed his abode-not
abode-not too too much raised,
raised,
Having
Nor yet
Nor yet tootoo low-let
low let him
him abide,
abide, his
his goods
goods
A cloth,
cloth, aa deerskin,
deerskin, and the Kusba-grass.
and the Kus/w-grass.
There,
There, setting
setting
hard
hard hishis mind upon the
mind upon the One,
One,
Restraining
Restraining
heart
heart andand senses,
senses, silent,
silent, calm,
calm,
Let
Let him
him accomplish
accomplish Yoga,
Yoga, andand achieve
achieve
Pureness
Pureness of
of soul, holding
soul, holding immovable
immovable
Body and
and neck
neck and
and head, his gaze
head, his gaze absorbed
absorbed
Body
Upon
Upon hishis nose-end,
nose-end, rapt rapt from all around,
from all around,
Tranquil
Tranquil
in
in spirit,
spirit,
free
free of
of fear,
fear, intent
intent

Upon
Upon his
his Brlihmachllfya
Brahmacharya vow,
vow, devout,
devout,
Musing on Me, lost in the the thought
thought of of ~e.
Me.t t
Musing on Me, lost in

On
On the
the bathing-ghats,
bathing-ghats,
sca~ered
scattered he~e
here an~
and there
there among reverent ~d~
among reverent Hindus,
indifferent
indifferent Moslems
Moslems and
and stanng
staring tourists,
sit the Holy Me~,
tounsts, SIt the Holy Men, or Y
or ogu, In
Yogis, in

•* Cf.
Cf. the
the poem
poem quoted
quoted on
on page 512 above.
page 512
above.
ttThe
The BbagtlUlUl-Gita, translated by Sir Edwin
BJbgww*-Gitt, translated by Sir
Edwin Amol?
Arnold asas The Song Celest~,
The Song Celestud, London,
19 15, bk.
bk. v~ p. 35.'
vi, p. 35-
Brab'nucflria
Brabmacvria is
is the
the vow
vow of
of chastity
chastity taken ~y
taken by the
the ascetic
ascetic stUdent.
student.
19*5,
"Me" is
"Me" is Krishna.
Krishna,
541
54* THE SSTORY CIVILIZATION
TOR Y OF eI V IL I ZA T ION (CHAP. XIX
(CHAP.XIX

whom the the religion

religion and and philosophy
philosophy of of India
India find
find their
their ultimate
ultimate and and strang-
strang-
est
est expression. In
expression. In lesser
lesser numbers
numbers one
one comes
comes upon
upon them
them in
in the
the woods
woods or on
or on
the
the roadside,
roadside, immovable
immovable and
and absorbed.
absorbed. Some
Some are
are old,
old, some
some are
are young;
young;
some wear
wear a a rag
rag over
over the
the shoulders,
shoulders, some
some a
a cloth
cloth over
over the
the loins;
loins; some
some are
are
clothed
clothed only
only in
in dust
dust of
of ashes, sprinkled over the
ashes, sprinkled over the body and into body and into the
the mottled
mottled
hair. They squat cross-legged and
hair. and motionless, staring at
at their
their noses
noses or
or
They squat cross-legged motionless, staring
their
their navels.
navels. Some of them look squarely into
Some of them look squarely into the face of the sun hour the face of the sun hour
after hour, day
after hour,
day after
after day, letting themselves
day, letting themselves go go slo\vly
slowly blind;
blind; some some sur-sur-
round
round themselves
themselves with with hot
hot fires
fires during the midday heat;
during the midday heat; some walk bare- some walk bare-
foot
foot upon
upon hot
hot coals,
coals, or
or empty
empty the
the coals
coals upon
upon their
their heads;
heads; somesome lie lie naked
naked
for thirty-five
for thirty-five yearsyears on on beds
beds of of iron
iron spikes;
spikes;
some
some roll roll their
their bodies
bodies thousands
thousands
of
of miles
miles toto a a place of
place of pilgrimage;
pilgrimage;
some
some chain
chain themselves
themselves to
to trees,
trees, or or im-
im-
prison
prison themselves
themselves in in cages, until they die; some bury themselves in the
cages, until they die; some bury themselves in the
earth
earth upup to
to their
their necks,
necks, and
and remain
remain that way
that way for for years
years or or forfor life;
life; some
some
pass
pass a a wire
wire through
through both cheeks, making
both cheeks, making it it impossible to
impossible to open open the jaws,
the jaws,
and
and soso condemning
condemning themselves
themselves to
to live
live on
on liquids;
liquids;
some
some keep
keep their
their fists
fists

clenched
clenched so so long
long thatthat their
their nails
nails come
come through
through the the back
back of of the
the hand;
hand; somesome
hold
hold up an
an ann
arm or
or a
a leg until
until it is
it is withered
withered and
and dead.
dead. Many of
of tllem
them sic
up leg Many sit

quietly
quietly in in one
one position,
position, perhaps
perhaps for for years,
years, eating
eating leaves
leaves and and nutsnuts brought
brought
to them by
to them by the
the people, deliberately dulling
people, deliberately dulling every sense, every sense, and
and concentrating
concentrating
every thought; in
every thought, in thethe resolve
resolve to understand. Most
to understand. Most of them avoid
of them avoid spec-
spec-
tacular methods,
tacular methods, and and pursue
pursue truth
truth in
in the
the quiet
quiet
retreat
retreat of
of their
their homes.
homes.
We havehave had had suchsuch men men in in our Middle Ages,
our Middle Ages, but but we should should have have to to
look for them
look for them today today in
in the
the nooks
nooks and
and crannies
crannies of
of Europe
Europe and
and America.
America,
India has
India has had
had themthem for for 1 soo years-possibly
2500 years-possibly from
from prehistoric days
the prehistoric
the days
when, perhaps,
when, perhaps, they they were the
were the shawms of savage
sl'fJ!}nlffls of tribes. The system
savage tribes. system of of
ascetic meditation
ascetic meditation known kno\\'n as as Yoga existed in
Yoga existed in the
the time
time of of thethe Vedas;tO
Vedas* the the
Upanishads
Upanishads and and the the Mahabbfl1llta
Mahabharata accepted accepted it; it; it flourished in
it flourished in the age
the age ofof
Buddha;t1
Buddha;* and
and even
even Alexander,
Alexander, attracted
attracted by
by the
the ability
ability
of
of these
these "gymno-
"gynrno-
sophists"
sophists" to
to bear
bear pain silently,
pain silently, stopped stopped to
to study
study them,
them, and
and invited
invited one of
one of
their number
their number to to come
come and and livelive with
with him. The Yogi
him. The Yogi refused
refused as
as firmly
firmly as as
Diogenes, saying
Diogenes, saying that that he he wanted
\vanted nothing
nothing from Ale..'1Cander, being
from Alexander, being content
content
with the
with the nothing
nothing that that he he had.
had. His His fellow
fellow ascetics
ascetics laughed
laughed at at the l\{ace-
the Mace-
donian's boyish desire
danian's boyish desire to to conquer
conquer the the earth
earth when,
when, as as they
they told
told him, only aa
him, only
few
few feet of it sufficed
feet of it for any
sufficed for any man,
man, alive
alive or
or dead.
dead. Another
Another sage,
sage, Calanus
Calanus
(326 B.C),
(326 accompanied Alexander
B.C.), accompanied Alexander to
to Persia;
Persia; growing
growing ill there,
ill there, he
he asked
asked
permission to
permission to die, saying that
die, saying he preferred
that he preferred death
death to illness; and
to illness; calmly
and calmly
FIG.
FIG. p-Facade of
S2-Fafade of the
the GIlUtami-PUt1'1l Monastery lit
Gautami^Putra Monastery NlUik
at Nasik
India
India 0iIice,
Office, London
London

FIG.
FIG. S3-Chaitya ball interior,
ft-Chaitya ball Ajanta
XXVI, Ajonta
Cwe XXVI,
interior, CIIlJI
 Fia54-Interior
FIG. ^Interiorofofd01'lze
domeof ofthe
the Tejahpala Templeat&t J1tt.
TejahpdtTerJ/ple hit.A/Jrl
Abu
Johnston
Johnston && Hoffman,
Hoffman,Calcutta
Calcutta
 55-Temple of Vmak
FIG. ^-Temple of
FIG. Vimala Sah
Sab atat Mt.
Mt. Abu
Abu
Underwood &It Underwood
Underwood Underwood
FIG. 56-Cave
FIG. 5<5-Oy* XIX,X/X, AjantlZ
A jmta
Indian State Railways
Indian State Railways
.CHAP.XIX)
.CHAP.XIX) THE LIFE OF THE MIND 543
543

mounting
mounting a funeral pyre, he
a funeral
pyre, he allowed
allowed himself
himself to to bebe burned
burned to to death
death with-
with-
out
out uttering
uttering a
a sound-to
sound-to the
the astonishment
astonishment of
of the
the Greeks,
Greeks, who had
had never
never
se~n this u1U11urderous
seen this unmurderous sort of bravery
sort of
bravery before.·
before." Two centuries later
centuries later (ca.
(ca.
15 0
150 B.C.),
B.C.), Patanjali brought
Patanjali brought the
the practices
practices
and
and traditions
traditions of
of the
the system
system to-
to-
gether in his famous
gether in his famous Yoga-sut1llS,
Yoga-sutras, which which are are still
still used
used as as a text in
a text in Yoga
Yoga
centers
centers from Benares Benares to to Los
Los Angeles.-
Angeles." Yuan
Yuan Chwang,
Chwang, in
in the
the seventh
seventh cen-
cen-
tury A.D., described
tury A.D., described the the system
system as as having thousands
having thousands of of devotees;"
devotees;" Marco Marco
Polo,
Polo, about
about 1296, gave
1296, gave a
a vivid
vivid description
description
of
of it;1lIS today,
it;* today, after
after all
all these
these
centuries,
centuries, its its more extreme followers, numbering
extreme followers,
numbering from from one one to three mil-
to three mil-
lion in
lion in India,· still torture
India," still torture themselves
themselves to to find
find the
the peace of
of understanding.
peace understanding.
touching phenomena in
It is
It is one
one of of the most impressive
the most and
and touching phenomena in the
the history
impressive history
of
of man. ^
,."
What is is Yoga?
Yoga? Literally,
Literally, a a yoke:
yoke: notnot soso much a a yoking
yoking or union of
or union of the
the
soul with the
soul with the Supreme Being,"
Supreme Being," as
as the
the yoke
yoke of
of ascetic
ascetic discipline
discipline
and
and absti-
absti-

nence
nence which
which the the aspirant puts
aspirant puts upon upon himself
himself in
in order
order to
to cleanse
cleanse his his spirit of
spirit
of
te
all
all material
material limitations,
limitations, and
and achieve
achieve supernatural intelligence
supernatural intelligence and
and powers.
powers."
Matter is
Matter is the root of
the root of ignorance
ignorance and and suffering; therefore Yoga seeks to free
suffering; therefore Yoga seeks to
free
the
the soul
soul from
from all all sense
sense phenomena
phenomena and
and all
all bodily attachment;
bodily attachment; it
it is
is an
an attempt
attempt
to attain
to attain supreme enlightenment
supreme enlightenment and
and salvation
salvation in
in one
one life
life by' atoning in
by atoning in
1I
one
one existence
existence for for all
all the
the sins
sins ofof the
the soul's
soul's past incarnations.
past incarnations."
Such
Such enlightenment
enlightenment cannot
cannot be
be won at
at aa stroke;
stroke; the the aspirant
aspirant must must move
towards it step
towards it step by step,by step, and
and no
no stage
stage of
of the
the process
process can
can be
be understood
understood by
by
anyone
anyone who
who has
has not
not passed through
passed through
the
the stages
stages before
before it;
it; one
one comes
comes to
to
Yoga only
Yoga only by longby long and
and patient smdy
patient study and
and self-discipline.
self-discipline. The stages
stages of
of
Yoga
Yoga are
are eight:
eight:

I. Yama,
I. Yama, or or the
the death
death of desire; here
of desire; here thethe soul accepts the
soul accepts the restraints
restraints ofof
ahrmsfl and
ahmsa and Brahmacharia, abandons all
Brabmacharia, abandons all self-seeking,
self-seeking, emancipates
emancipates itselfitself from all
from all
material interests
material interests and
and pursuits,
pursuits, andand wishes
wishes wellwell to all things.
to all things." 100

II. Niyama,
II. Niytrma, aa faithful
faithful observance
observance of of certain preliminary rules
certain preliminary rules for for Yoga:
Yoga:
cleanliness, content,
cleanliness, pwification, study,
content, purification, study, and
and piety.
piety. .
Asma, posture;
III. Astma,
III. posture; thethe aim here isis to
aim here to still all movement
still all movement as as well
well as a.ll
as all
sensation; the best asllflll
sensation; the best asana for for this
this purpose
purpose is
is to
to place
place the
the right
right foot
foot upon
upon the
the
left thigh
left thigh andand the
the left
left foot
foot upon
upon the
the right
right thigh,
thigh, to to cross
cross thethe hands
hands andand
grasp
grasp
the
the two
two great
great
toes,
toes, to
to bend
bend the
the chin
chin upon
upon the
tie chest,
chest, and
and direct
direct the
the eyes
eyes
to the
to tip of
the tip of the
the nose.*
nose.* 1

IV. ?ranayma>
IV. Pranaytmlfl, or or regulation
regulation of of the
the breath:
breath: by by these
these exercises
exercises one may
one may
forget everything
forget everything
but
but breathing,
breathing,
and
and in
in this
this way
way clear
clear his
his mind
mind for
for the
the pas-
pas-
S44
544 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XIX

sive
sive emptiness that
emptiness
that must
must precede absorption; at the
precede absorption; at
the same time one
same time one may learn may learn
to live
to live on
on a minimum of
a minimum of air,
air, and
and may let
let may
himself,
himself, with
with impunity,
impunity, be
be buried
buried
in the earth
in the for many
earth for days.
many days.
v. Pratyahara,
V, Pratyabara, abstraction;
abstraction; now the mind controls
the mind controls all the senses,
all the senses, and
and with-
with-
draws
draws itself
itself from
from all
all sense
sense objects.
objects.
VI. DbllTtr1l11,
VL Dharana, or or concentration-the
concentration the identification
identification or or filling
filling
of
of the
the mind
and the senses with
and the senses with one idea one idea or
or object
object to to the
the exclusion
exclusion of
of everything
everything else.-else.*

The fixation
fixation ofof anyone
any one objectobject long enough ,vill
long enough will free the soul
free the soul of all sensa-
of all sensa-
tion, all
tion, all specific thought, and
specific thought,
and all
all selfish
selfish desire;
desire; then
then the
the mind,
mind, abstracted
abstracted from
from
things,
things,
will
will be
be left
left free
free to
to feel
feel the
the immaterial
immaterial essence
essence of
of reality.t
reality .t

VII. DhYIl1lQ,
VII. Dhyana, or or meditation:
meditation: this this is
is an
an almost hypnotic condition,
almost hypnotic condition, resulting
resulting
from Dbarl1J2a; itit may
from Dharana; may be be produced, says Patanjali,
produced, says Patanjaii, by by the
the persistent
persistent
repeti-
repeti-
tion of
tion of the sacred syllable
the sacred syllable
01n.
Om. Finally,
Finally,
as
as the
the sunlmit
summit of
of Yoga,
Yoga, the
the ascetic
ascetic
arrives
arrives atat

VIII. SamadlJi,
VIIL Samadhi, or or trance
trance contemplation; even the last thought no,v now dis-
contemplation; even the last thought
dis-

appears
appears from the the mind;
mind; empty,
empty, the mind loses
the mind loses consciousness
consciousness of of itself
itself as
as a a
separate it is
is merged ,vith and achieves a blissful and god-
being;" it
separate being;- totality,
8

merged with totality,

and achieves a blissful and god-
like
like comprehension of
comprehension of all all things in One. words can describe this condi-
things in One. No words can describe this condi-
tion to
tion to the
the uninitiate;
uninitiate; no no intellect
intellect or or reasoning
reasoning can can find
find or or formulate
formulate it; it;

"through
"through Yoga Yoga must
must Yoga
Yoga be
be kno\vn."SCK
known."
104

Nevertheless
Nevertheless it is
it is not
not God,
God, or union with
or union with God,
God, that that the yogi seeks;
the yogi seeks;
in the Yoga
in the philosophy God (Ish\'ara)
Yoga philosophy (Ishvara) is not the
is not the creator
creator or or preserver
preserver of
of
the universe,
the universe, oror the
the rewarder
rewarder and punisher of
and punisher men, but
of men, merely Olle
but merely one of
of
several
several objects
objects on
on which
which thethe soul
soul may
may meditate
meditate as as a means of
a means of achieving
achieving con-
con-
centration and enlightenment.
centration and enlightenment. The aim, aim, frankly,
frankly,
is that dissociation
is that dissociation of
of
the mind
the mind from
from the
the body,
body, that
that removal
removal of
of all material
all material obstruction
obstruction from
from the
the
spirit, which in Yoga
spirit,
which brings with
brings with it, in Yoga theory,
it, theory, supernatural understanding and
supernatural understanding and
capacity.lOG
capacity."
If8
the
If the soul
soul is
is cleansed
cleansed of
of all
all bodily subjection and
bodily subjection and involvement
involvement
it will not
it will be united
not be united ,vith Bral",,1t1n, itit will
with 'Bnhmm^ will be B'·"'31Jl011; for
be Brabwm; Brah111an isis
for Brahman
precisely
precisely that
that hidden
hidden spiritual
spiritual
base,
base, that
that selfless
selfless andand immaterial
immaterial soul,
soul,

•4 Cf. Hobbes: SmJiJlr

Cf. Hobbes: Semper idemjdlflz sentire idem en
senti" ide11Z est .e nihil snJtwe:
ac nilJil scntirc: "a1\VlYs
"always to to feel
fed the
the same
same
thing is
tiling the same
is the same as to feel
as to feel nothing."
19
nothing.
tt Eliot
Eliot compares,
compares, for for the illumination of
the illumination this stage,
of this a passage from Schopcnhaucf ob\ti-
stage, a passage from Schopenhauer,t obvi-
.ously inspired
ously inspired by by his
his study
study of
of Hindu
Hindu philosophy:
philosophy: "When some
some sudden
sudden cause
cause or
or inward
inward
disposition
disposition lifts us out
lifts us out ofof the
die endless
endless stream
stream of of willing, attention is
the attention
willing, the no longer
is no
longer directed
directed
to the
to the motives
motives of of willing,
willing, but
but comprehends things free
comprehends things free from their relation
from their relation to the will,
to the will, and
and
thus observes
thus observes themthem without
without subjectivity, purely objectively,
subjectivity, purely objectively, gives gives itself
itself entirely up
entirely up
to
to
them so
them so far
far as they are
as they are ideas, but not
ideas, but not in
in so
so far
far as
as they
they arcnre motives.
motives. Then
Then all all ~t
at once
once the
the
peace that
peace that we werewere always
always seeking,
seeking, but which al\\"nYs
but \vhich fled fronl
always fled from usus on the fOmlCl'
on the former path
path ofof
the desires,
the desires, comes to to us of its
us of its own accord,
accord, and
and itit is well with
is well with us.''ICII
1
us."
**
CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XK) THE LIFE
LIFE OF THE MIND
OF THE MrND 545
545
which remains
which remains when all sense
when all sense attachments
attachments havehave been
been exercised away. To
exercised away.
the extent
the extent to
to which the soul can free itself from its physical
which the soul can free itself from its physical environment
and prison
and prison it becomes Brahman,
it becomes Brahman, and and exercises Brabman's intelligence
exercises Brahman's intelligence and
power.
power. Here
Here the
the magical
magical basis
basis of
of religion reappears, and
religion reappears, and almost
almost threatens
threatens
the essence
the essence of religion itself
of religion itself-the worship of
the worship of powers superior to
powers superior to man.
In the
In the days
days of of the Upanishads, Yoga
the Upanishads, Yoga was was pure
pure mysticism
mysticism-an attempt to
an attempt to
realize the
realize the identity
identity of of the
the soul with God.
soul with God. In In Hindu
Hindu legend
legend it is said
it is said that
that
in ancient
in days seven
ancient days seven Wise
Wise Men,
Men, or RUbis, acquired,
or Rishis, acquired, by by penance
penance and medi-
tation, complete
tation, complete knowledge
knowledge of of all things.2OI In
all things."8
In the
the later history of
later history of India
India
Y ogll became
Yoga became corrupted
corrupted with magic, and
with magic, and thought
thought moremore of the power
of the power of of
miracles than
miracles than of of the
the peace
peace of of understanding.
understanding. The Yogi Y ogi trusts that by
trUStS that by
Y ogll he
Yoga will be
he will able to
be able to anesthetize
anesthetize and and control
control any any part
part of his body
of his body by by
concentrating upon
concentrating upon it; it;-
307
he
he will
will be
be able
able at
at will
will to
to make
make himself
himself invisible,
invisible, or
or
to prevent
to prevent hishis body
body fromfrom being
being moved,
move'd, or or to pass in
to pass in aa moment
moment from any any
part
part
of
of the
the earth,
earth, or
or to
to live
live as
as long
long as
as he
he desires,
desires, or
or to
to know
know the
the past
past and
the future,.
the future,, and
and the
the most distant
most distant stars. stars.-
108

The
The 'sceptic must
must admit
admit that there is
that there is nothing imp<>$ible in
nothing impossible in all all this;
this; fools
fools
sceptic
can invent
can invent more
more hypotheses
hypotheses
than
than philosophers
philosophers
can
can ever
ever refute,
refute, and philoso-
philoso-
phers
phers
often
often join
join
them
them in
in the
the game. Ecstasy
game. Ecstasy and
and hallucinations
hallucinations can be pro-
be pro-
duced
duced by fasting
by fasting and
and self-mortification,
self-mortification, concentration
concentration may
may make one
locally or generally insensitive
insensitive to to pain; and there is
and there telling what re-
no telling
is no what re-
locally or generally pain;
serve
serve energies and abilities lurk
energies and abilities
lurk within
within the the unknown mind. mind. Many
Many of the
Yogis, however, are mere beggars who go though their penances in the
go though their penances in
Yogis, however, are mere beggars
supposedly Occidental hope of of gold,
gold, or or in
in the
the simple
simple human hunger hunger for
supposedly Occidental hope
notice and applause.-
notice and applause.* Asceticism
Asceticism is
is the
the reciprocal
reciprocal
of
of sensuality,
sensuality, or at best
at
an
an attempt to control it; but but the attempt itself
the attempt itself verges upon a masochistic
masochistic
attempt to control it; verges upon
sensuality in
in which
which the
the ascetic
ascetic takes
takes an an almost
almost erotic
erotic delight in
in his pain.
his pain.
sensuality delight
The
The Brahmans
Brahmans have have wisely
wisely abstained
abstained from from suchsuch practices,
practices,
and
and have coun-
have coun-
seled their
seled their followers
followers to to seek
seek sanctity
sanctity through
through the the conscientious
conscientious perform-
perform-
ance of the normal duties
ance of the normal duties of of life.:D8
life."

5.
5. The Purva-Mimansa
Puwa-Mmansa
To step
To from Yoga
from the Purva-Mimllnsa
Pwva-Mimansa is to pass
Yoga to
to the is to
pass from the most re-
most re-
step
nowned to the
nowned to the least known and
least mown and least important of the six systems
least important of the six
systems of Brah-
of Brah-

manical philosophy.
manical And as Yoga
And as Yoga is magic and m~cism
is magic and
mysticism rather
rather than phil-
than phil-
philosophy.

• The
The blunt Dubois descnoes
blunt Dubois describes them
them as
as "a
"a tribe
tribe of
of vagabonds.'"
vagabonds. The word fakir, so~e­
word fakir, some-
times applied to Yogis, is an Arab term, originally meaning
times applied to Yo&s, is an Arab term, originally meaning "poor,""poor," and properly
properly applied
applied
cmlr to . ~ of Mosl~ ,rdigious orders
only to .members of Moslem religious
orders vowed to to poverty.
poverty.
546
546 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP, XIX

osophy, SO this system is less philosophy than religion; it

osophy, so this system is less philosophy than religion;
it is
is an
an orthodox
orthodox re- re-
action
action against
against
the
the impious
impious
doctrines
doctrines of of the philosophers.
the philosophers. Its
Its author, Jaimini,
author, Jaimini,
protested against the disposition of
protested against the disposition
of Kapila and Kanada
Kapila and Kanada to to ignore,
ignore, while
while
acknowledging, the Vedas.
Vedas. The human mind, said Jaimini,
acknowledging, the the authority
authority ofof the mind, said Jaimini,
is too frail
is too an instrument
frail an instrument to to solve
solve the problems of
the problems metaphysics and the-
of metaphysics the-
ology;
ology; reason
reason is
is a
a wanton
wanton who will
will serve
serve any
any desire;
desire; it gives us
it gives us not
not "science"
"science"
and
and "truth,"
"truth," butbut merely
merely our
our own rationalized
rationalized sensuality
sensuality and and pride.
pride.
The
road to
road wisdom and
to wisdom and peace
peace lies
lies not
not through
through the
the vain
vain labyrinths
labyrinths of
of logic, but
logic, but
in the modest
in the modest acceptance
acceptance
of
of tradition
tradition and
and the
the humble
humble performance
performance of
of the
the
rituals prescribed in
rituals prescribed in the
the Scriptures. For ,this, too, there
Scriptures. For this, too,
there is
is something to
something to be be
said: cela
said: vous Ilb8tira.
cela VO'IJ,S abStira.

6. The Vedllnta
6. Vedanta System
System '.
Origin
Origin - Shanklll'fl
Shankara - Logic
Logic - Epistemology "Ma'J.~' - Psy-
Epistemology - "May/? Psy- 9

cbology-Tbeology-God-Ethics-Difficulties
chology Theology God Ethics Difficulties of of the
the
system-Death
system Death of
of Shankarfl
Shankara

word Vedtmta
The word Vedanta meant
meant originally
originally the
the end
end of
of the Vedas that is, the
the Vedas-that the is,

Upanishads. Today
Upanishads. Today India
India applies it to that system of philosophy
applies it to that system of philosophy
which
which
sought
sought to to give
give logical
logical
structure
structure and and support
support to to the
the essential
essential doctrine
doctrine of of the
the
Uptmishads-the
Upanishads ti& organ-point
organ-point that
that sounds
sounds throughout
throughout Indian
Indian thought-that
thought-that
God (Brahman)
(Brahman) and and the soul (Atmtm)
the soul (Atman) are are one.
one. The oldest
oldest 1m.own
known formform
of this most
of this widely accepted
most widely accepted of
of all Hindu
all Hindu philosophies
philosophies is the
is the Brabma-sutra
Brahma-sutra
of Badarayana
of Badarayana (ca.
(ca. 200 B,C:)-SSS
B.C.) 555 aphorisms,
aphorisms, of which the
of which the first
first announces
announces
the purpose
the purpose of all: "Now,
of all:
c<
then,
Now, then, a
a desire
desire to
to know Brahman."
Brahman" Almost
Almost a a
thousand years later
thousand years Gaudapada wrote a
later Gaudapada wrote a commentary
commentary on these m:tras,
on these sutras, and
and
taught
taught the
the esoteric
esoteric doctrine
doctrine of
of the
the system
system to
to Govinda,
Govinda, who taught
taught it
it to
to
Shankara,
Shankara, who composed
composed the the most
most famous
famous of of VedltfJ,ta
Vedanta commentaries,
commentaries, and and
made himself
made himself the
the greatest
greatest of
of Indian
Indian philosophers.
philosophers.
In
In his short life
his short life of
thirty-two years
of thirty-two years Shankara achieved that
Shankara achieved that union
union ofof
sage
sage and
and saint,
saint, of
of wisdom
wisdom and and kindliness, which characterizes
kindliness, which characterizes the the loftiest.
loftiest

type
type of
of man produced
produced in
in India.
India. Born
Born among
among the
the studious
studious Nambudri
Nambudri
Brahmans
Brahmans of Malabar, he
of Malabar, he rejected
rejected the
the luxuries
luxuries of the world,
of the world, and and while
while
still
still aa youth became aa sII1J,'fJ,yan,
youth became worshiping unpretentiously
sonny asi, worshiping unpretentiously the
the gods
gods ofof
the Hindu pantheon,
the pantheon, and and yetyet mystically absorbed in
mystically absorbed in a vision of
a vision an all-
of an all-

embracing
embracing Brahman.
Brahman. It
It seemed
seemed to
to him
him that
that the
the profoundest religion
profoundest religion and
and
profoundest philosophy
the profoundest
the
philosophy werewere those
those of the Upanishads.
of the Upanishads. He could could pardon
pardon
the polytheism
the polytheism of of the
the people,
people, but
but not
not the
the atheism
atheism of
of SankhYfl
Sankhya or
or the
the agnos-
agnos-
ticism of
ticism Buddha. Arriving
of Buddha. Arriving in
in the
the north
north as
as a
a delegate
delegate of
of the
the south,
south, hehe
CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XIX) THE LIFE OF THE MIND
LIFE OF 547
547

such popularity
won such popularity at
at the
the University
University of
of Benares
Benares that
that itit crowned
crowned him
him
with its
with its highest
highest honors,
honors, and
and sent
sent him
him forth, with aa retinue
forth, with retinue of
of disciples,
disciples, to
to
champion Brahmanism
champion in all
Brahmanism in all the
the debating
debating halls
halls of India. At
of India. At Benares,
Benares, prob-
prob-
ably, he
ably, he wrote his famous
wrote his famous commentaries
commentaries on on the Upanishads and
the Upanishads and the
the
Bhagavad-Gita,
Bhagavad-Gita, in in which
which he
he attacked
attacked with
with theological
theological ardor
ardor and
and scholastic
scholastic
subtlety all the heretics of India, and restored Brahmanism to that position
subtlety all the heretics of India, and restored Brahmanism to that position
of intellectual
of intelleetualleadership from which Buddha and Kapila had
leadership from which Buddha and Kapila
had deposed
deposed it.
it.

There
There is much
ismuch metaphysical
metaphysical wind wind in in these
these discourses,
discourses, and and arid
arid deserts
deserts
of textual
of textual exposition;
exposition; but but they
they may may bebe forgiven
forgiven in in aa man
man who at at the
the age
age
of thirty could
of thirty could be be at at once
once the the Aquinas
Aquinas and and the Kant of
the Kant of India.
India. Like Like
Aquinas, Shankara
Aquinas, Shankara acceptsaccepts the the full
full authority
authority of his country's
of his country's Scriptures
Scriptures
as aa divine
as divine revelation,
revelation, and and then
then sallies
sallies forth
forth to to find
:find proofs
proofs in in experience
experience and and
reason for all Scriptural teachings. Unlike
reason for all Scriptural teachings. Unlike Aquinas, however, Aquinas, however, he
he does
does not
not
believe that
believe reason can
that reason can suffice
suffice forfor such
such aa task;
task; on on the
the contrary
contrary he he wonders
wonders
have
have we not exaggerated
not exaggerated the
the power
power and
and role,
role, the
the clarity
clarity and
and reliability,
reliability,
of
of
reason/
1U
reason. Jaimini
31
Jaimini was was right:
right: reason
reason isis aa lawyer,
lawyer, and will prove
and will prove anything
anything
w~ wish;
we wish; forfor every
every argument
argument it
it can
can find
find an
an equal
equal and
and opposite argument,
opposite argument,
and its
and its upshot
upshot isis aa scepticism
scepticism
that
that weakens
weakens all
all force
force of
of character
character and under-
and under-
mines .all
mines values of
all values of life.
life. It It is is not
not logic that
that we need,
need, says
says Shan-
Shan-
logic
kara, itit is
is insight, the the faculty (akin to art) of of grasping
kara, insight, faculty (akin to art) grasping at once the essential
at once the essential

out
out of the irrelevant,
of the irrelevant, the the eternal
eternal out out of of thethe temporal,
temporal, the the whole
whole out out ofof
the part:
the part: this this is
is the
the first
first prerequisite
prerequisite
to
to philosophy.
philosophy. The second
second is
is a
a will-
will-

ingness
ingness
to
to observe,
observe, inquire
inquire
and
and think
think for
for understanding's
understanding's sake, sake, not
not forfor the
the
sake
sake of of invention,
invention, wealth
wealth or
or power;
power; it
it is
is a
a withdrawal
withdrawal of
of the
the spirit
spirit
from
all
all the
the excitement,
excitement, bias bias and fruits of
and fruits action. Thirdly,
of action. Thirdly, the the philosopher
philosopher
must
must acquire self-restraint, patience, and
acquire self-restraint, patience,
and tranquillity;
tranquillity; he must learn to live
he must learn to live
above
above physical temptation or or material concerns. Finally
material concerns. Finally there
there must
must bum,burn,
physical temptation
deep
deep
in
in his
his soul,
soul, the
the desire
desire for
for moksha,
moksha, for
for liberation
liberation from ignorance,
ignorance, for for
an end to all consciousness of
an end to all consciousness of a separate self,a separate self, for
for a
a blissful
blissful absorption
absorption in
in the
the
Brahman
Brahman of of complete understanding and infinite unity."* In a word,
infinite unity.11I
and In a word, the the
complete understanding
student needs not
student needs not the logic the logic of
of reason'so
reason' so much as
as a
a cleansing
cleansing and deepening
deepening
discipline
discipline
of
of the
the soul
soul This,
This, perhaps,
perhaps,
has
has been
been the
the secret
secret ofof all
all profound
profound
education.
education.
Shankara
Shankara establishes
establishes the the source
source of of his
his philosophy
philosophy at at aa remote
remote and and subde
subtle

point never quite clearly visioned visioned againagain until,

until, a a thousand years years later,
later,
point never quite clearly
Immanuel Kant wrote
Immanuel Kant wrote his Critique of his Critique of Pure
Pure ReIlS01l.
Reason. How,
How, he asks, is
asks, is

knowledge possible? Apparendy, all

knowledge possible? Apparently,
all ourour knowledge
knowledge comes from from the the
senses, and reveals
senses, and reveals not
not the
the external
external reality itself,
reality itself, but our
our sensory adapta-
sensory adapta-
548 THE STOR
THE STORYY 0OF CIVILIZATION
F CIVIL I ZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XIX
XIX

tion-perhaps
don perhaps transfonnation-of
transformation of that that reality. By sense, then, we
reality. By sense, then,
we can can ne.ver
never
quite
quite know
know the
the "real";
"real"; we
we can know it
can know it only in only in that
that garb
garb of
of space,
space, tIme
time
and
and cause which may
cause which may be be aa web created by
web created by our
our organs of sense and
organs of sense
and under-
under-
standing, designed
standing, designed or
or evolved
evolved to
to catch
catch and
and hold
hold that
that fluent
fluent and
and elusive
elusive
reality
reality whose
whose existence
existence we can sunnise, but whose
can surmise, but whose character character we can
can never
never
objectively
objectively describe;
describe; our our way way of of perceiving will forever be inextricably
perceiving will forever be inextricably
mingled
mingled with the
the thing perceived.
thing perceived.
This is
This is not the airy
not the airy subjectivism
subjectivism of of the
the solipsist who thinks
thinks thatthat he he can
can
solipsist
destroy
destroy the world by
the world it isis Maya-
by going
going to to sleep.
sleep.
The worldworld exists,
exists, butbut it Maya-
not
no* delusion,
delusion, but but phenomenon,
phenomenon, an
an appearance
appearance created
created partly by
partly by our
our
thought.
thought. Our incapacity
incapacity to
to perceive things except through
perceive things except through the film of space the film of space
and time,
time, or change, is
or to
to think
think of of them
them except
except in in terms
terms of of cause
cause and and change, is an
an
innate
innate limitation,
limitation, an an Avidya,
Avidya, or
or ignorance,
ignorance, which
which is
is bound
bound up
up with
with our
our
very
very mode of of perception,
perception, and and to to which, therefore, all
which, therefore, flesh is
all flesh heir. Maya
is heir. Maya
and AvidYIl
Avidya are are thethe subjective and
and objective sides
sides of
of the
the great illusion by
illusion
subjective objective great by
is through Maya
it is
which the through Maya and
the intellect
intellect supposes that
supposes that it it knows
knows the the real;
real; it and
A'Vidya, through
Avidya, through our our birthright
birthright of of ignorance,
ignorance, that that we see see aa multiplicity
multiplicity of
of
objects
objects and '3. a :flux
flux ofof change;
change; in in truth there is
truth there is only one
only one Being, Being, andand change
change
is
is "a mere name"
"a mere name" for for thethe superficial
superficial
fluctuations
fluctuations of
of forms.
forms. Behind
Behind the the
Maya
Maya or
or Veil
Veil of
of change
change and
and things,
things,
to
to be
be reached
reached not
not by
by sensation
sensation or
or
intellect but oilly
intellect but only by by the the insight
insight and and intuition
intuition of of the
the trained
trained spirit,
spirit,
is the
is the

one universal
one universal reality, Brahman.
reality, Brahman.
This natural
This natural obscuration
obscuration of of sense
sense andand intellect
intellect byby the the organs
organs and and forms
forms
of sensation and understanding
of sensation and understanding bars bars us us likewise
likewise fromfrom perceiving
perceiving the the oneone
unchanging
unchanging Soul
Soul that
that stands
stands beneath
beneath all
all individual
individual souls
souls and
and minds.
minds. Our
Our
separate selves,
separate selves, visible
visible to to perception
perception and and thought,
thought, are are asas unreal
unreal as as the
the
phantasmagoria of space
phantasmagoria of space and and time;
time; individual
individual differences
differences and and distinct
distinct per- per-
sonalities are
sonalities are bound
bound up up with
with bodybody and and matter,
matter, theythey belong
belong to to the
the kaleido-
kaleido-
scopic world
scopic world of of change;
change; and and these I!1erely phenomenal
these merely phenomenal selves will pass
selves will pass away
away
with the material conditions
with the material conditions of of which
which they they are are aa part.
part. But But the
the underlying
underlying
life which
life which we feel feel inin ourselves
ourselves when when we forget forget space
space and and time,
time, cause
cause and and
change,
change, is
is the
the very
very essence
essence and
and reality
reality
of
of us,
us, that
that Atmtm
Atman which
which we
we share
share
with all
with all selves
selves andand things,
things, and and which,
which, undivided
undivided and omnipresent, isis
and omnipresent,
identical with
identical Brahman, God.
with Brahman, God.:t:J8118

But what isis God?

But what God? Just Just as as there
there are are twotwo selves-the
selves-the ego ego and
and Atmm Atmtm-
and two
and two worlds
worlds-the phenomenal and
the phenomenal and the the noumenal
noumenal-so there
so there are are twotwo
deities: an Ishvarll or
deities: an Ishvora or Creator
Creator worshiped
worshiped by the people
by the people through
through the the patterns
patterns
of space,
of space, cause,
cause, time
time andand change;
change; and Brahman or
and aa 'Brahman or Pure Being worshiped
Pure Being worshiped
 CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XIX) THE LIFE OF THE ~IIXD
MIND 549
549

by
by that
that philosophical piety \vhich
philosophical piety which seeks seeks and and finds,
finds, behind
behind all all separate things
separate things
and selves,
selves, one
one universal
universal reality, unchanging amid
reality, unchanging amid all
all changes, indivisible
changes, indivisible
amid all all divisions,
divisions, eternal
eternal despite all
despite all vicissitudes
vicissitudes of
of form,
form, all
all birth
birth andand
death. Polytheism,
death. Polytheism, even even theism,
theism, belongs to the \vorld of iWaytz and Avidya;
belongs to the world of Maya and Avidya;
they
they are
are forms
forms of
of worship
worship that
that correspond to the forms of perception
correspond to the forms of perception
and thought;
thought; they they are
are as
as necessary to our moral life as space, time and
necessary to our moral life as space, time and
cause
cause are are necessary
necessary to to our
our intellectual
intellectual life, but they
life, but they have
have no no absolute
absolute
1"
validity
validity or
or objective
objective truth.
truth.
U6

To S~ Shankara the the existence

existence of of God is is no
problem, for
no problem, for hehe defines
defines God
as
as existence,
existence, and
and identifies
identifies all
all real
real being
being with
with God.
God. But
But of
of the
the existence
existence of
of aa
personal
personal God, God, creator
creator or or redeemer,
redeemer, there there may,may, he he thinks,
thinks, be be some
some ques-ques-
tion;
tion; such
such a a deity, says
deity, says this
this pre-plagiarist
pre-plagiarist
of
of Kant,
Kant, cannot
cannot be
be proved by
proved by
reason,
reason, he can only
he can only be be postulated
postulated as as aa practical necessity,UI offering peace
118

practical necessity, offering peace

to
to our
our limited
limited intellects,
intellects, and and encouragement
encouragement to to our
our fragile morality. The
fragile morality.
philosopher,
philosopher, though
though he
he may worship
may worship in
in every temple
every temple and
and bow to to every
every
. god, will pass
will beyond
pass beyond these
these forgivable fonns
forms of
of popular faith;
faith; feeling
feeling the the
god, forgivable popular
illusoriness
illusoriness of of plurality, and
and the
the monistic
monistic unity of
of all things,· he
all he will
will adore,
adore,
plurality, unity things,*
as
as the
the Supreme
Supreme Being,Being, Being
Being itself-indescribable,
itself indescribable, limitless,limitless, spaceless,
spaceless,
time-
time-
less,
less, causeless,
causeless, changeless
changeless Being, Being, the
the source
source and
and substance
substance of
of all
all reality.
reality, f
t
We may may apply
apply the the adjectives
adjectives "conscious,"
"conscious," "intelligent,"
"intelligent,"
even "happy"
even "happy" to to
Brtzhmtm,
Brahman, since
since Br,hmtm
Brahman includes
includes all
all selves,
selves, and
and these
these may
may have
have such
such qual-
qual-
ities;1U
ities; but all
113
but all other
other adjectives
adjectives would would be be applicable to Brahman equally,
applicable to Brahman equally,
all things. Essentially Brahman
since
since It includes all
It includes all qualities of of all things. Essentially Brahman is neuter,
is neuter,
qualities
raised above personality
raised above personality and
and gender, beyond
gender, beyond good good and
and evil,
evil, above
above all moral
all moral

distinctions, I:ll
distinctions, all differences
differences and and attributes,
attributes, all all desires
desires andand ends. Brahmtm
ends. Brahman
is the cause
is the cause and
and effect,
effect, the
the timeless
timeless and
and secret
secret essence,
essence, of
of the
the world.
world.
The goal
The goal of philosophy is
of philosophy is toto find that secret,
find that and to
secret, and to lose
lose thethe seeker
seeker in in

the
the secret
secret found.
found. To be
be one
one with
with God means,
means, for
for Shankara,
Shankara, to
to rise
rise above-
above
or to
or to sink
sink: beneath-the
beneath-the separateness
separateness and and brevity
brevity of of the
the self, with all
self, with all its
its
narrow purposes
narrow purposes and
and interests;
interests; to
to become
become unconscious
unconscious of
of all
all parts,
parts, divisions,
divisions,

things;
things;
to
to be
be placidly
placidly
at
at one,
one, in a
in a desireless
desireless Nirvana,
Nirvana, with
with that
that great ocean
great ocean
of Being
of Being in in which
which there
there are are no no warring
warring purposes,
purposes, no no competing
competing selves, selves, nono
• Hence
Hence the
* the name
name Atlvaita-non-dualism-often
A
Jv^w-non-dualism-often given given to
to the
the Vedanta phlldsophy. ^
Veilllnta phfldsophy.
t
Shankara and
t Shankara the Vedanta
and the are not
Vedanta are Dot quite
quite pantheistic: things considered
pantheistic: tilings considered as as distinct
distinct
from one another
from one another are
are not
not Brahman; they
Brahman; they are
are B,abmtm
Brahman oo1y
only in
in their
their essential,
essential, indivisible
indivisible

and changeless
and changeless essence
essence and reality. "Brahman,"
and reality. says Shankara,
"Brahman," says ShankaJ:at "resembles
"resembles notn~t the ~orld,
the world,
and (yet). apart from
and (yet), apart
Brabmtm there
from Brahman there isis naught; all
all that
that which
naught; ~ms to
which seems to exist outslde of
eXISt outside of
(Brahman) "cannot
It (Brahman)
It "cannot exist
exist (in such fashion)
(in such fashion) save in an
save in illusory manner,
an illusory manner, like the sem-
like die sem-
blance of
blance in the
of water in desert."211&
the desert" 0116
 550
550 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
CIVI'LIZATION (CHAP. XIX
(CHAP.XES

parts, no
parts,
no change,
change, no no space,
space, and
and no no time.*
time.· To find this blissful
find this blissful peace
peace
(A'114'1Zda)
(Afianda) a
a man must
must renounce
renounce not
not merely
merely the
the world
world but
but himself;
himself; he
he must'
must
care nothing
care nothing for for possessions
possessions or or goods, even for
goods, even for good
good oror evil;
evil; hehe must
must look
look
upon suffering
upon suffering and
and death
death as
as Maya,
Maya, surface
surface incidents
incidents of
of body
body and
and matter,
matter,
time and
time and change;
change; and and he he must
must not think of
not think his own personal
of his personal quality
quality and and
fate; aa single
fate; single moment
moment of of self-interest
self-interest or or pride
pride can
can destroy
destroy allall his
his liberation."*
liberation.:I:II
Good worksworks cannot cannot give
give aa man salvation,
salvation, for for good
good works
works have have no no validity
validity
or meaning
or meaning except except inin the Maya world
the Maya world of of space
space andand time;
time; onlyonly thethe knowl-
knowl-
edge
edge of
of the
the saintly
saintly
seer
seer can
can bring
bring that
that salvation
salvation which
which is
is the
the recognition
recognition
of the
of the identity
identity of of self
self and
and the
the universe, Atman and
universe, Atman Brahman, soul
and Brahman, soul and
and God,God,
*
and the
and the absorption
absorption of of the
the part
part inin the
the whole.
whole.1*» Only
1
Only when this this absorption
absorption
is complete
is complete does does the wheel of
the wheel of reincarnation
reincarnation stop; for then
stop; for then it it is that
seen that
is seen

the separate
the separate self self and
and personality,
personality, to to which
which reincarnation
reincarnation comes,comes, is is an
an illu-
illu-
sion.1I1* It
sion.
3
It isis Ishvara,
Isbvara, the Maya god,
the Maya that gives
god, that gives rebirth
rebirth toto the self in
the self punish-
in punish-
ment and
ment and reward;
reward; but but "when the the identity"
identity" of Atmtm and
of Atman Brahman "has
and Brahman "has
become known, then,"
become known, then," says Shankara, says Shankara, "the
"the soul's
soul's existence
existence as
as wanderer,
wanderer,
and Brahman's existence
and Brahman's existence as as creator"
creator" (i.e.,(i.e., as lsbvara) "have
as Ishvara) vanished
"have vanished
*
away.
away."
3
lshvara
nUl Ishvara and
and KaT1na,
Karma, like
like things
things and
and selves, belong
selves, belong to
to the
the exoteric
exoteric
doctrine of Vedanta
doctrine of Vedanta as adapted as adapted to
to the
the needs
needs of
of the
the common man; in
man; the
in the
esoteric
esoteric or or secret
secret doctrine
doctrine soul Brahman are
soul and Brahman are one, never wandering,
one, never wandering,
us
*
never dying,
never dying, never
never changed.
changed.
1
,
It was thoughtful
It was thoughtful of of Shankara
Shankara to to confine
confine his his esoteric
esoteric doetriD.e
doctrine to to philos-
philos-
ophers;
ophers;
for
for as Voltaire
as Voltaire believed
believed that
that only a
a society
only society of
of philosophers
philosophers t=ould fcould

survive without
survive without kws, laws, so
so only
only a
a society
society of
of supermen
supermen could
could live
live beyond
beyond
good
good and
and evil.
evil. Critics
Critics have
have complained
complained that
that if
if good and
good and evil
evil are
are Mllya,
Maya,
•* Cf.Blake:
a. Blake:
"I will go
"I will go down to to self-annihilation
self-annihilation and
and Eternal
Eternal Death.
Death.
Lest the Last
Lest the Last Judgment
Judgment come and and find
find me unannihilate,
unannihilate,
And II be
be seized
seized and
and given of my "
given into
into the hands of
the hands my own Se1fhood.'tDr
3
Selfhood."
Or Tennyson's
Tennyson's "Ancient
"Ancient Sage":
Sage":
"For more than
"For than once
once when 1
I
Sat all alone,
Sat all revolving in
alone, revolving in myself
myself
The word that is the
that is symbol of
the symbol of myself,
myself,
mortal limit
The mortal limit of the Self
of the Self was loosed,
loosed,
And'
And' passed
passed into
into the
the Nameless,
Nameless, asas a
a cloud
cloud
Melts
Melts into
into Heaven. touched my
Heaven. II touched limbs-the limbs
my limbs-the limbs
Were strange, not mine-and yet
strange, Dot yet not
not shade
shade of
of doubt
doubt
utter clearness,
But utter clearness, and through
through loss of Self
loss of Self
The gain
gain of
of such
such large
large life
life as matched with
as matched with ours
ours
Were Sun
Sun toto spark-unshadowable
spark-unshadowable in in words,
words, .
Themselves but shadows
Themselves but shadows of of a
a shadow-world.''121
shadow-world."118
CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XIX) THE LIFE
THE LIFE OF MIND
THE MIND
OF THE 55
5511

part
part ofof the
the unreal
unreal world,
world, thenthen all
all moral
moral distinctions
distinctions fall fall away, and devils
away, and devils
are as
are as good as
good as saints.
saints. ButBut these
these moral
moral distinctions,
distinctions, Shankara
Shankara cleverly re-
cleverly re-
plies,
plies, are
are real
real within
iwthm the
the world
world of
of space and time, and are binding
space and time, and are binding for those
for those
who live in
who live in the
the world.
world. They are
They are not
not binding upon the soul that has united
binding upon the soul that has united
itseH with Bra1mum;
itself with
Brahman; such
such a
a soul
soul can
can do
do no wrong,
no since wrong implies
wrong, since wrong implies
desire and action,
desire and action, andand the
the liberated
liberated soul,
by definition,
soul, by definition, does does not move in
not move in
the
the sphere
sphere of
of desire
desire and (self-considering)
(self-considering)
action.
action. Whoever consciously
Whoever consciously
injures
injures another
another lives
lives on
on the
the plane
plane ofof Maya,
Maya, andand is is subject to its distinctions,
subject to its distinctions,
its
its morals
morals and and its laws. Only the
its laws.
Only the philosopher
philosopher
is
is free,
free, only wisdom
only wisdom is is
liberty.-
liberty.*
.
It
It was a a subtle
subtle and profound philosophy to
profound philosophy to be be written
written by kd in
by aa lad in his
his
twenties.
twenties. Shankara
Shankara not not only elaborated it in
it writing and defended it
writing and defended it
only elaborated in

successfully in
successfully in debate,
debate, butbut he he expressed
expressed snatches
snatches of of itit in
in some
some of of the
the most
most
sensitive
sensitive religious poetry of
religious poetry of India.
India. When all
all challenges
challenges
had
had been
been met
met he
he
retired to a hermitage in the
retired to a hermitage in the Himalayas,
Himalayas, and, and, according
according to Hindu tradi-
to Hindu tradi-
w
tion,
tion, died
died at at the
the age
age of
of thirty_two.
thirty-two."* Ten religious
religious
orders
orders were
were founded
founded
in
in his name, and many
his name,
many disciples
disciples accepted
accepted and developed his
and developed his philosophy.
philosophy.
One of them some say
of them-some say Shankara
Shankara himself-wrote
himself-wrote for for thethe people a popular
people a popular
exposition
exposition of
of the
the Vedmta-the
Vedanta-ihc Mohfl'l1Z'lJ,(jgara,
Mohwaidgara, or
or "Hammer of
of Folly"-
Folly"
in which the
in which the essentials
essentials of of the
the system
system were
were summed up up with
with clarity and
clarity and
force:
force:

Fool! give
Fooll give up
up thy for wealth,
thirst for
thy thirst wealth, banish
banish allall desires
desires from thy
from thy
heart. Let
heart thy mind
Let thy be satisfied
mind be satisfied with what is
with what is gained by thy
gained by Karma.
thy Karma.
• •. Do not
... not be
be proud of wealth,
proud of wealth, of
of friends,
friends, .or of youth;
or of time takes
youth; time takes
away in
all away
all in aa moment. Leaving -quickly
moment. Leaving .quickly all
all-this, which isis full
this, which full of
of
illusion, enter into the
illusion, enter into the place
place of Brahman. • • • Life
of Brahman. . Life isis tremulous,
. . tremulous, likelike
a water-drop
a water-drop on on aa lotus-leaf.
lotus-leaf. . . . Time isis playing,
. . . playing, lifelife isis waning
waning-
yet
yet the
the breath
breath of
of hope
hope never
never ceases.
ceases. The body
body is
is wrinkled,
wrinkled, the the
hair grey, the
hair grey, mouth has
the mouth has become
become toothless, the stick
toothless, the stick in in thethe hand
hand
shakes, yet
shakes, yet man leavesleaves not
not the
the anchor
anchor ofof hope.
hope. . • . Preserve
. Preserve equa-
. . equa-
'nimity always.•••
nimity always. In thee, in me and
... In thee, in in others
and in others there
there dwells
dwells Vishnu
Vishnu
alone; itit isis useless
alone; useless to
to be
be angry
angry with me, or
with me, impatient. See
or impatient See every
every
self in Self, and
in Self, and give
give up
up all thought of
all thought of difference.
difference.- * 3
self

We do
ewe do not
not know
know howhow much
much Parmenides'
Parmenides' insistence
insistence that
that the Many are
the Many are unreal, and
umeal, and
only the One
that only the
that One exists, owed to
exists, owed Uptmishtllfs, or
the Upanishads,
to the c~tributed to
or contributed Shankara; nor
to Shankara; ~
nor can
we establish
we any connection,
establish any connection, of
of cause
cause or
or suggestion, betWeen Shankara
suggestIon, between and the
Shankara and the astonish-
astonish-
ingly similar
ingly philosophy of
similar philosophy of Immanuel Kant.
Immanuel Kant.
55
5522 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XIX
XIX

m. THE CONCLUSIONS OF HINDU PHILOSOPHY

m.
Decadence-Surmnary-Criticism-Inf/,ue1Jce
Decadence-Summary-Criticism Influence

Mohammedan invasions
The Mohammedan invasions put put an an end
end to to thethe great
great age age ofof Hindu
philosophy. The
philosophy. The assaults
assaults of of the
the Moslems,
Moslems, and and later
later of the Christians,
of the Christians, uponupon
the native faith
the native drove it,
faith drove it, for
for self-defense,
self-defense, into into a timid unity,
a timid unity, that
that made
treason of
treason of all
all debate,
debate, andand stifled
stifled creative heresy in
creative heresy in a a stagnant
stagnant uniformity
uniformity
of thought. By
of thought. the twelfth century
By the twelfth century the system the system of
of the
the Vedanta,
Vedanta, which in in

Shankara
Shankara had had tried
tried toto be
be a a religion for philosophers, was
religion for philosophers,
was reinterpreted
reinterpreted by by
such saints
such saints as
as Ramanuja (ca.
Ramanuja (ca. 1050) 1050) into
into an
an orthodox
orthodox worship of
worship of Vishnu,
Vishnu,
Rama and Krishna. Forbidden
and Krishna. Forbidden to to think
think new thoughts, philosophy became
thoughts, philosophy
not only
not only scholastic
scholastic but
but barren;
barren; it
it accepted
accepted -its
its dogmas
dogmas from
from the priesthood,
the priesthood,
and proved them
and proved them laboriously
laboriously by
by distinctions
distinctions without
without difference,
difference, and
and logic
logic
without reason.-*
without reason. 1
.
Nevertheless the
Nevertheless Brahmans, in
the Brahmans, in the solitude of
the solitude retreats and
their retreats
of their and under
under
the protection
the protection of of their
their unintelligibility, preserved
unintelligibility, preserved
the
the old
old systems carefully
systems carefully
in
in esoteric sutras and
esoteric sutras and commentaries,
commentaries, and and transmitted
transmitted across across generations
generations and and
centuries
centuries the conclusions of
the conclusions philosophy. In
of Hindu philosophy. In allall these
systems, Brah-
these systems, Brah-
manical or
manical or other,
other, the
the categories
categories of
of the
the intellect
intellect are
are represented
represented as
as helpless
helpless
or
or deceptive
deceptive before
before a
a reality immediately
reality immediately
felt
felt oror seen;·
seen;* and
and all
all our
our eigh-
eigh-
teenth-century
teenth-century rationalism
rationalism appears
appears to
to the
the Indian
Indian metaphysician
metaphysician as
as a
a vain
vain
and
and superficial attempt to
superficial attempt
to subject
subject the the incalculable
incalculable universeuniverse to to the
the concepts
concepts
of
of a salonniere. "Into
a sdonniere. "Into blind
blind darkness
darkness pass pass they
they who worship ignorance; into
worship ignorance; into
still
still greater
greater darkness
darkness they
they who are
are content
content with
with knowledge.'"
knowledge.'"* Hindu Hindu
philosophy begins
philosophy begins where
where European philosophy
European philosophy ends-with
ends with an an inquiry
inquiry into
into
the nature
the nature' of knowledge and
of knowledge and thethe limitations
limitations of reasoD; it
of reason; starts not
it starts not with
with
the physics of
the physics of Thales
Thales and and Democritus,
Democritus, but but with
with the the epistemology
epistemology of of Locke
Locke
and
and Kant;'
Kant;' it
it takes
takes mind
mind as
as that
that which
which is
is most
most immediately
immediately known, and
known, and
therefore refuses
therefore refuses to resolve it
to resolve it into
into a a matter
matter known only only mediatelY"and
mediately and
through
through mind.
mind. It
It accepts
accepts an
an external
external world,
world, but
but does
does not
not believe
believe that
that our
our
senses
senses can
can ever
ever bow
know it
it as
as it
it is.
is. All
All science
science is
is a
a charted
charted ignorance,
ignorance, and and
belongs
belongs to
to Mllya;
Maya; it formulates, in
it formulates, in ever
ever changing concepts
changing concepts and
and phrases~ the
phrases, the
rationale of
rationale of a world in
a world in which reason is
which reason but aa part-one
is but part-one shiftingshifting
current
current in
in

•* "No Indian
Indian saint
saint ever
ever had
had anything but contempt
anything but contempt for the knowledge
for the knowledge gained
gained by
by the
the
senses
senses and
* "Never
the intelleet.'''' "Never have the Indian
have the Indian sages
sages ••• fallen
fallen into
into our
our typical error
1
and the intellect" . . .
typical error
of taking any
of taking any intellectual
intellectual formation
formation seriously
seriously in
in the
the metaphysical
metaphysical sense;
sense; these
these are
are no
no more
more
substantial than any
substantial than Maya formation.'tUI
any Mil" formation.""
8
CHAP. XIX)
CHAP.XIX) THE LIFE 0 F THE MIND
L I F E OF MIN D 553
553

an interminable
an interminable sea. Even
Even the
sea. the person
person that
that reasons Maya, illusion;
reasons isis Maya, what
illusion; what
is
is he but
he but aa temporary
temporary conjunction of
conjunction of events,
events, aa passing
passing node node inin the
the curves
curves
of matter
of matter and
and mind
mind through
through space
space and
and time?
time?-andand whatwhat are his acts
are his aets or his
or his
thoughts but the fulfilment
thoughts but the fulfilment of of forces
forces far
far antedating
antedating his his birth?
birth? Nothing
Nothing
is real
is real but Brahman, that
but Brahman, that vast
vast ocean
ocean of
of Being
Being inin which every form
which every form isis aa
moment's wave,
moment's wave, oror aa fleck
Beck of of froth
froth on
on the
the wave. Virtue isis not
wave. Virtue not the
the quiet
quiet
heroism of
heroism of good
good. works,
works, nor any pious
nor any pious ecstasy; it isis simply
ecstasy; it simply the
the recognition
recognition
of the
of the identity
identity of the self
of the with every
self with every other
other self
self in Brahmll1J,; morality
in Brahman; morality isis
such living
such living asas comes
comes from
from aa sense
sense of
of union with all
union with all things.*
things.· "He "He who
who
all creatures
discerns all
discerns creatures in his Self,
in his Self, and
and his
his Self all creatures,
in all
SeH in creatures, has has no
no disquiet
disquiet
thence. What delusion,
thence. What delusion, what
what grief
grief can
can he him? "180*
with him?"
he with 1

Certain characteristic qualities which would not seem to be defects from

Certain characteristic qualities which would not seem to be defects from
the Hindu point of view have kept this philosophy from exercising a wider
the Hindu point of view have kept this
philosophy from exercising a wider
influence in other civilizations. Its method, its scholastic terminology, and'
influence in other civilizations. Its method, its scholastic
terminology, and
its Vedic assumptions handicap it finding sympathy among nations with
its Vedic
assumptions handicap it in in finding
sympathy among nations with
other assumptions
other assumptions or more secularized
or more cultures. Its
secularized cultures. Its doctrine
doctrine of May Il
of Maya
gives
gives little
little
encouragement to morality or active virtue; its pessimism 1s
encouragement to morality or active virtue; its pessimism is a
a
confession
confession that that it it has
has not,
not, despite
despite
the
the theory
theory of
of Karma, explained
Karma, explained evil;
evil;
and part of
and part the effect
of the effect ofof these systems has
these systems been to
has been to exalt
exalt a a stagnant
stagnant quietism
quietism
in
in the face of
the face of evils
evils that
that might conceivably
might conceivably have
have been
been corrected,
corrected, or
or of
of work
that cried
that cried out
out toto bebe done. None the
done. None the less there is
less there is a
a depth
depth in
in these
these medita-
medita-
tions which by
tions which by comparison
comparison casts an air
casts an air of
of superficiality upon the
superficiality upon
the aetivistic
activistic

philosophies generated
philosophies generated
in
in more
more invigorating
invigorating
zones.
zones. Perhaps
Perhaps our
our Western
Western
systems,
systems,
so
so confident that
confident that "knowledge is
is power," are
"knowledge power," are the
the voices
voices of
of aa once
once
lusty youth exaggerating human ability and tenure. tenure. As As our
our energies
energies tire
lusty youth exaggerating human ability and
tire

in die daily
in the struggle against impartial
daily struggle against impartial
Nature
Nature and
and hostile
hostile Time,
Time, we look
look
with
with more
more tolerance
tolerance upon upon Oriental
Oriental philosophies
philosophies
of
of surrender
surrender and and peace.
peace.
Hence
Hence the the influence
influence of of Indian
Indian thought upon
thought upon other
other cultures
cultures has
has been
been greatest
greatest
in the days
in the days ofof their
their weakening
weakening or or decay.
decay. While
While Greece
Greece was was winning
winning vic- vic-
tories
tories she
she paid little attention
paid little
attention to
to Pythagoras
Pythagoras or or Parmenides;
Parmenides; when Greece Greece
was
was declining,
declining,
Plato
Pkto and
and the
the Orphic priests
Orphic priests took
took up
up the
the doctrine
doctrine of of reincar-
reincar-

nation,
nation, while
while ZenaZeno the the Oriental
Oriental preached
preached an
an almost
almost Hindu fatalism
fatalism andand
resignation;
resignation;
and
and when
when Greece
Greece was
was dying,
dying, the
the Neo-Platonists
Neo-Platonists and
and the
the Gnos-
Gnos-
tics drank
tics drank deep at
at Indian wells. The impoverishment of
Indian wells. impoverishment of Europe Europe by by the
the
deep

Cf. Spinoza:
•* Cf. Spinoza:
"The
"The greatest good isis the
greatest good
the knowledge
knowledge of
of the
the union
union which
which the
the mind
mind has
has

with the
with whole of
the whole of Nature-'"
Nature."" "The
1
intellectual love of
"The inte1leetuallove of God" is a summary.
is a
summary of
of Hindu
philosophy.
philosophy.
SS4
554 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
( CHAP. XIX
XIX

fall
fall of
of Rome,
Rome, and and the
the Moslem
Moslem conquest
conquest of of the
the routes
routes between
between Europe
Europe and and
India, seem to
India, seem to have
have obstructed,
obstructed, for for aa millennium,
millennium, the the direct
direct interchange
interchange
of Oriental and
of Oriental Occidental ideas.
and Occidental ideas. ButBut hardly
hardly had
had the
the British
British established
established
themselves in India before editions and
themselves in India before editions and translations translations of
of the
the Uptmisbads
Upmishads
began
began to
to stir
stir Western
Western thought.
thought. Fichte
Fichte conceived
conceived an
an idealism
idealism strangely
strangely
*
like
like Shankara's;211
1
Schopenhauer
Shankara's; Schopenhauer almost
almost incorporated Buddhism,
incorporated Buddhism, the
the Upani-
Upani-
shads
shads and the YedmtQ.
and the Vedanta intointo his
his philosophy; and
philosophy; and Schelling,
Schelling, in
in his
his .old
old age,
age,
thought
thought the
the Upanishads
Upanishads the
the maturest
maturest wisdom
wisdom of
of mankind.
mankind. Nietzsche
Nietzsche had
had
dwelt
dwelt too too long
long with
with Bismarck
Bismarck and
and the
the Greeks
Greeks to
to care
care for
for India,
India, but
but in
in the
the
end
end hehe valued above all
valued above all other ideas his
other ideas his haunting
haunting notion
notion of of eternal
eternal reCWTence
recurrence
-aa variant
variant of of reincarnation.
reincarnation.
In
In our'time
our time Europe
Europe borrows
borrows more and and more
more fromfrom thethe philosophy
philosophy of of
the
the East,·
East,* while the East
while the borrows more and
East borrows more from
and more from the science of
the science of the
the
West. Another world world war might
might leave
leave Europe
Europe open open again
again (as(as the
the break-up
break-up
of Alexander's
of Alexander's empire
empire opened
opened Greece,
Greece, and
and the fall of
the fall of the
the Roman Republic
Republic
opened
opened Rome)-to
Rome) to an an influx
influx ofof Oriental
Oriental philosophies
philosophies and and faiths.
faiths. The
The
mounting
mounting insurrection
insurrection of
of the
the Orient
Orient against
against the
the Occident,
Occident, the
the loss
loss of
of those
those
Asiatic markets
Asiatic markets thatthat have
have sustained
sustained thethe industry
industry and
and prosperity
prosperity of
of the
the
West,
West, the the weakening
weakening of of Europe by poverty,
Europe by poverty, faction
faction and
and revolution, might
revolution, might
~ake
make thatthat divided
divided continent
continent riperipe for
for a
a new religion
religion ofof celestial
celestial hope
hope andand
earthly despair.
despair. Probably
Probably it it is
is prejudice that
that makes
makes such
such a
a denouement
denouement
earthly prejudice
inconceivable in
seem inconceivable America: quietism
in America: quietism and
and resignation
resignation do do not
not comport
comport
with our
with our electric
electric atmosphere,
atmosphere, or or with
with the
the vitality
vitality born
bom of of rich
rich resources
resources
and aa spacious
and spacious terrain.
terrain. Doubtless
Doubtless our our weather
weather will will protect
protect us us in the end.
in the end.
*
• Cf. Bergson. Keyseding,
Cf. Bcrgson, Keyser1ing, Christian
Christian Science, Theosophy.
Science, Theosophy.
 CHAPTER
CHAPTER XX
XX

Literature of
The Literature of India
India
I. THE
I. THE LANGUAGES
LANGUAGES OF
OF INDIA
INDIA
Srmskrit-The
Sanskrit 'lJernaculfl1s-Grrmnnar
The vernaculars Grammar

J UST
JUST
philosophy
as the philosophy and much of the literature of medieval Europe
as the philosophy and much of the literature of medieval Europe
were composed in a dead language unintelligible to the people, so the
were composed in a dead language unintelligible to the people, so the
and classic literature of India were
of India were written
written in in aa Sanskrit
Sanskrit that
that
philosophy and classic literature
had long
had long since
since passed
passed out
out of
of common parlance,
parlance, butbut had
had survived
survived as as the
the
Esperanto
Esperanto of
of scholars
scholars having
having no
no o*er
other common tongue.
tongue. Divorced
Divorced from
from
contact with
contact with the life of
the life of the
the nation, this literary
nation, this literary language
language became
became aa model
model
of scholasticism
of scholasticism and
and refinement;
refinement; new words
words werewere formed
formed not by
not by the spon-
the spon-
taneous creations
taneous creations ofof the
the people,
people, but by the
but by the needs
needs of
of technical
technical discourse
discourse in
in
the schools;
the schools; until
until at
at last the Sanskrit
last the of philosophy
Sanskrit of philosophy lostlost the
the virile
virile simplicity
simplicity
of the Vedic
of the hymns, and
Vedic hymns, and became
became anan artificial monster whose ses'luipedalitz
artificial monster sesquipedalia
verb'
verba crawled
crawled like
like monstrous
monstrous tapeworms
tapeworms acrossacross the page.·
page.*

Meanwhile
Meanwhile the the people of northem India, about the the fifth century before
fifth century before
people of northern India,
Christ, had transformed Sanskrit into Prakrit, very
Christ, had transformed Sanskrit into Prakrit, very
much as Italy
as Italy was to
to
change Latin into Italian.
Italian. Ptakrit
Prakrit became for a time the language
for a time the language of Bud-
of Bud-
change Latin into
dhists and Jains,
dhists and until it in tum was developed
Jains, until it in turn developed
into
into Pall-the
Pali-the language
language of the
oldest extant Buddhist literature.-
oldest extant Buddhist literature.* By By the
the end of the tenth century
century of of our
our
era these "Middle Indian"
era these "Middle Indian" languages languages had given
given birth
birth to various vernacu1ars,
vernaculars,
of
of which
which the
the chief
chief waswas Hindi.
Hindi In In the twelfth ce~tury
the tweHth century this
this in turn generated
in turn generated
Hindustani as the language
Hindustani as the language of
of the
the northertl
northern half
half of
of India.
India. Finally
Finally thethe invad-
invad-
ing Moslems :filled Hindustani
Hindustani with
with Persian
Persian words,
words, thereby creating aa new
new
ing Moslems thereby creating
filled
dialect,
dialect,
Urdu.
Urdu. All
All these
these were
were cCIndo-Germanic"
"Indo-Germanic" tongues,
tongues, confined
confined to
to Hin-
Hin-
dustan; its old
dustan; the
the Deccan
Deccan kept kept its old Dravidian
Dravidian languages-Tamil,
languages-Tamil, Telugu,Telugu, Kanarese
Kanarese
and
and Malayalam-and
Malayalam and Tamil
Tamil became
became the
the chief
chief literary
literary vehicle
vehicle of
of the
the south.
south.
In
In the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century Bengali replaced
century Bengali replaced Sanskrit
Sanskrit as as the
the literary
literary language
language
of
of Bengal; the novelist Chatterjee was
Bengal; the novelist Chatterjee
was itsits ,Bo'ccaccio,
Boccaccio, the poet Tagore
the poet Tagore was was
its
its Petrarch.
Petrarch. Even
Even today India has
today India has aa hundred
hundred languages,
languages, and the literature of
and the literature of

Swaraft uses
S'WllTlljt the speech
uses the speech of
the conquerors.
of the conquerors.

•*Some
Some examples of Sanskrit agglutination: cit"apraristrmir"""yUlfllldar/lfJ1ltt1lU, upIIda-
examples of Sanskrit agglutination: citerapra&mkrwuyastadakarapattau,
'lJll'lJinJlI1IlIlSlIttIlkdttrutlpattih
mruisvamasattakakaniapattih^ .1

ttThe
Themovement
movementfor forself-rule.
self-rale.

sss
555
 55 6 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP.XXXX
At aa very
At very early date India began to trace the
early date India began to trace
roots, history,
the roots, history, relations
relations and
and
combinations
combinations of words. By
of words.
By the
the fourth
fourth century
century B.C.
B.C. she
she had
had created
created for
for
herself· the science of grammar,
herself* the science of grammar, and produced probably
and produced probably the
the greatest of all
greatest of all
grammarians, Panini.
known grammarians, Panini. The studies
studies of
of Panini,
Panini, Patanjali
Patanjali (ca. SO A.D.)
(ca. I150 A.D.)
and Bhartrih~ (ca.
and Bhartrihari 650) laid
(ca. 650) laid the
the foundations
foundations of philology; and
of philology; that fas-
and that fas-

cinating science
science of
of verbal
verbal genetics owed
owed almost
almost its life in
its life in modem
modern times
times to
to
cinating genetics
the rediscovery
the r,ediscovery ofof Sanskrit.
Sanskrit
Writing, as
Writing, as we have
have seen,
seen, waswas not popular in
not popular Vedic India.
in Vedic India. About
About the the
fifth
fifth century B.C.
century B.C. the
the Kharosthi
Kharosthi script
script
was
was adapted
adapted from
from Semitic
Semitic models,
models, andand
in the epics
in the and the Buddhist literature we begin
epics and the Buddhist literature
begin to to hear
hear of of clerks.'
clerks.
8
Palm-
Palm-
leaves
leaves andand bark served as
bark served as writing material,
writing material, and an
an iron stylus as
iron stylus
as a
a pen; the
pen; the
bark was
bark was treated
treated toto make
make it less fragile, the
it less the pen scratched
scratched letters
letters into
into it,
fragile, pen it,

ink was smeared

ink was smeared over
over the
the bark,
bark, and
and remained
remained in
in the
the scratches
scratches when the
the rest
rest
of
of it was wiped
it was
away/ Pap~r
wiped away.' Paper was brought in
was brought in by the
by the Moslems
Moslems (ca. (ca. 1000
1000
A.D.),
A.D.), but
but did
did not
not finally replace
finally replace bark
bark till
till the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century.
century. The
The
bark pages
bark pages were
were kept
kept in
in order
order by stringing
by stringing them upon
upon a
a cord,
cord, and
and books
books of of
such
such leaves were gathered
leaves were
gathered in
in libraries
libraries which
which the
the Hindus
Hindus termed
termed "Treasure-
"Treasure-
houses of
houses the Goddess
of the Goddess of of Speech."
Speech." Immense
Immense collections
collections of of this
this wooden
wooden
literature have survived
literature have the devastations
survived the devastations ofof time
time and war.t
and war.t

u.
n. EDUCATION
Schools-Methods-Universities-Moslem"
Schools MethodsUniversities Moslem education-An
education An emperor
emperor
on
on education
education

Writing continued,
Writing continued, even to th~
even to the nineteenth
nineteenth centwy,
century, to playaa very
to play very sma.I.l
small
part
part in
in Indian
Indian education.
education. Perhaps
Perhaps
it was
was not
not to the
to the
it interest
interest of
of the
the priests
priests
that the sacred or scholastic te~
that the sacred or scholastic should become
become an an open
open secret
secret to
to all.·
6
texts should all.

As far
As far asas we can
can trace
trace Indian
Indian history
history we find
find aa system
system of
of education,"
education,
7

always in
always the hands
in the hands ofof the
the clergy, open
clergy, open
at first
at first only to
only to the
the sons
sons of
of Brahmans,
Brahmans,
then spreading
then spreading its
its privileges from
privileges
from caste
caste to
to caste until
caste until in
in our
our time
time it
it excludes
excludes
only the Untouchables. Every Hindu
only the Untouchables. Every Hindu village village had
had its
its schoolmaster,
schoolmaster, sup-
sup-
poned
ported out
out of
of the
the public
public
funds;
funds; in
in Bengal
Bengal alone,
alone, before
before the
the coming
coming of
of the
the
British,
British, there
there were
were some
some eighty
eighty thousand
thousand native
native schools-one
schools one to
to every
every four
four

•* The Babylonians
Babylonians had
had done
done lilcewise; cf. p. 150
likewise; cf. p. 250 above.
above.
tt Of printing
printing there
there is no sign
is no
sign till
till the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century-possibly as in
because, as
century-possibly because, in China,
China,
the adjusanent
the adjustment of
of movable
movable type
type to
to the
the native
native scripts
scripts was
was too
too expensive,
expensive, possibly
possibly because
because
,printing was looked
.printing was looked upon
upon as a vulgar
as a vulgar descent
descent from the art
from the an ofof calligraphy.
calligraphy. The printing
printing
of newspapers and
of newspapers and books was brougl:1t
books was by
brought by the"
the* English
English to
to the
the Hindus, who bettered
Hindus, bettered the
the
instruction; today tPere
instruction; today there are 1,517 newspapers
are I,SI7
newspapers in
in India,
India, 3,61
3,6277 periodicals,
periodicals, and over
over 17,000
17,000
, DeW books
new published ~
books published an ~verage
in an average year,·
year,
4
CHAP. XX)
CHAP.XX) THE LITERATURE OF INDIA
LITERATURE OF INDIA 557
557
88
hundred population.
hundred population. The
The percentage
percentage of literacy under
of literacy under Ashoka
Ashoka was
was ap-
ap-
parendy higher
parently than in
higher than in India today.'
India today.*

Children went
Children went to to the
the village
village school
school from
from September
September to February, enter-
to February, enter-
ing
ing at
at the
the age
age of
of five
five and
and leaving
leaving
at
at the
the age
age
of
of eight.
eight
lO
10
Instroction
Instruction was
was
chiefly
chiefly of
of a
a religious character,
religious character,
no
no matter
matter what
what the
the subject;
subject;
rote
rote memorizing
memorizing
was the
was usual method,
the usual method, and and the Vedas were
the Vedas were the
the inevitable
inevitable text
text. The The three
three R's
R's
were included,
were included, but but were
were notnot the
the main
main business
business of education; character
of education; character waswas
ra~ed above
rated above intellect,
intellect, and
and discipline
discipline waswas the
the essence
essence of schooling. We do
of schooling. do not
not
hear of
hear flogging, or
of flogging, of other
or of other severe
severe measures;
measures; but but we find
:find that
that stress
stress was
was
laid above
laid above allall upon
upon thethe formation
formation of of wholesome
wholesome and and proper
proper habits
habits of life.u
of life. 31

the age
At the age ofof eight
eight the
the pupil
pupil passed
passed toto the
the more
more formal
formal care
care of Guru, or
of aa Guru, or
personal teacher
personal teacher and guide, with
and guide, with whom the the student
student was
was to to live,
live, preferably
preferably
till he
till he was twenty. Services, sometimes
twenty. Services, sometimes menial,
menial, were ~equired of
were required of him,
him, andand
he was
he was' pledged
pledged to to continence,
continence, modesty, cleanliness, and
modesty, cleanliness, and aa meatless diet.:II
meadess diet 1*

Instruction was
Instruction was now given given him
him in in the
the "Five Sbastras" or
"Five Shastras" or sciences:
sciences: grammar,
grammar,
arts and
arts crafts, medicine,
and crafts, medicine, logic,
logic, andand philosophy. Finally he
philosophy. Finally he waswas sent
sent out
out into
into
the
the world
world with
with the
the wise admonition that
wise admonition that education education came
came only
only one-fourth
one-fourth
from the
from the teacher,
teacher, one-fourth
one-fourth from private study,
from private study,
one-fourth
one-fourth from one's
from fel-
one's fel-
lows,
lows, and
and one-(ourth
one-fourth from from life.-
18
life.

From hishis Guru

Guru the the student
student might
might pass,
pass,
about
about the
the age
age ofof sixteen,
sixteen, to to one
one
of
of the
the great
great universities
universities that that were
were thethe glory
glory of of ancient
ancient and
and medieval India:
medieval India:

Benares,
Benares, Taxila, Vidarbha, Ajanta,
Taxila, Vidarbha, Ajanta, Ujjain, Ujjain, or
or Nalanda.
Nalanda. Benares
Benares was the the
stronghold of orthodox Brahman
stronghold of orthodox Brahman learning learning in
in Buddha's
Buddha's days
days as
as in
in ours;
ours;
Taxila,
Taxila, atat the
the time
time of of Alexander's
Alexander's invasion,
invasion, waswas known to to all
all Asia
Asia asas the
the
leading
leading
seat
seat of
of Hindu
Hindu scholarship,
scholarship,
renowned
renowned above
above all for its
all for its medical
medical

school; Ujjain
school; Ujjain
was
was held
held in high
in high repute
repute for astronomy, Ajanta
for astronomy, Ajanta for for the
the teach-
teach-
ing of
of art. The fa~de
art. facade of
of one
one of
of the
the ruined
ruined buildings
buildings at
at Ajanta suggests
Ajanta suggests
ing
the
the magnificence
magnificence
of
of these
these old
old universities.J'
universities." Nalanda,
Nalanda, most
most fainous
famous of of Bud-
Bud-
dhist
dhist institutions
institutions for for higher
higher learning,
learning, Qad been
founded shortly
had been founded shortly after
after the
the
Master's death,
Master's death, and
and the
the state
state had
had assigned
assigned for
for its
its support
support the
the revenues
revenues of
of
aa h~dred
hundred villages.
villages.
It
It had
had ten
ten thousand
thousand students,
students, one hundred leeture- lecture-

rooms, great libraries,

rooms, great libraries, and
and six
six ~ense
immense blocks
blocks of
of donnitories
dormitories four
four stories
stories

high; its observatories, said said Yuan Chwang, lost in

high; its observatories, Chwang, "were lost in the
the vapors
vapors of of the
the
morning,
morning,
and
and the
the upper
upper rooms
rooms towered
towered above
above thethe clouds.":111
clouds."" The old old
Chinese
Chinese pilgrim loved
loved the learned mo~ and shady
the learned monks and shady groves
groves of Nalanda so
of Nalanda so
pilgrim
well
well that
that hehe stayed there for five years.
for five years. "Of those from abroad who wished
those from abroad wished
stayed there
to enter the schools
to enter the schools of of discussion"
discussion" at
at ~alanda,
Nalanda, he tells
tells us,
us, "the
"the majority,
majority,
558
558 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.n
(CHAP.XX

beaten
beaten by the difficulties
by the difficulties of
of the problem, withdrew;
the problem, withdrew; and those who were
and those
deeply versed in
deeply versed in old
old and
and modem
modern learning
learning were
were admitted,
admitted, only only two or or three
three
out
out of ten succeeding."18
of ten succeeding."
30
The
The candidates
candidates who were
were fortunate
fortunate enough
enough to to
gain
gain admission
admission were were given
given freefree tuition, board and
tuition, board and lodging,
lodging, but but they
they were
subjected
subjected to
to an
an almost
almost monastic
monastic discipline.
discipline.
Students
Students were
were not
not permitted
permitted
to talk
to talk toto aa woman,
woman, or or toto see
see one;
one; even
even the
the desire
desire toto look upon aa woman
look upon
held aa great
was held
was sin, in
great sin, in the
the fashion
fashion of of the
the hardest saying in
hardest saying the New Testa-
in the Testa-
ment.
ment. The student guilty
student guilty of sex of sex relations
relations had
had to wear,
to wear, for
for a
a whole
whole year,
year,
the skin
the skin ofof an
an ass,
ass, with
with thethe tail
tail turned upward, and
turned upward, had to
and had to go
go about
about begging
begging
alms
alms and declaring his
and declaring his sin.
sin. Every morning the
Every morning the entire entire student
student body
body waswas
required to
required to bathe
bathe in in the
the ten great swimming
ten great swimming pools pools that
that belonged
belonged to to the
the
university.
university. The course
course of
of study
study lasted
lasted for
for twelve
twelve years,
years, but
but some
some students
students
stayed thirty
stayed thirty years,years, and
and some
some remained
remained till
till death.l'l
death.
17

Mohammedans destroyed
The Mohammedans destroyed nearly nearly allall the monasteries, Buddhist
the monasteries, Buddhist or or
Brahman, in
Brahman, northern India.
in northern Nalanda was
India. Nalanda burned to
was burned to the
the ground
ground in 197,
in I1197,
and all its
and all monks were
its monks were slaughtered;
slaughtered; we can
can never
never estimate
estimate the
the abundant
abundant
life
life of ancient India
of ancient India from
from whatwhat these
these fanatics
fanatics spared. Nevertheless, the
spared. Nevertheless, the
destroyers
destroyers were
were not
not barbarians;
barbarians; they
they had
had a
a taste
taste for
for beauty,
beauty, and
and an
an almost
almost
modem skill skill in
in using
modern using piety
piety forfor the purposes of
the purposes plunder. When the
of plunder. the Moguls
Moguls
ascended
ascended the the throne
throne they brought
they brought a
a high
high but
but narrow
narrow standard
standard of
of culture
culture
with them;
with them; theythey loved
loved letters
letters asas much as the sword,
as the sword, and
and knew how to
to
combine
combine a a successful
successful siegesiege with poetry. Among
with poetry. Among the the Moslems
Moslems education
education
was mostly
was mostly individual, through
individual, through tutors
tutors engaged by prosperous
engaged by prosperous fathers
fathers for
for
their sons. It
their SODS. was an
It was an aristocratic
aristocratic conception of education as an
conception of education 'as an ornament-
ornament-
occasionally
occasionally an
an aid-to
aid to a
a man of
of affairs
affairs and
and power,
power, but
but usually an irritant
usually an irritant
and a public
and a public danger
danger in one doomed to
in one doomed poverty or
to poverty modest place.
or modest place. What the the
methods of
methods the tutors
of the tutors were
were we may judge
may judge from
from one
one of
of the
the great
great
letters
letters
of history-the
of history the reply
reply of of Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb to to his
his former teacher, who was
former teacher, was seeking
seeking
some
some sinecure
sinecure and and emolument
emolument from from the the King:
King:

What is is it
it you would have
you have of Doctor? Can
me, Doctor?
of me, Can youyou reasonably
reasonably
desire that II should
desire that should make you you one
one of
of the
the chief
chief Omrabs
Omrdhs of my
of my
court? Let me tell
court? tell you, if
you, if you had
you had instructed
instructed me as
as
you should have
you should have
done, nothing would
done, nothing would be be more just; for
more just; for II am ofof this
this persuasion, that
persuasion, that
a child well educated
child well educated and instructed is
and instructed is as much, at
as much, at least,
least, obliged to
obliged to
his master as
his master as to
to his
his father.
father. But
But where
where are those good
are those
good documents-
documents*
you have
you given me? In
have given the Drst
In the 'first place, you have
place, you
have taught
taught me
me that
that

•*Le^
Lee, iDstructiODS.
instructions.
CHAP. XX)
CHAP.XX) THE LITERATURE OF INDIA 559
559
all Frangistan (so it
all Frangistan (so it seems
seems they
they call
call Europe) was
Europe) was nothing
nothing but
but II
not what
know not what little
little island,
island, of
of which
which the
the greatest king
greatest king
was
was he
he of
of
Portugal,
Portugal, and and next
next toto him
him he he of
of Holland,
Holland, and and after him he
after him he of of Eng-
Eng-
land:
land: andand asas to
to the other kings,
the other as those of
kings, as those of France
France and
and Andalusia,
Andalusia,
you have
you have represented
represented them them to to me as as our petty rajas,
our petty rajas, telling
telling me
that the
that the kings
kings of of Indost3n
Indostan were were far far above
above them them altogether,
altogether,
that
that
they
they (the
(the kings
kings of
of Indostan)
Indostan) were
were •••
... the
the great
great
ones,
ones, the
the con-
con-
querors
querors and and kings
kings of the world;
of the world; and and those
those of of Persia
Persia andand Usbec,
Usbec,
Kashgar, Tartary
Kashgar, Tartary and
and Cathay, Pegu,
Cathay, Pegu, China
China and
and Matchina
Matchina did
did
tremble at
tremble at the
the name of the kings
of the of Indostan.
kings of Indostan.
Admirable
Admirable geog-
geog-
raphy! You should
raphy! should rather
rather havehave taught exactly to distinguish
taught me exactly to distinguish
all those states
all those states of the world,
of the world, and well to
and well understand their
to understand their strength,
strength,
their way of
their way of fighting,
fighting,
their
their customs,
customs, religions, governments,
religions, governments,
and
and
interests;
interests; andand byby the
the pursual
pursual of
of solid
solid history,
history,
to
to observe
observe their
their rise,
rise,

progress, decay;
progress, decay; and whence, how,
and whence, how, and and by what accidents
by what accidents and and er- er-
rors those
rors those great changes
great changes and
and revolutions of
revolutions of empires empires and
and kingdoms
kingdoms
have happened.
have happened. II have have scarce
scarce learned
learned of you the
of you the name
name of of my
my grand-
grand-
sires, the famous
sires, the famous founders
founders of of this
this empire; so
empire; so far were
far were you
you from from
having taught
having taught me the
the history
history
of
of their
their life,
life, and
and what
what course
course they
they
took to
took make such
to make such great conquest.
great conquest You had
had a
a mind
mind to
to teach
teach me
the Arabian tongue,
the Arabian tongue, to
to read
read and
and to
to write.
write. I
I am muchmuch obliged,
obliged, for-
for-
sooth,
sooth, for having made
for having made me lose lose so
so much time upon aa language
time upon language that that
requires ten
requires ten or twelve years
or twelve to attain to its perfection; as if
years to attain to its perfection; as
if the
the SODson
of
of aa king should
should think
think it
it to
to be
be an
an honor
honor to
to him
him to
to be
be a
a grammarian
grammarian
king
or
or some
some doctor
doctor of the law,
of the law, and
and toto learn
learn other
other languages
languages than than of of his
his

neighbors
neighbors when
when he
he can
can well
well be
be without
without them;
them; he, he, to
to whom time
time is
is

so precious for'
so precious so many
for- so weighty
many weighty things, things, which
which he
he ought
ought by by times
times .

to learn. As if
to learn. if there were any
there were any spirit
spirit
that
that did not with
did not with some reluc- reluc-
tancy, and
tancy, and even with a
even with a kind
kind ofof debasement,
debasement, employ itself in
employ itself in soso sadsad
and dry
and dry an
an exercise,
exercise, so
so longsome
longsome and
and tedious,
tedious, as
as is that
is that of
of learning
learning
words.lI
words"

"Thus," says
"Thus," the contemporary Bernier, "did
says the contemporary Bernier,
Aurangzeb resent
"did Aurangzeb resent the
the
pedantic instructions of
pedantic instructions of
his
his tutors;
tutors; to
to which
which 'tis
'tis affirmed
affirmed in
in that
that court
court that
that

... he added
... he the following
stdded the following reproof";·
reproof';*

Know you
you not
not that
that childhood
childhood well
well governed, being aa state
governed, being
state which

is ordinarily accompanied with

is ordinarily accompanied
with an
an happy memory, is capable
happy memory, is
capable of
of

•* We cannot tell how

cannot tell much of
how much of the
the following
following (and perhaps of the
(and perhaps the preceding)
preceding) quotation
quotation
is Bernier's,
is Bernier's, and how much
and how much Aurangzeb's;
Aurangzeb's; we only
only mow that it
know that reprinting.
bears reprinting.
it bears
5560
60 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
( CHAP. XX

thousands of
thousands of good
good precepts
precepts
and
and instructions, which remain
instructions, which remain deeply
deeply
impressed
impressed
the
the whole
whole remainder of a man's life,
remainder of a man's life, and
and keep
keep the
the mkld
mind
always raised for great actions? The law,
always raised for great actions?
prayers and sciences,
law, prayers sciences,
may they not
not as
as well
well be be learned
learned in in our
our mother-tongue as
as in An-
in Ara-
may they mother-tongue
hick? You
bick? You toldtold my my father
father ShahShah Jehan
Jehan that
that you
you would
would teach
teach me
philosophy.
philosophy.
'Tis
Tis true,
true, I
I remember very
very well,well, that
that you
you have
have en-
en-
tertained me for
tertained for many
many years with airy
years with airy questions
questions of things that
of things that af-af-
ford
ford no no satisfaction
satisfaction at at all
all to
to the
the mind,
mind, and are are of no use
of no use in in humane
society, empty
society, empty
notions
notions and
and mere
mere fancies,
fancies, that have
that have only
only this
this in
in them,
them,
that they
that they areare very
very hard
hard to
to understand
understand and
and very easy
very easy to
to forget.
forget •• II •
...
still remember that
still remember that after
after youyou had
had thus
thus amused
amused me,
me, II know not not
how long, with
with your fine philosophy, all
fine all I retained
I retained of
of it was
it was a
a mul-
mul-
long, your philosophy,
titude of
titude barbarous and
of barbarous and darkdark words,
words, properproper to bewilder, perplex
to bewilder, perplex and and
tire put
tire ~ut the best wits,
the best wits, and and only
only invented
invented the better to
the better to cover
cover the the
vanity
vanity
and
and ignorance
ignorance of
of men like
like yourself,
yourself, that
that would
would make
make us
us be-
be-
lieve
lieve that they know all,
that they all, and
and that under those
that under those obscure
obscure and and am- am-
biguous
biguous words
words are
are hid
hid 'great mysteries
great mysteries which
which they
they alone
alone are
are capa-
capa-
ble to
ble to understand.
understand. If If you had
you had seasoned
seasoned me with with thatthat philosophy
philosophy
which formeth
which formeth the the mind
mind to to ratiocination,
ratiocination, and and insensibly
insensibly accustoms
accustoms
it
it toto be be satisfied with nothing
satisfied with
nothing but but solid reasons, if
solid reasons, if you had
you had given given
thase excellent
me those excellent precepts
precepts and and doctrines
doctrines which which raise
raise the
the soul
soul above
above
the assaults
the assaults of of fortune,
fortune, and and reduce
reduce her her to to an unshakable and
an unshakable and always
always
equal temper, and
and permit her not to be
be lifted up by prosperity nor
lifted
equal temper, permit her not to up by prosperity nor
debased by
debased by adversity; if you had taken care to
adversity; if you had taken care
to give
give me the the knowl-
knowl-
edge first principles o~
the first of things,
edge of what we are
of what are andand what
what are are the principles things,
and
and had assisted me in
had assisted forming in
in forming in my my mind
mind a fit idea
a fit idea ofof thethe great-
great-
ness of
ness the universe,
of the universe, and and of of the
the admirable
admirable order order and motion of
and motion of thethe
parts thereof;
thereof; if, I say, you had
I had instilled
instilled into into me this
this kind
kind of
of phil-
parts if, say, you phil-
osophy, II should
osophy, should thinkthink myself
myself incomparably
incomparably more more obliged
obliged to to youyou
than Alexander
than Alexander was was to to hishis Aristode,
Aristotle, and believe it
and believe it my duty to
my duty to
recompense you
recompense you otherwise
otherwise than than he did him.
he did him. Should
Should you you not, not, in-in-
stead of
stead your :Battery,
of your flattery,
have
have taught
taught me somewhat of that point
of that point so so
important
important to
to a
a king,
king, which is,
is, what the
the reciprocal
reciprocal duties
duties are
are of
of aa
,sovereign
sovereign to
to his
his subjects and
subjects and those
those of
of subjects
subjects to
to their
their sovereigns;
sovereigns;
and oughtought not not youyou to to have
have conSidered
considered that that oneone dayday II should
should be be
obliged
obliged with
with the
the sword to
to dispute
dispute my my life
life and
and my crown
my crown with
with my
my
brothers? • •.• Have you
brothers? . . .
you ever taken any
ever taken any carecare to to make
make me learn learn
what 'tis to besiege
'tis to
besiege a a town,
town, or or toto setset anan army
army in in array? For
array? For these
these
things II am obliged
things obliged to
to others,
others, not
not at
at all
all toto you.
you. Go,
Go, and
and return
return to
to
the village whence you
the village you are
are come,
come, and
and let
let nobody know who you are
nobody you are
or what is
or what is become
become of of you.
you."
D .
CHAP. xx)
CHAP.XX) THE LITERATURE OF INDIA $6l

m. THE EPICS
HI.

"Mllhabharatti'-Its story-Its
The "Mahabharattf'-lts story-Its -form-The
form-The "Bhagllvad-Giti'-
"Bhagavad-Gitt?-
metaphysics of
The metaphysics of 'War-The of freedom-The
price of
<war-The price freedom-The "R4-
"Ra-
mtlytmri'-A
may forest idyl-The
one? A forest rape of
idyl-The rape of SitaThe
Sita-Tbe Hindu
Hindu
epics
epics and
and the
the Greek
Greek

schools and
The schools and the
the universities
universities were
were only
only aa part
of the educational
part of the educational
system of
system India.
of India. Since
Since writing
writing was
was less
less highly valued highly
valued than in other
than in other civili-
civili-
zations, and
zations, and oral
oral instruction
instruction preserved
preserved and
and disseminated
disseminated the
the nation's
nation's his- his-
tory and
tory and poetry, the habit
poetry, the habit of
of public
public recitation
recitation spread
spread among
among the people
the people
the most
the most precious
precious portions
portions of
of their
their cultural
cultural heritage. As nameless
heritage. As racon-
nameless racon-
among the
teurS among
teur* the Greeks
Greeks transmitted
transmitted and
and expanded
expanded the
the Iliad and
and the
the Iliad
Odyssey, so
Odyssey, so the
the reciters
reciters and
and declaimers
declaimers of of India
India carried
carried downdown from from
generation
generation to
to generation,
generation, and
and from
from court
court to
to people,
people, the
the ever-growing
ever-growing
epics into which the Brahmans crowded their legendary lore.
epics into which the Brahmans crowded their legendary lore.
A Hindu
Hindu scholar
scholar has has rated
rated the Mababhflfata as
the Mahabharata as "the greatest work
"the greatest work of of
imagination
imagination that
that Asia
Asia has
has produced";-
produced";" and
and Sir
Sir Charles
Charles Eliot
Eliot has
has called
called
it "a
it "a greater poem
greater poem than
than the
the Iliad."110 In
Iliad."* In one
one sense there is
sense there no doubt
is no doubt about
about
the latter
the latter judgment. Beginning (ca.
judgment. Beginning (ca. 500 B.C.) 500 B.C.) as
as a
a brief
brief narrative
narrative poem
poem
of reasonable length,
of reasonable length, the
the Mahabbarata
Mahabharata took
took on,
on, with
with every
every century, addi-
century, addi-
tional episodes
tional and hoinilies, and absorbed the
episodes and homilies, and absorbed
Bhllgavad-Gitll as
the Bhagavad-Gita as well
well asas

parts
parts
of
of the
the story
story of
of Rama,
Rama, until
until at
at last
last it
it measured
measured 107,000
107^000 oetameter
octameter
couplets-seven
couplets
seven times
times thethe length
length of
of the
the Iliad
Iliad and
and the
the Odyssey
Odyssey combin~d.
combined.
The name of
The name of the
the author
author waswas legion; "Vyasa,u
legion; "Vyasa," to
to whom tradition
tradition assigns
assigns
it, means
it, means "the"the arranger."·
arranger."" A hundred
hundred poets
poets wrote
wrote it,
it, a
a thousand
thousand singers
singers
moulded
moulded it, until,
it, until, under
under the Gupta kings
the Gupta kings (ca. A.D.), the
400 A.D.),
(ca. 400. the Brahmans
Brahmans
poured
poured their
their own religious
religious and
and moral
moral ideas
ideas intointo a
a work originally
originally Ksha-Ksha-
triyan, and gave the
triyan, and gave
the poem
poem thethe gigantic form in
gigantic form
in which we find find itit today.
today.
The
The central
central subject
subject was
was not
not precisely adaptec;l
precisely adapted to
to religious.
religious instruction,
instruction,
for it
for it told
told a a tale
tale ofof violence,
violence, gambling
gambling and and war.
war. Book One presents presents thethe
fair
fair Shakmitala
Shakuntala (destined
(destined to to be the heroine
be the heroine of'India's
of India's most most famous
famous drama)
drama)
and
and herher mighty
mighty son
son Bharata;
Bharata; from
from his
his loins
loins come those
those "great
"great Bharata"
Bharata"

(Maha-Bharata) tribes,
(Mllha-Bhll1'lltll) tribes, the
the Kurus
Kurus and and the
the Panda
Pandavas, vas, whose bloodybloody strife
strife

constitutes
constitutes the the oft-broken
oft-broken thread
thread of of the
the tale.
tale. Yudhishthira,
Yudhishthira, King King of
of the
the
Pandavas, gambles away
Pandavas, gambles away his wealth, his wealth, his
his army,
anny, his
his kingdom,
kingdom, his
his brothers,
brothers,
at last his
at last his wife
wife Draupadi,
Draupadi, in a
in a game
game in
in which
which his·
his K"!JlU
Kuru enemy plays
enemy plays with with
loaded dice. By
loaded dice. agreement the
the Pandavas
Pandavas are
are toto receive their kingdo~
receive their kingdom
By agreement
563
562 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XX

back after
back after enduring
enduring aa twelve-year banishment from
twelve-year banishment their native
from their native soil.
soil. The

twelve years pass;

twelve years pass; the Pandavas call
the Pandavas call upon the
upon the Kurus
Kurus toto restore
restore their
their land;
land;
they
they receive
receive no
no answer,
answer, and
and declare
declare war.
war. Allies
Allies are
are brought
brought in
in on
on either
either
side, until almost
side, until all northern
almost all India is
northern India is engaged.· The battle
engaged.* battle rages for
rages for
eighteen days
eighteen days and five books;
and five books; all
all the
the Kurus
Kurus areare slain,
slain, and
and nearly all the
nearly all the
Pandavas;
Pandavas; the
the heroic
heroic Bhishma
Bhishma alone
alone slays 100,000
slays 100,000 men
men in
in ten
ten days; alto-
days; alto-
gether, the poet-statistician
gether, the poet-statistician reports,
reports,
the
the fallen several hundred
numbered several
fallen numbered hundred
million men.- Amid this
million men* this bloody scene
bloody scene of
of death
death Gandhari,
Gandhari, queen consort
queen consort
of the blind
of the blind Kuru
Kuru king, Dhrita-rashtra, wails
king, Dhrita-rashtra, with horror
wails with horror at
at the
the sight of
sight of
vultures hovering
vultures hovering greedily
greedily over
over the
the corpse
corpse of
of Prince
Prince Duryodhan,
Duryodhan, her
her son.
son.

Stainless
Stainless Queen
Queen andand stainless
stainless woman,
woman, ever righteous, ever
ever righteous, ever good,
good,
Stately
Stately
in
in her
her mighty
mighty sorrow
sorrow on
on the
the field
field Gandhari
Gandhari stood.
stood.
Strewn with skulls
Strewn with skulls and clotted tresses,
and clotted darkened by
tresses, darkened the stream
by the stream of of
gore,
gore,
the limbs
With the limbs of
of countless
countless warriors is the
warriors is red field
the red field covered
covered o'er.•.•
o'er. . . .

the long-drawn
And the long-drawn howl
howl of
of jackals
jackals
o'er
o'er the
the scene
scene of
of carnage rings,
carnage rings,
the vulture
And the vulture and
and the
the raven
raven flap
flap
their
their dark
dark and
and loathsome
loathsome wings.
wings.
-Feasting
Feasting on
on the
the blood
blood of
of warriors
warriors foul Pisbacbas fill
foul Pishachas the air,
fill the air, '.

Viewless forms
Viewless forms ofof hungry
hungry Raksbas
Rakshas limb
limb from
from limb
limb the
the corpses
corpses tear.
tear.

Through this scene

Through this of
death and
scene of death and carnage was the
carnage was the ancient
ancient monarch
monarch
led,
led,
Kum
Kuru dames
dames with
with faltering
faltering footsteps stepped amidst
footsteps stepped the countless
amidst the countless
dead,
dead,
piercing wail
And aa piercing wail of
of anguish burst upon
anguish burst upon the
the echoing plain,
echoing plain,
they saw
As they saw their
their sons
sons or
or fathers, brothers, lords,
fathers, brothers, amidst the
lords, amidst the slain,
slain,
, As
AJ they
they saw
saw the
the wolves
wolves of jungle feed upon the destin~d prey,
the destined
'

of jungle feed upon prey,

Darksome wanderers of
Darksome wanderers of the
the midnight prowling
midnight prowling in the light
in the light
of
of day.
day.
Shriek of pain
Shriek of and wail
pain and wail of
of anguish
anguish o'er the ghastly
o'er the ghastly field
field resound,
resound,
their feeble
And their feeble footsteps
footsteps falter
falter and
and they
they sink upon the
sink upon the ground,
ground,
Sense and life
Sense and life desert
desert the
the mourners as they faint
mourners ,as they faint in
in common grief,
grief,
Death-like swoon succeeding
Death-like succeeding sorrow
sorrow yields
yields
a
a moment's
moment's short
short relief.
relief.

Then aa mighty
mighty sigh of anguish
sigh of anguish from
from Gandhari's bosom broke,
Gandhari's bosom broke,
Gazing
Gazing on her
her anguished daughters
anguished daughters unto
unto Krishna
Krishna thus
thus she
she spoke:
spoke:
"Mark my
my unconsoled
unconsoled daughters,
daughters, widowed
widowed queens
queens of
of Kuru's
Kuru's ho:use,
house,

•* References
References in the VedfU
in the Vedas to
to certain
certain charaetel.'S
characters of the M,habbarata
of the Mahabharata indicate
indicate that
that the
the
story of
story of a
a great intertribal war in
in the
the second
second millennium is fundamentally historical.
great intertribal Bee. is
millennium B.C. fundamentally historical.
CHAP. xx)
CHAP.XX) THE LITERATURE OF INDIA 563
Wailing for
Wailing for their
their dear
dear departed,
departed, like
like the
the osprey
osprey for
for her
her spouse;
spouse;
each cold
How each cold and
and fading
fading feature
feature wakes
wakes in them aa woman's
in them woman's love,
love,
amidst the
How amidst the lifeless
lifeless warriors
warriors still
still with
with restless
restless steps
steps they
they rove;
rove;
Mothers hug their
Mothers hug their slaughtered
slaughtered children all unconscious
children all unconscious in their
in their
sleep,
sleep,
bend upon
Widows bend upon their
their husbands
husbands and in ceaseless
and in ceaseless sorrow
sorrow
weep.•.."
weep. . ." .

Thus
Thus to Krishna
to Krishna Queen Ga11dhari strove
Queen Gandhari strove her
her woeful
woeful thoughts
thoughts toto tell,
tell,
When, alas, her
When, alas, her wandering
wandering vision
vision on
on her
her son
son Duryodhan
Duryodhan fell
fell.
Sudden anguish
Sudden anguish smote
smote her
her bosom,
bosom, and
and her
her senses
senses seemed
seemed to
to stray;
stray;
Like tree by
Like aa tree tempest shaken,
by tempest shaken, senseless
senseless on
on the
the earth
earth she
she lay.
lay.
Once
Once again she
again she waked in sorrow, once again she cast her eye
in sorrow, once again she cast her eye
Where her son in
her son blood empurpled
in blood empurpled slept
slept beneath
beneath thethe open
open sky.
sky.
she clasped
And she clasped her
her dear Duryodhan, held
dear Duryodhan, him close
held him close unto
unto herher breast.
breast,
Sobs convulsive shook
Sobs convulsive her bosom
shook her bosom as as the
the lifeless
lifeless form
form sheshe prest,
prest,
And her tears like
her tears rains of
like rains summer fell
of summer fell and
and washed
washed his his noble
noble head,
head,
Decked with garlands still untarnished,
Decked with garlands still untarnished, graced graced with
with nisbkas
nishkas bright
bright
and red.
and red.
"
"'Mother,'
'Mother,' saidsaid my
my dear Duryodhan, when he
dear Duryodhan, he went unto the
went unto the war,
war,
'Wish
Wish me joy joy and
and wish
wish me triumph
triumph as
as II mount the the battle-car.'
battle-car.'

'Son,'
'Son,' II said
said to dear Duryodhan,
to dear Duryodhan, 'Heaven
'Heaven .avert
avert a a cruel
cruel fate,
fate,
Yato dharma stato jayah-triumph
Yato dhorma stato jay^-triumph doth
doth on virtue
virtue wait.'
wait.'

But
But he set his
he set his heart
heart on battle, by
on battle, by his
his valor wiped his
valor wiped his sins;
sins;
Now he he dwells
dwells in
in realms
realms celestial
celestial which
which the warrior ~
faithful warrior
the faithful wins.
And ~I weep
weep not
not for
for Duryodhan,
Duryodhan, like
like a a prince
prince he fought
fought and fell,
fell,

But my
But my sorrow-stricken
sorrow-stricken husband,
husband, who can his misfortunes
can his misfortunes tell?tell? • • •
. . .

"~ark
"Hark the loathsome cry
the loathsome cry of
of jackals, how the
jackals,
their vigils
the wolves their vigils
keep-
keep-
Maidens
Maidens rich
rich in
in song to watch his
song and
and beauty
beauty erst
erst were wont to his sleep.
sleep.
Hark
Hark the
the foul
foul and
and blood-beaked
blood-beaked vultures
vultures flap their wings
their wings upon the
upon the
flap
dead-
dead-
Maidens
Maidens waved their -feathery
waved their ptmkbas round Duryodhan's
feathery pankhas Duryodhan's royal
royal
bed....
bed. . . .

Mark Duryodhan's
Mark Duryodhan's noble
noble widow,
widow, mother
mother proud
proud ofof Lakshman bold,
bold,
Queenly
Queenly in
in her
her youth
youth and
and beauty,
beauty, like
like an
an altar
altar of bright gold,
bright gold,
Tom
Torn from
from husband's
husband's sweet
sweet embraces,
embraces, from her her son's
son's entwining
entwining
arms,
arms,
Doomed
Doomed to to life-long woe and
and anguish
anguish inin her youth and in
youth and in her
her
life-long
charms.
charms.
564
564 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.xx~
(CHAP.XX-
Rend my
my hard and stony
hard and stony bosom crushed
crushed beneath
beneath this cruel pain,
this cruel
pain,
Should
Should Gandhari
Gandhari live
live to
to ,vitness
witness noble
noble son
son and
and grandson
grandson slain?
slain?

his gory head,

Mark
Mark again Duryoqhan's widow, how she
again Duryodhan's widow, hugs his
she hugs gory head,
How with
with gentle
gentle
hands
hands and
and tender
tender softly
softly holds
holds him
him on
on his
his bed;
bed;
from 4ear
How from departed
dear departed husband
husband turns she
she to
to her
her dearest
dearest son,
son,
And the
the tear-drops of the mother choke
tear-drops of the mother
choke the
the widow's
widow's bitter
bitter groan;
groan;
Like
Like the
the fibre
fibre of
of the
the lotus tender-golden is
lotus tender-golden is her
her frame.
frame.
o
O mymy lotus,
lotus, 0O my
my daughter,
daughter, Bharat's
Bharat's pride
pride and
and Kuru's
Kuru's fame!
fame!
If truth resides
the truth
If the in Vedas,
resides in Vedas, brave
brave Duryodhan
Duryodhan dwells
dwells above;
above;
Wherefore
Wherefore linger
linger
we inin sadness
sadness severed from his
severed from his cherished
cherished love?
love?
If
If the truth resides
the truth resides in
in Shastra,
Shastra, dwells
dwells in
in sky my
sky my hero
hero son;
son;
Wherefore
Wherefore linger
linger
we in in sorrow
sorrow since
since their
their earthly task is done?""* ·
earthly task is done?"
1 *

Upon this
Upon this theme
theme ofof love
love and
and battle
battle a a thousand
thousand interpolations have been
interpolations have been
hung.
hung. The god
god Krishna
Krishna interrupts
interrupts the
the slaughter
slaughter for
for a
a canto
canto to
to discourse
discourse
on the
the nobility
nobility of
of war and
and Krishifc; the dying Bhishma postpones his
Krishna; the dying Bhishma postpones his

death
death to to expound
expound the
the laws
laws of
of caste,
caste, bequest, marriage,
bequest, marriage, gifts gifts and
and funeral
funeral
rites,
rites, to
to explain
explain the philosophy of
the philosophy the Sankhya
of the Sankhya and and thethe Upanishads,
Upanishads, to to
narrate aa mass
narrate mass of legends, traditions
of legends, traditions and
and myths,
myths, and and toto lecture
lecture Yudishthira
Yudishthira •
at great length on the duties of a king; dusty stretches of genealogy
at genealogy and
great length the duties of a stretches of and
king; dusty
geography,
geography, of
of theology
theology and
and metaphysics, separate
metaphysics, separate the
the oases
oases of
of drama
drama and
and
action; fables and
action; fables and fairy-tales, love-stories and
fairy-tales, love-stories and lives
lives of the saints
of the saints contribute
contribute
to give
to give the Mababbarata aa formlessness
the Mahabharata formlessness worse,worse, and and aa body
body of thought.
of thought,
richer,
richer, than
than ~
can be
be found
found in
in either
either the
the Iliad or the Odyssey.
Iliad or the Odyssey. What was
was
evidently Kshatriyan enthronement
evidendy aa Kshatriyan enthronement of of action,
action, heroism
heroism and war becomes,
and war becomes,
in the
in hands of
the hands of the
the Brahmans,
Brahmans, aa vehicle
vehicle forfor teaching
teaching the the people
people thethe laws
laws
of Manu, the principles
of Manu, the principles of Yoga, the
of Yoga, the precepts
precepts of of morality,
morality, andand the
the beauty
beauty
Nirvana. The Golden
of Nirvana.
of Golden RuleRule isis expressed
expressed in many forms;*
in many forms;· moral aphor-
moral aphor-
isms of
isms of beauty
beauty and
and wisdom
wisdom abound;f
abound;t and and pretty stories of
pretty stories of marital fidelity
marital fidelity
(Nala and
(Nala and Damayanti, Savitri) convey
Damayanti, Savitri) convey to to women listeners
listeners thethe Brahman
Brahman
ideal of
ideal of the faithful tod
the faithful and patient
patient wife.
wife.
Embedded in the
Embedded in the narrative
narrative of
of the great battle
the great battle isis the
the loftiest
loftiest philosophical
philosophical
poem in the
poem in the world's
world's literature-the
literature Bhagavad-Gita, or
the Bhagavad-Gita, or Lord's Song. This
Lord's Song. This
*
.E.g.: ceDo naught
ILg.: "Do naught toto others which ifif done
others which done to
to thce
thee would
would cause
cause thee pain-''11 "Even
thee pain."* (<
if
Even if
the
the enemy seeks
enemy seeks help,
help, the
the good
good man
man will
will be
be ready
ready to grant him
to grant him aid.""
aid."· "With meekness
''With meekness
conquer wrath,
conquer and ill with
wrath, and ill with ruth; by giving
ruth; by niggards vanquish,
giving niggards vanquish, lies with truth."*
lies with truth."·
ttE.g.:
E.g.: "As
"As in the great
in die ocean one
great ocean one piece
piece of
of wood
wood meets another, and
meets another, and parts from itit
parts from
again, such
again, the meeting
such isis the of creatures."
meeting of creatures.''''
17
CHAP, XX)
CHAP.XX) THEELITE
TH LITERATURE
RA TURE 0OF INDIA
FIND IA 65
5565
isis the
the New Testament
Testament of of India,
India, revered
revered next
next to the Vedas
to the Vedas themselves,
themselves, andand
used in
used in the law-courts, like
the law-courts, like our
our Bible
Bible or the Koran,
or the Koran, forfor the
the administration
administration
of oaths* Wilhelm von
of oaths,1I von Humboldt
Humboldt pronounced
pronounced it it "the
"the most
most beautiful,
beautiful,
perhaps
perhaps the the only
only true,
true, philosophical song existing
philosophical song existing in
in any
any known tongue;
tongue;
• • , perhaps
. . .
perhaps the
the deepest
deepest and
and loftiest
loftiest thing
thing
the
the world
world has
has to
to show,"·
show.""
Sharing
Sharing the the anonymity
anonymity that that India,
India, careless
careless ofof the
the individual
individual and
and the
the par-
par-
ticular,
ticular, wraps
wraps around
around her
her creations,
creations, the
the Gita
Gita comes
comes to
to us
us without
without the
the
author's
author's name,
name, and
and without
without date.
date. It
It may
may be
be as
as old
old as 400 B,C,,·
as 400 B.C., or
or as
80
as young
young
11
as
as 200 A.D.
A.D.*

The mise-en-scene
mse-en-sc&ne of of the poem is
the poem is the
the battle
battle between
between thethe Kuros'
Kurus andand
the
the Pandavas;
Pandavas; the
the occasion
occasion is
is the
the reluctance
reluctance of
of the
the Pandava
Pandava warrior
warrior
Arjuna
Arjuna to attack in
to attack in mortal combat his
mortal combat his own near relatives in
near relatives in the
the opposing
opposing
force. To Lord Krishna,
force. Krishna, fighting
fighting by by his
his side
side like
like some
some Homeric
Homeric god,
god,
Arjuna
Arjuna speaks the philosophy of Gandhi
speaks the philosophy of Gandhi and and Christ:
Christ:

"As
"As II behold-come
behold come here here toto shed
shed
Their
Their common blood-yonblood-yon concourse
concourse of
of our
our kin,
kin,
My
My members
members fail, my tongue
fail, my tongue dries
dries in
in my
my mouth.
mouth. • • •
. . .

It is
It O Keshav!
is not
good, 0
not good, Naught of
Keshav! Naught of good
good
Can spring
Can spring from mutual
mutual slaughter!
slaughter! Lo,
Lo, II hate
hate
Triumph
Triumph and
and domination,
domination, wealth
wealth and ease
ease
Thus sadly won! Alas,
sadly won! Alas, what victory
victory
Can bring delight,
Can bring Govinda, what rich
delight, Govinda,
rich spoils
spoils
Could profit,
Could profit, what
what rule
rule recompense,
recompense, what what span
span
life itself
Of life itself seem
seem sweet, bought with
sweet, bought with such blood? • • •
such blood? . . .

Thus if if we slay
sky
Kinsfolk and
Kinsfolk and friends
friends for love of
for love of earthly
earthly power,
power,
what an
AhO'lJIlt! what
Ahovat! an evil
evil fault
fault it were!
it were!
Better II deem
Better deem it, if my
it, if my kinsmen
kinsmen strike,
strike,
face them
To face them weaponless,
weaponless, and and bare
bare mymy breast
breast
shaft and
To shaft and spear,
spear, than
than answer
answer blow
blow with blow.'"8
with blow." *

Krishna, whose
Thereupon Krishna,
Thereupon whose divinity does not detract from
divinity does
not detract from his joy in
his joy in
battle, explains, with
battle, explains, with all
all the
the authority
authority of of aa son
son of
of Vishnu,
Vishnu, that
that according
according
to the Scriptures,
to the Scriptures, and
and the
the best
best orthodox
orthodox opinion,
opinion, it
it is
is meet
meet and
and just
just to kill
to kill

one's relatives
one's in war;
relatives in war; that
that Arjuna's
Arjuna's dutyduty isis to
to follow
follow thethe rules
rules of his
of his
Kshatriya caste, to fight and
Kshatriya caste, to fight
and sky with aa good
slay with conscience and a good
good conscience and a will;
good will;
that after all, only
that after all, only the
the body is
is
body slain, slain, while
while the
the soul
soul survives.
survives. And he
he ex-
ex-
566
$66 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.n:
(CHAP.XX

pounds
pounds the imperishable Purusb,
the imperishable of Sankbyll,
furusha of Sankhya, the unchanging Atmtm
the unchanging Atman of
of
the Upanishads:
the Upmishads:
ccindestruet1Dle,
'Indestructible,
Learn thou, ~e
Learn thou, the Life
Life is, spreading
spreading life
is, life through all;
through all;
It
It cannot
cannot anywhere, by any
anywhere, by any means, means,
Be
Be anywise
anywise diminished, stayed or
diminished, stayed or changed.
changed.
But
But for
for these
these :fleeting
fleeting
frames
frames which
which itit informs
informs
With spirit deathless, endless,
spirit deathless, endless,
infinite-
infinite-

They perish.
They perish.
Let
Let them
them perish, Prince, and
perish, Prince,
and fight!
fight!
He who shallshall say, 'Lo, II have slain a manIt
say, 'Lo, have slain a man!'
He who shallshall think,
think, 'Lo,
*Lo, I I am slain!'
slain!' those
those both
both
Know naught.
naught Life
Life cannot
cannot slay!
slay!
Life
Life is not
is not slain!
slain!

Never thethe spirit

spirit
was
was born;
born; the spirit shall cease to
the spirit shall cease to be
be never;
never;
Never was time it was
time it was not;
not; End and and Beginning
Beginning are
are dreams!
dreams!
Birthless and deathless
Birthless and and changeless·
deathless and remaineth the spirit forever;
changeless" remaineth the spirit forever;
Death hath not
Death hath not touched
touched it it at
at all, dead
dead though
all, though thethe house
house of
of it
it

seems.'"
seems."*

Krishna
Krishna proceeds
proceeds to
to instruct Arjuna in
instruct Arjuna in metaphysics,
metaphysics, blending Sankhya
blending Sankhya
Vedanta in
and VedmtlJ in the
the peculiar synthesis by the
peculiar synthesis accepted by the Vaishnavite sect.
accepted Vaishnavite sect.
All things, he
An things, he says, identifying
says, identifying himself
himself with
with the
the Supreme Being,
Supreme Being,
"hang
'Tiang on me
.As hangs aa row of
As hangs pearls upon
of pearls upon itsits string.
string.
I
I am ~e fresh taste
the fresh taste of
of the
the water;
water; II
silver of
The silver of the
the moon,
moon, the gold o'
the gold the sun,
0' the sun,
word of
The word of worship
worship in the Veds,
in the Veds, thethe thrill
thrill
That passeth
That passeth inin the
the ether,
ether, and and the
the strength
strength
man's shed
Of man's seed. II am the
shed seed. the good
good sweet
sweet smell
smell
the moistened
Of the moistened earth,
earth, II am die nre's red
the fire's red light,
light,
moving in
air moving
vital air
The vital in all which moves,
all which moves,
holiness of
The holiness of hallowed
hallowed souls,souls, the
the root
root
Undying, whence
Undying, whence hath sprung whatever
hath sprung whatever is; is;
wisdom of
The wisdom of the wise, the
the wise, intellect
the intellect
Of the
Of the informed,
informed, the the greatness
greatness of of the
the great,
great,
The splendor
The splendor of of the
the splendid.
splendid. • • •
. . .

To himhim who wisely sees,

wisely sees,
The Brahman
The Brahman with his scrolls
with his scrolls and
and sanctities,
sanctities,
The cow,
The cow, the
the elephant,
elephant, thethe unclean
unclean dog,
dog,
The outcaste
The outcaste gorging
gorging dog's
dog's meat, all are
meat, all are one."
one.''''
84
CHAP. xx)
CHAP.XX) THE
THE LITERATURE OF INDIA
LITERATURE OF INDIA 567
567

It is aa poem
It is poem rich in complementary
rich in complementary colors, colors, in
in metaphysical
metaphysical and
and ethical
ethical
contradictions that
contradictions that reflect
re8.ect the
the contrariness
contrariness and and complexity
complexity ofof life. We
life. We
are
are a
a little
little shocked
shocked to
to find
find the
the man
man taking what
taking what might might seem
seem to
to be
be the
the
higher moral
higher moral stand,
stand, while
while thethe god
god argues
argues for for war
war and
and slaughter
slaughter on the
on the
shifty ground
shifty ground that that life
life is unkillable
is unkiHable and arid individuality unreal What
individuality unreal What the
the
author had
author had inin mind
mind to to do,
do, apparently,
apparendy, was was to
to shake the Hindu
shake the Hindu soul
soul out
out
of the
of the enervating
enervating quietism
quietism of of Buddhist
Buddhist piety piety into
into aa willingness
willingness toto fight
fight
for India;
for India; itit was
was the
the rebellion
rebellion of of aa Kshatriya
Kshatriya who who felt
felt that
that religion
religion was
was
weakening his
weakening his country,
country, andand who
who proudly
proudly reckoned
reckoned that many things
that many things were
were
more precious
more precious thanthan peace.
peace. All All in all itit was
in all was aa good
good lesson
lesson which, if India
which, if India
had learned it, might
had learned it, might have
have kept
kept her
her free.
free.

The second
The ~f the
second of Indian epics
the Indian epics isis the
the most
most famous
famous and
and best
best beloved
beloved of
of
all Hindu
all Hindu books,
books,· and
and lends
85
lends itself
itself more
more readily than the
readily than Mahabbllfata to
the Mahabharata to
Occidental understanding.
Occidental understanding. The
The RmnaYf11/,Q is
is briefer, merely
Ramayana briefer, merely running running to
to a
a
thousand pages
thousand pages of of forty-eight
forty-eight lines
lines each;
each; andand though
though it, too, too, grew
it, grew by by
accretion
accretion from
from the
the third
third century
century B.e.
B.C. to
to the
the second
second century
century A.D., A.D., the
die inter-
inter-

polations
polations
are
are fewer,
fewer, and
and do
do not
not much
much disturb
disturb thethe central
central theme. Tradition
theme. Tradition
attributes the poem
attributes the poem to
to one
one Valmiki, who,
Valmiki, who, like
like the
the supposed
supposed author
author of
of the
the
larger epic, appears as
larger epic, appears
as a character in
a character in the
the tale;
tale; but probably it
but more probably it is
is the
the
product of many
product of many wayside
wayside bards
bards like
like those
those who still
still recite
recite these
these epics,
epics,
*
sometimes
sometimes for for ninety
ninety
consecutive
consecutive evenings,
evenings, to
to fascinated
fascinated audiences,-
audiences
.As the Mahabharata
As the Mahabharata resembles
resembles the Iliad in
the Iliad in being
being the
the story
story of of aa great
great
war fought by
war fought by godsgods and
and men,
men, and
and partly
partly
occasioned
occasioned by
by the
the loss
loss of
of a
a beau-
beau-
tiful
tiful woman
woman fromfrom one
one nation
nation to
to another,
another, so the Ramay
so the Eamayana fl'TllJ, resembles
resembles the the
Odyssey, and tells of a hero's hardships and
Odyssey, and tells of a hero's hardships
and wanderings,
wanderings, and of of his
his wife's
wife's

patient waiting for reunion with

for reunion with him,"
him.* At the the ou~et get
get a picture
picture of
7
outset we a of
patient waiting
aGolden
a Golden Age, when Dasa-ratha, fromfrom his capital Ayodhya, ruled the king-
his capital Ayodhya, ruled the king-
Age, when Dasa-ratha,
dom
dom ofof Kosala
Kosala (now
(now Oudh).
Oudh) .

Rich in royal
Rich in royal
worth
worth andand valor,
valor, rich
rich in
in holy
holy Vedic
Vedic lore,
lore,

Dasa-ratha ruled his empire

Dasa-ratha ruled his empire in in the
the happy days
happy days of
of yore.•••
yore.
. . .

Peaceful
Peaceful lived
lived the
the righteous people, rich in
rich in wealth,
wealth, in
in merit
merit high;
high;
righteous people,
Envy dwelt
dwelt not
not in their bosoms,
in their bosoms, ~d
and their
their accents
accents shaped
shaped no
no lie.
lie.
Envy
Fathers with their happy
Fathers with their happy households
households owned
owned their
their cattle,
cattle, com
corn and
and
gold;
gold;
Galling penury and
Galling penury
and famine in Ayodhya
famine in Ayodhya had had no
no hold.·
hold.
88
\.568
\568 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XX
(CHAP.XX

I Nearby
Nearby was another happy
was another happy kingdom,
kingdom, Videha,
Videha, over
over which
which King
King Janak'
Janak
ruled.
ruled. HeHe himself
himself "held
"held the
the plough
plough and
and tilled
tilled the
the earth"
earth" like
like some
some doughty
doughty
Cincinnatus;
Qncinnatus; andand one
one day,
day, at
at the
the touch
touch of of his
his plough,
plough, a a lovely
lovely daughter,
daughter,
Sita,
Sita, sprang
sprang up
up from
from aa furrow
furrow of of the
the soil.
soil. Soon
Soon Sita
Sita had
had toto be
be married,
married, and
and
Janak
Janak held
held a
a contest
contest for
for her
her suitors:
suitors: he
he who could
could unbend
unbend Janak's
Janak's bow
bow
of
of war should win
war should win the
the bride.
bride. To thethe contest
contest came
came the
the oldest
oldest son
son of
of Dasa-
Dasa-
ratha-Rama
ratha Rama "lion-chested,
"lion-chested, mighty
mighty armed,
arm6d, lotus-eyed, stately
lotus-eyed, stately as
as the
the jungle
jungle
tusker, with his
tusker, with his crown
crown of of tresses
tresses tied."· Only
Only Rama bent bent the bow; and
the bow;
88
tied." and
Janak offered him
Janak offered him his
his daughter
daughter with
with the
the characteristic
characteristic formula
formula of
of Hindu
Hindu
marnage:
marriage:

This is
This is Sita,
Sita, child of Janak,
child of Janak, dearer
dearer unto him than
unto him than life;
life;

Henceforth
Henceforth sharer of thy
sharer of thy virtue,
virtue, be
be she,
she, prince, thy faithful wife;
prince, thy faithful wife;
Of thy
thy weal
weal and
and woe partaker,
partaker, be
be she
she thine
thine in
in every
every land;
land;
Cherish
Cherish her in joy and sorrow, clasp her hand
her in joy and within
sorrow, clasp her hand within thy thy hand;
hand;
As the
the shadow
shadow to to the substance, to
the substance, to her lord is
her lord faithful wife,
is faithful wife,
And my
my Sita, best of
Sita, best of women,
women, follows. thee in
follows, thee in death
death or
or life:"·
life.""

So Rama returns
So returns to
to Ayodhya with his
Ayodhya with his princess-bride-"ivory brow
princess-bride-"ivory brow and
and
lip
lip of
of coral, sparkling
coral, sparkling teeth
teeth of
of pearly
pearly sheen"-and
sheen"-and wins
wins the
the love
love of
of the
the
Kosalas by
Kosalas by his
his piety, his and his
gentleness, and
piety, his gentleness, his generosity. Suddenly evil
generosity. Suddenly evil
enters 'into
enters this Eden
into this Eden in the form
in the form of Dasa-ratha's second
of Dasa-ratha's wife, Kaikeyi.
second wife, Kaikeyi.
Dasa-ratha has promised
Dasa-ratha has promised her any boon
her any boon she may ask;
she may ask; and
and now,
now, jealous
jealous of
of
the first
the first wife,
wife, whose
whose son heir to
son Rama isis heir to the
the throne,
throne, she
she requires Dasa-ratha
requires Dasa-ratha
to banish
to banish Rama fromfrom the
the kingdom
kingdom for
for fourteen years. Dasa-ratha,
fourteen years. Dasa-ratha, with
with aa
sense of
sense of honor
honor which
which only
only aa poet
poet unacquainted with politics
unacquainted with politics could
could con-
con-
ceive, keeps
ceive, keeps his
his word, and, broken-hearted, exiles his favorite
word, and, broken-hearted, exiles his favorite son. Rama son. RaIna
forgives him
forgives him handsomely,
handsomely, andand prepares
prepares toto go
go and
and live
live in
in the
the forest,
forest, alone;
alone;
but Sita
but ins~ upon
Sita insists upon going with him.
going with Her speech
him. Her speech isis part
part ofof the memory
the memory
of almost
of almost every
every Hindu
Hindu bride:
bride:

"Car and
"Oar and steed
steed and gilded palace,
and gilded palace. vain
vain are
are these
these to
to woman's
woman's life;
life;
Dearer is her husband's shadow to
Dearer is her husband's shadow to the
the loved and loving wife.
loved and wife. .. • .
loving . .

Happier than
Happier than in
in father's
father's mansions, in the
mansioDS, in the woods
woods will
will Sita rove,
Sita rove,
Waste no
Waste no thought
thought onon home
home oror kindred,
kindred, nestling in her
nestling in her hus-
hus-
band's love.
band's love••••
. . .

And the wild

And the fruit she
wild fruit will gather
she will gather from
from thethe fresh
fresh and
and fragrant
fragrant
wood,
wood,
And the
And the food
food by tasted shall
Rama tasted
by Rama shall be
be Ska's
Sita's cherished
cherished food."*
food.." A
CHAP. xx)
CHAP.XX) THE LITERATURE OF INDIA 569
569
his 'brother
Even his 'brother Lakshman
Lakshman begs
begs leave
leave to
to accompany Rama:
accompany Rama:
"All alo~e with
"All alone gen~e Sita
with gentle Sita thou shalt
thou shalt trace
trace thy darksome way;
thy darksome way;
Grant it
Grant It that thy faithful
that thy faithful Lakshman
Lakshman shall protect her
shall protect her night
night and
and day;
day;
Grant it
Grant his bow and
with his
it with quiver Lakshman
and quiver Lakshman shall
shall all forests roam,
all forests roam,
And his
his axe
axe shall
shall fell
fell the
the jungle, and his
jungle, and his hands
hands shall
shall rear
rear the
the
home."·
home.""

The epic
The epic becomes
becomes at this point
at this point aa sylvan
sylvan idyl,
idyl, telling
telling how Ranta, Sita
how Rama, Sita
and Lakshman
and Lakshman set out for
set out the woods;
for the woods; howhow thethe population
population of of Ayodhya,
Ayodhya,
mourning
mourning for
for them,
them, travel
travel with
with them
them all
all the
the first
first day; how
day; how
the
the exiles
exiles steal
steal
away from their solicitous
away from their comp~y at
solicitous company night, abandon
at night, abandon allall their
their valuables
valuables
and princely raiment,
and princely raiment, dress
dress themselves
themselves in in bark
bark and
and matted
matted grass, clear
clear aa
grass,
way through
way through the
the forest with their
forest with their swords,
swords, and
and live
live on
on the
the fruits
fruits and
and nuts
nuts
the trees.
of the trees.
of

Oft to RaIna
Oft to turned his
Rama turned his consort, pleased and
consort, pleased and curious
curious ever more,
ever more,
Asked the
Asked the name of tree or
of tree creeper, fruit
or creeper, or flower
fruit or flower unseen
unseen before
before...•
Peacocks :flew
Peacocks flew around them
them gayly,
gayly, monkeys
monkeys leapt
leapt on
on branches
branches
bent. •...
bent. •• .
Rama plunged
plunged into
into the
the river
river 'neath
'neath the
the morning's
morning's crimson
crimson beam,
beam,
sofdy sought the waters as the lily seeks the stream.'*
Sita softly sought the
Sita waters as the lily seeks the stream. 48

They build ~a hut

They build hut beside
beside thethe river,
river, and
and learn
learn to to love
love their life in
their, life in ,the
the
woods.
woods. But But a a southern
southern princess, Surpa-nakha, wandering in
princess, Surpa-nakha, wandering
in the
the forest,
forest,
meets Ranta,
meets Rama, falls
falls in
in love
love with
with him,
him, resents
resents his
his virtue,
virtue, and
and instigates
instigates her
her
brother Ravan
brother Ravan to to come
come and and kidnap
kidnap Sita.
Sita. He succeeds,
succeeds, snatches
snatches herher away
away
to his
to his distant
distant castle,
castle, and
and tries
tries in
in vain
vain to
to seduce
seduce her.
her. Since
Since no~
nothing is is im-
im-
possible
possible
to
to gods
gods and authors, Rama raises
and authors, raises a a great army, in~ades
great army, invades Ravan's
Ravan's
realm,
realm, defeats
defeats him
him in
in battle,
battle, rescues
rescues Sita,
Sita, and
and then
then (his years
(his years of
of exile
exile having
having
ended)
ended) Hies
flies with
with her
her inin an
an airplane back to Ayodhya, where another loyal:
airplane back to Ayodhya,
another loyal'
brother gladly
'brother gladly
surrenders
surrenders to him
to him the
the Kosala
Kosala throne.
throne.
. In what is
In what is probably a
probably a laterlater epilogue, Ranta
epilogue, gives way
Rama gives way to to the
the sceptics
sceptics
who
who will
will not
not believe that Sita
believe that Sita could
could have been so
have been so ,long
long in
in Ravan's
Ravan's .palace
palace
without being occasionally
without being occasionally in
in his
his arms.
arms. Though
Though she
she passes
passes through the
through the
Ordeal
Ordeal of of Fire
Fire toto prove to a f~rest
prove her her innocence,
innocence, he he sends
sends her away to
her away forest

hermitage
hermitage
with
with that
that bitter
bitter trick
trick ofof heredity ~hereby
heredity whereby one
one gener~tion repeats
generation repeats
upon the
the next
next the sins and
the sins and errors which
errors which it it suffered
suffered from'
from its elders in
its elders in its
its
upon
youth. In
In the
the woods
woods Sita
Sita meets
meets Valmiki,
Valmiki, and bears
bears two sonssons to to ~.
Rama.
youth.
570
570 CIVILIZATION
THE StORY OF CIVILIZAtION (CHAP. XX
(CHAP.XX

Many
Many years later these sons, as traveling minstrels, sing before
years later these sons, as traveling minstrels, sing
before the
th6 unhappy
unhappy I

Rama the
RaIna the epic composed about him by Valmiki from
epic composed about him by Valmiki
from Sita's memories. He
Sita's memories.

recognizes
recognizes the
die boys
boys as
as his
his own,
own, and
and sends
sends a
a message
message begging Sita
begging Sita to
to return.
return.
But
But Sita,
Sita, broken-hearted over the
broken-hearted over the suspicion
suspicion to which s~e
to which she has
has been
been sub-
sub-
jected, disappears
jected, disappears
into
into the
the earth
earth that
that was
was once
once her
her mother.
mother. Rama reigns
reigns
many
many years
years in
in loneliness
loneliness and sorrow, and
and sorrow, under his
and under kindly sway
his kindly sway Ayodhya
Ayodhya
knows
knows again
again the
the Utopia
Utopia ofof Dasa-ratha's
Dasa-ratha's days:
days:

And 'tis told by

'tis told
by ancient
ancient sages, during Rama's happy reign,
sages, during Rama's happy reign,
Death
Death untimely,
untimely, dire
dire diseases,
diseases, came
came not
not to
to his
his subject men;
subject men;
Widows wept wept not
not in
in their
their sorrow
sorrow for
for their
their lords
lords untimely lost,
untimely lost,
Mothers
Mothers wailed
wailed not
not inin their
their anguish for
anguish for their
their babes
babes by Yama crost;
by crost;
Robbers,
Robbers, cheats
cheats and
and gay
gay deceivers
deceivers tempted
tempted not
not with
with lying word,
lying word,
Neighbor loved his
Neighbor loved his righteous neighbor, and
righteous neighbor, and the the people
people loved
loved their
their
lord.
lord.
Trees
Trees their
their ample produce
ample produce yieldedyielded as
as returning seasons
returning seasons went,went,
And the
the earth in grateful
earth in gladness never-failing
grateful gladness never-failing harvest
harvest lent.
lent.

Rains descended in
Rains descended in their
their season,
season, never
never came
came thethe blighting gale,
blighting gale,
Rich in
Rich in crop and
crop and rich
rich in
in pasture
pasture was
was each
each soft
soft and
and smiling vale.
smiling vale.
Loom andand anvil
anvil gave their
gave their produce,
produce, and
and the
the tilled
tilled and
and fertile
fertile soil,
soil,

the nation
And the nation lived
lived rejoicing in their old ancestral toil."u
rejoicing in their old ancestral toil.

It is
It is a
delightful story,
a delightful story, which
which eveneven a a modem
modern cynic
cynic can enjoy if
can enjoy he is.
if he is.

wise enough
wise enough to to yield
yield himself
himself now and and then
then to romance and
to romance the rut
and the lilt of
of song.
song.
These poems,
These though perhaps
poems, though perhaps inferior
inferior to to the
the epics
epics ofof Homer in in literary
literary
quality-in
quality logic of
in logic of structure,
structure, and and splendor
splendor of language, in
of language, in depth of
depth of por-por-
traiture and
traiture and fidelity
fidelity toto the
the essence
essence of of things-are
things-are distinguished
distinguished by by fine
fine

feeling,
feeling, a
a lofty
lofty idealization
idealization of
of woman and
and man, and a vigorous-sometimes
man, and a vigorous sometimes
realistic-representation
realistic
representation of
of life.
life. Rama and
and Sita are
Sita are too
too good
good toto be true,
be true,
but Draupadi
but Draupadi and and Yudhishthira,
Yudhishthira, Dhrita-rashtra
Dhrita-rashtra and and Gandhari,
Gandhari, are are almost
almost
'as living as
as living as Achilles
Achilles and and Helen,
Helen, Ulysses
Ulysses and and Penelope.
Penelope. The The Hindu
Hindu would
would
rightly protest
rightly protest that
that no
no foreigner
foreigner can
can judge
judge these
these epics,
epics,
or
or even
even understand
understand
them. To him
them. him they
they are
are not
not mere
mere stories, they are
stories, they gallery of
are aa gallery of ideal
ideal char-
char-
acteIS upon
acters upon whom he may mould
he may mould his his conduct;
conduct; theythey are
are aa repertory
repertory of of the
the
traditions, philosophy
traditions, philosophy and
and theology
theology of
of his
his people;
people; in
in a:
a sense they are sacred
sense they are sacred
scriptures
scriptures to
to be
be read
read as
as a
a Christian
Christian reads
reads The
The Imitation
Imitation of Christ
of Christ oror The
The
Lwes of
Lives of the
the Saints.
Saints. The piouspious Hindu
Hindu believes
believes that Krishna and
that Krishna Rama were
and Rama were
incarnations of
incarnations of divinity,
divinity, and
and still prays to
still prays to them;
them; andand when
when hehe reads
reads their
their
st~ry
story in
in these
these epics
epics he
he feels
feels that
that he
he derives
derives religious
religious
merit
merit as
as well
well as
as literary
literary
CHAP. xx)
CHAP.XX) THE
THE LITERATURE OF INDIA
LITERATURE OF INDIA 57 1
57*

delight and moral exaltation. He

delight and moral exaltation. He that if he reads the Rtrmayana he
trusts that if he reads the Ramayma he
trusts

will be cleansed of all sin, and will beget a son;" and he accepts with
will be cleansed of all sin, and will
48

beget a son; and he accepts with

simple faith the proud conclusion of the Mahllbhll1atll:
simple faith the proud conclusion of the Mahabharata:

If aa man
If reads the
man reads Mahabbllfllta and
the Mahabhwata and has
has faith in its
faith in its doctrines,
doctrines, hehe
becomes
becomes free
free from all sin, and ascends to heaven
from all sin, and ascends to heaven after his after his death.
death.. • ••
. .

As butter isis to
As butter to all other food,
all other food, asas Brahmans
Brahmans are are toto all other men,
all other men,
• • • as
. . as the
. ocean isis to
the ocean to aa pool
pool of
of water,
water, as the cow
as the cow isis to all other
to all other
quadrupeds-so isis the
quadrupeds-so Mababbarata to
the Mahabharata other histories.
all other
to all histories. ...
• . . He
He
who attentively
who attentively listens
listens toto the sblokas· of
the shlokas* of the Mababbarata, and
the Mahabharata, has
and has
faith
faith in
in them, enjoys
them, enjoys a
a long life and solid reputation
long life and solid reputation in
in this
this world,
world,
and an
and an eternal
eternal abode
abode in in the
the heavens
heavens in in the
the next
next.'"
46

IV.
IV. DRAMA
Origi'lls-"Tbe Clay
Origtos-"The Cart"-Cbarllcteristics
Cl,lY Cart" of Hindu
-Characteristics of Hindu drama-Kali-
drama-KIlli-
dlUa
dasa -
- The
The story
story of "Sbllkuntfllti' -
of "Shakuntaltf* of Indian
Estimate of
- Estimate Indian
drfl'1lZ4
drama

In one sense
In one drama in
sense drama India is
in India as old
is as old as the VedllS,
as the Vedas, forfor at
at least the germ
least the germ
of drama
of lies in
drama lies the Upanishads.
in the Doubdess older than these Scriptures is a
Scriptures
Doubtless older than these is a
Upanishads.
more
more active
active source
source ofof the
the drama-the
drama the sacrificial
sacrificial and
and festival ceremonies and
festival ceremonies and
processions
processions
of
of religion.
religion.
A third
third origin
origin
was
was in
in the
the dance-no
dance no mere release release

of energy, much less a substitute

of energy, much less a substitute for
for coitus,
coitus, but
but a
a serious
serious ritual
ritual imitating
imitating
and
and suggesting actions
actions andand events vital
events vital toto the
the tribe.
tribe. Perhaps
Perhaps a a fourth
fourth
suggesting
source lay in the
source lay in the public public and
and animated
animated recitation
recitation of
of epic
epic verse..
verse. These
factors
factors cooperated to produce the the Indian
Indian theatre,
theatre, and gave it
and gave it a
a religious
cooperated to produce religious
stamp that lingered throughout
stamp that lingered throughout
the
the classic
classic aget
agef in
in the
the serious
serious nature
nature of
of the
the
drama, the benediction that
drama, thethe Vedie
Vedic or or epic source ofof its
its subjects, and the benediction that
epic source subjects,
always preceded the play.
the play.
always preceded

Perhaps the final stimulus to drama

stimulus to drama came
came from
from the intercourse, established
the intercourse, established
Perhaps the final
by Alexander's
by Alexander's invasion,
between India
invasion, between India and
and Greece. We
Greece. We have no evidence
have no evidence
of Hindu dramas
of Hindu dramas before
before Ashoh, and only
Ashoka, and only uncertain
uncertain evidence during his
evidence during his

reign. The
The oldest
oldest extant Hindu plays
extant Hindu plays are the palm-leaf
are the palm-leaf manuscripts
manuscripts lately
ktely
reign.
discovered in Chinese
discovered in Chinese Turkestan.
Turkestan. Among
Among them
them were
were three
three dramas,
dramas, one
one of
of
which names as its author Ashvaghosha, a
a theological luminary at
which names as its author Ashvaghosha, theological luminary at^Kanishka's Kanishka's
court.
court The
The technical
technical form
form of this play, and
of this and the
the -resemblance of it:s
-resemblance of its buffoon
buffoon
play,

•*Couplets.
Couplets*
t I.e., the
the age
age in which
literature used
in which literature used Sanskrit
Sanskrit as its medium.
as its medium.
 57" THE STORY
THE OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION XX
{CRAP. 'XX
(CHAP.

to the
to the type
type traditionally characteristic of
traditionally characteristic of the
the Hindu
Hindu theatre,
theatre, suggest
suggest that
that
1
drama was already
drama was already old
old in
in India
India when
when Ashvaghosha
Ashvaghosha was
was born."
born.* In
In 19 10
1910
thirteen ancient Sanskrit plays
thirteen ancient Sanskrit plays were
were found
found, in
in Travancore,
Travancore,
I which
which are
are dubi-
dubi-
ously ascnbed to Bhasa (ca.
to Bhasa (ca. 350 A.D.), aa dramatic
3So A.D.), dramatic predecessor
predecessor much honored
honored
ously ascribed
Kalic1asa. In
by Kalidasa. In the
the prologue to to his
prologue
Malavika
his Makvika Kalidasa unconsciously
Kalidasa unconsciously butbut
by
admirably illustrates the
admirably illustrates
the relativity
relativity of
of time
time and
and adjectives:
adjectives: "Shall
"Shall we,"
we," he
he
, asks,
asks, "neglect
"neglect the
the works
works of
of such
such renowned
renowned authors
authors as
as Bhasa,
Bhasa, Saumilla,
Saumilla, and
and
Kaviputra? Can tie
Kaviputra? Can
the audience
audience feel any respect
feel any respect for
for the
the work ofof aa modern
modem
poet,
poet,
a Kalidasa?,,.
a Kalidasa?"*
8

Until recently,
Until the oldest
recently, the oldest Hindu play known
Hindu pky research was
to research
ImOWD to Clay
was The Clay
Cart. The
Cart. The text,
text, which
which need not be
need not be believed,
believed, names
names as author of
as author of the
the play play
an obscure
an obscure King
King Shudraka, is described
Shudraka, who is described as
as an
an expert in the
expert in the Vedas, in
Vedas, in
elephants, and in the art of love." In
of elephants, 40
mathematics, in
mathematics, in the management of
the management and in the art of love. In
any
any
event
event he
he was
was an
an expert
expert
in
in the
the theatre.
theatre. His play is
His play is by
by all
all means
means the
the
most interesting that has
most interesting that has come
come to
to us
us from
from India-a
India a clever
clever combination
combination of
of
melodrama and
melodrama and humor,
humor, with excellent passages
with excellent passages of
of poetic
poetic fervor
fervor and
and de-
de-,
scription.
scription.

A synopsis of its plot will

synopsis of its plot
will serve better than
serve better than a volume of
a volume of commentary
commentary to to
illustrate the character
illustrate the character of
of Indian
Indian drama.
drama. In
In Act I
I we meet
meet Charu-datta,
Charu-datta, once
rich,
rich, now impoverished
impoverished by by generosity
generosity and and bad
bad fortune.
fortune. His friendfriend Maitreya,
Maitreya,
aa stupid Brahman,
Brahman, acts
acts as as jester in the play.
in the play.
Chant
Charu asks
asks Maitreya
Maitreya to
to offer
offer anan
stupid jester
oblation
oblation to to the
the gods, but the Brahman refuses, saying: u"What's
gods, but the Brahman refuses, saying:
"What's ·the the use,
use,
when the the gods
gods youyou have
have worshiped
worshiped ,have
.have done
done nothing
nothing for
for you?'~ Suddenly
you?" Suddenly
young Hin~u
aa young Hindu woman,woman, of high family
of high family andand greatgreat wealth,
wealth, rushes
rushes into into
Cham's
Cham's courtyard, seeking
courtyard, seeking refuge refuge from
from a
a pursuer
pursuer who turns
turns out
out to be the
to the
King's brother,
King's brother, Samsthanaka-as
Samsdianaka as completely
completely and
and incredloly
incredibly evil
evil as
as Cham
Charu is
is

completely and irrevocably good.

completely and irrevocably good. Charu protects Charu protects the
the gir~
girl,
sends
sends Samsthanaka
Samsthanaka
off,
off, and
and scorns
scorns thethe latter's
latter's threat
threat of vengeance. The girl,
of vengeance. Vasanta-sena, asks
girl, Vasanta-sena,
asks
Cham
Charu to to keep a
a casket
casket of
of jewels in
in safe custody
safe custody for
for her,
her, lest
lest her
her enemies
enemies
keep jewels
steal it from
steal it from her,her, and
and lest
lest she
she may
may havehave no excuse
excuse for for revisiting
revisiting
her
her rescuer.
rescuer.
He agrees,
agrees,
takes
takes the
the casket,
casket, and
and escorts
escorts her
her to
to her
her palatial
palatial
home.
home. ·
Act n II is
is a a comic
comic interlude.
interlude. A gambler, running away
gambler, running away from two other
other
~blers,
gamblers, takes refuge in
takes refuge in aa temple.
temple. "When
When theythey enter
enter hehe eludes
eludes them by by pos-
pos-
mg
ing as
as the
the idol
idol of
of the
the shrine.
shrine. The pursuing gamblers
pursuing gamblers pinch pinch him to
to see
see if
if he
he
is r~ally a
is stone god, but he does not move. They abandon their search, and
really a stone god, but he does not move. They abandon their search, and
c~nsole
console th~elv~
themselves ~~. with a.pue
a game of dice at
of dice at the
the foot
foot of of ~e
the altar.
altar. The game
game
becomes so so exciting
exciting
that
that the
the "statue,"
"statue," unable
unable to.
to. control
control himself,
himself, leaps
leaps
off
off his
his
pedestal,
pedestal, and asks
asks leav.e
leave to
to take
take ,part.
part The
The others
others beat
beat him;
him; he
he again
again finds
finds
CHAP.xx:)
CHAP.XX) THE
THE LITERATURE
LITERATURE OF
OF INDIA
INDIA 573
573

help in
help his heels,
in his heels, and
and isis saved
saved by
by Vasanta-sena,
Vasanta-sena, who recognizes
who recognizes in him aa
in him
former servant
former servant of
of Charu-datta.
Charu-datta.
Act III
Act III shows
shows ChamCham andand Maitreya
Maitreya returning
returning from from aa concert
concert. A thief,
A thief,
Sharvilaka,
Sharvilaka, breaks
breaks in,
in, and
and steals
steals the
the casket.
casket. Cham, discovering
Charu, discovering the
the theft,
theft,
feels disgraced,
feels disgraced, and and sends
sends Vasanta-sena
Vasanta-sena his his last string of
last string of pearls
pearls as
as aa substitute.
substitute.
In Act
In Act IV IV Sharvilaka seen offering
Sharvilaka isis seen offering thethe stolen casket to
stolen casket Vasanta-sena's
to Vasanta-sena's
maid as
maid as aa bribe
bribe forfor her
her love.
love. Seeing that itit isis her
Seeing that her mistress'
mistress' casket,
casket, she
she berates
berates
Sharvilaka as
Sharvilaka as aa thief.
thief. He answers
answers her her with
with Schopenhauerian
Schopenhauerian acerbity:
acerbity:

A woman will
will for money smile
for money smile or
or weep
weep
According to
According to your
your will; makes aa man
she makes
will; she man
Put trust
Put in her,
trust in her, but
but trusts him not
trusts him not herself.
herself.
Women areare asas inconstant
inconstant asas the
the waves
waves
Of ocean,
Of ocean, their
their affection
affection is as fugitive
is as fugitive
As streak
As streak of ~et glow
of sunset glow upon
upon aa cloud.
cloud.
They cling
They cling with
with eager
eager
fondness
fondness to
to the man
the man
yields them
Who yields them wealth,
wealth, which
which they
they squeeze
squeeze out
out like
like sap
sap
Out of a juicy plant, and then
Out of juicy plant, and then they
a they leave
leave -him.
him.

The
The maid refutes him
maid refutes him by
by forgiving him, and
forgiving him,
Vasanta-sena by
and Vasanta-sena by allowing them
allowing them
ro~.
to marry.
- .
At
At the
the opening
opening of of Act
Act V Vasanta-sena
Vasanta-sena comes comes to Cham's house to retunt
to Charu's house to return
both his
both jewels and
his jewels and herher casket.
casket WhileWhile sheshe is is there
there a a storm
storm blows
blows up, up, which
she describes
she describes inin excellent
excellent Sanskrit.·
Sanskrit* The storm storm obligingly increases
increases its fury,
its
obligingly fury,
and
and compels her,
compels her, much
much according
according to
to her
her will,
will, to
to spend
spend the
the night
night under
Cham's
Charu's roof.
roof.
Act
Act VI shows
VI shows V uanta leaving
Vasanta Cham's househouse the next morning.
the next morning. By By mis-
mis-
leaving Charu's
take
take she
she steps
steps
not
not into
into the
the carriage
carriage
he
he has
has summoned for for her,
her, but into one
but into one
which
which belongs Samsthanaka. Act vn
to the villainous Samsthanaka. VB isis concerned
concerned with a a
belongs to the villainous
subordinate
subordinate plot, inessential
inessential to to the
the theme.
theme. Act VIII VIII finds Vasanta deposited,
finds Vasanta deposited,
plot,
not in
not in her
her palace
palace
as
as she
she had
had expected,
expected,
but in
but in the
the home, almost in
home, almost in the
the arms,
arms, ofof
her enemy.
her enemy. When she
she again spurns
again spurns
his
his love
love he
he chokes
chokes her,
her, and buries
buries her.
her.

Then
Then he he goes
goes
to
to court
court and
and lodges
lodges against
against CIiaru
Qiaru aa charge
charge of
of murdering
murdering
Vasanta
Vasanta for
for her
her jewels.
jewels.
Act
Act IX
IX describes
describes the in which
trial, in
the trial, which Maitreya
Maitreya unwittingly
unwittingly betrays
betrays hishis mas-

ter ~y letting
ter Vasanta's
Vasanta's jewels fall
fall from
from his
his pocket. Charu
Charu is condemned
is condemned to
to
by letting jewels pocket.
death. In Act X
death. In Act X Charu Charu is'
is seen
seen on
on his
his way
way to
to execution.
execution. His
His child
child pleads
pleads
with
with the
the executioners
executioners to to be
be allowed
allowed to take his
to take his place, but
place, they .refuse.
but they refuse. AtAt the
the

•*An
An exceptional instance. Usually, in
exceptional instance. Usually,
Hindu plays.
in Hindu the women.speak
plays, the
women speak Prakrit,
Prakrit, on
on the
the
ground
ground
that
that it would
it would be
be unbecoming
unbecoming in
in aa lady
lady to
to be
be familiar
familiar with
with a
a dead
dead languase.
language.
 574
574 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XX
(CHAP. XX

last moment
last moment Vasanta he~elf appears.
Vasanta herself appears. Sharvilaka
Sharvilaka had
had seen
seen Samsthanaka bury
Samsthanaka bury
her;
her; he
he had
had exhumed
exhumed her
her in
in time,
time, and
and had
had revived
revived her.
her. Now,
Now, while
while Vasanta
Vasanta
rescues Charu,
rescues Cham, Sharvilaka
Sharvilaka accuses
accuses the
the King's
King's brother
brother of
of murder.
murder. But
But Charu
Cham
refuses to
refuses to support the charge,
support the charge, Samsthanaka
Samsthanaka isis released,
released, and
and everybody
everybody isis
happy.1D
happy
- .

Since time
Since time is more
more plentiful
is plentiful in in the East, where
the East, where nearly
nearly all all work is is done
done
by human
by hands, than
human hands, than inin the
the West, where there
West, where there are are so many labor-saving
so many labor-saving
devices, Hindu
devices, Hindu plays plays are
are twice
twice as
as long
long as
as the
the European
European dramas
dramas of our
of day.
our day.
The acts
The vary from
acts vary from five
five toto ten,
ten, and
and each
each act aet isis unobtrusively
unobtrnsively divided divided into into
scenes by
scenes the exit
by the exit ofof one
one character
character and and the the entrance
entrance of of another.
another. There There
are no
are no unities
unities ofof time
time or or place,
place, and
and no limits to
no limits to imagination.
imagination. Scenery Scenery isis
scanty,
scanty,
but
but costumes
costumes are
are colorful.
colorful. Sometimes
Sometimes living
living animals
animals enliven
enliven the
the
play,11 and for a moment redeem
play,* and for a moment
redeem the the artificial
artificial withwith the the natural.
natural. The per- per-
formance begins
formance begins with
with aa prologue,
prologue, in in which
which an an actor
actor or or the
the manager
manager dis- dis-
cusses the
cusses play; Goethe
the play; Goethe seems seems to to have
have taken
taken from from Kalidasa
Kalidasa the the idea of aa
idea of
prologue
prologue
for
for Faust.
Faust. The
The prologue
prologue concludes
concludes by introducing
by introducing the first
the first
character, who' marches into the middle
character, who marches into the middle of things. Coincidencesof things. Coincidences are
are in-
in-

numerable, and
numerable, and supernatural influences often determine the
supernatural influences often determine
the course
course of of
events.
events. A love-story is indispensable; so
love-story is indispensable; so is jester. is a
a jester. There
There is
is no tragedy in
tragedy in
the Indian
the theatre; happy
Indian theatre; endings are
happy endings unavoidable; faithful
are unavoidable; faithful love love mustmust
always triumph,
always triumph, virtue
virtue must
must always
always be
be rewarded,
rewarded, if
if only
only to
to balance
balance
reality. Philosophical discourse,
discourse, which
which obtrudes
obtrudes so
so often
often into Hindu
into
reality. Philosophical
poetry,
poetry,
is
is excluded
excluded from
from Hindu drama; drama,
drama; drama, like
like life,
life, must
must teach only
teach only
by
by action,
action, never
never by
by words.·
words.* Lyric
Lyric poetry
poetry alternates
alternates with with prose
prose accord-
accord-
ing
ing to
to the
the dignity
dignity of the topic,
of the the character, and
topic, the character,
and thethe action. Sanskrit is
action. Sanskrit is

spoken by
spoken by thethe upper castes in
upper castes the play,
in the Prakrit by
Prakrit the women and the
by the
play,
and the
lower
lower castes.
castes. Descriptive passages
Descriptive passages excel,
excel, character
character delineation is
delineation is poor.
poor.
The actors-who include women-do
The actors who include women do their their work well,
well, with
with no Occidental
Occidental
haste,
haste, and
and with
with no Far-Eastern fustian.
no Far-Eastern fustian. The play play endsends with
with an an epilogue,
epilogue,
in which
in which the
the favorite
favorite god
god of
of the
the author
author or
or the
the locality
locality is
is importuned
importuned to to
bring prosperity\to India.
bring prosperity" to India.
Ever
Ever since
since Sir
Sir William
William Jones translated it
Jones translated it and
and Goethe
Goethe praisedpraised it, it, the
the
most
most famous
famous of of Hindu
Hindu dramas dramas has has been
been the the Shakuntala
Shakuntala of of Kalidasa.
Kalidasa.
Nevertheless
Nevertheless we know Kalidasa Kalidasa only through
only through three
three plays,
plays, and
and through
through

• The great
great Hindu
Hindu theorist
theorist of
of the drama, Dhanamjaya
the drama, Dhanamjaya (ca. AJ>.), writes:
1000 A.D.),
(ca. 1000 writes: "AB
"As for
for
any
any simple
simple man of of little intelligence who says
little intelligence who that from
says that distil joy, the
dramas, which distil
from dramas, joy,
the
gain
gain is
is knowledge
knowledge only-homage
only homage to to him,
him, for he has
for he averted his
has averted his face
face from
from what
what isis delight-
delight-
fuL'"
ful""
FIG. 59-GUlTdiln
FIG.
$<)-Gwdw deities,
deities, Temple
Tmpk ofof Elur.
Eton
Indian State Railways
CHAP. XX)
CHAP.XX) THE LITERATURE
THE LITERATURE OF
OF INDIA
INDIA S7S
575
the legends that
the legends that pious
pious memory has hung
memory has hung upon
upon his
his name.
name. Apparently he
Apparently he
was
was one of the
one of the "Nine
"Nine Gems"-poets, artists and
and philosophers-who were
philosophers-who were
Gems"-poets, artists

A.D.) in
cherished by
cherished by King in the
the Gupta
King Vikramaditya
Vikramaditya (380-413
(380-413 A.D.) Gupta capital at
capital at
Ujjain.
Ujjain.

Shakuntala
Shakuntala is is in
in seven
seven aets, written partly in
acts, written prose, partly in vivid verse.
partly in prose, partly in vivid verse.
After
After aa prologue
prologue in
in which
which the
the manager
manager invites
invites the
the audience
audience toto consider
consider the
the
beauties
beauties of of nature,
nature, thethe play opens upon aa forest forest glade inin which
which aa hermit
hermit
play opens upon glade
dwells with
dwells with hishis foster
foster daughter Shakuntala.
daughter Shakuntala. The The peace of the scene is dis-
peace of the scene is dis-
turbed
turbed by by the
the noise
noise ofof aa chariot; its occupant, King Dushyanta, appears, and
chariot; its occupant, King Dushyanta, appears, and
falls
falls in
in love with Shakuntala
love with Shakuntala with with literary speed. He marries her in the first
literary speed. He marries her in the first
aet,
act, but
but isis suddenly called
suddenly called back
back to
to his
his capital; he leaves her with the usual
capital; he leaves her with the usual
promises
promises to return at his earliest
to return at his earliest convenience.
convenience. An asceticascetic tells the sorrowing
tells the
sorrowing
girl
girl that the King
that the King will will remember her her as
as long as
long as she
she keeps
keeps
the
the ring Dushyanta
ring Dushyanta
has given
given her;
her; but she loses the ring while
loses the
has ring while bathing. About to become a
bathing. About to become a
mother,
mother, she she journeys to
journeys to the
the court,
court, only
only to
to discover
discover that
that the King has
the King has for-
for-
gotten
gotten her after
after the
the manner of
of men to
to whom women have
have been
been generous.
generous.
She
She tries
tries to
to refresh
refresh hishis memory.
memory.

Sbakuntala.
Shakuntala. Do you not remember in
you not in the jasmine-bower,
the jasmine-bower,
One day, you had poured
day, how you poured the rain-water
the rain-water
That aa lotus
That lotus had
had collected in its
collected in its cup
cup
Into the
Into the hollow
hollow of
of your
your hand?
hand?
Km~
King. T~o~
Tell on,
I am
I am listening.
listening.
Sbakuntala. Just
then
Shakuntala. Just then my adopted
my adopted child,
child,
The little
The little fawn,
fawn, ran
ran up
up with
with long, soft eyes,
long, soft eyes,
And you,
And you, before
before you
you quenched
quenched your
your own thirst, gave
own thirst, gave
To the
To the little
little creature,
creature, saying, "Drink you
saying, "Drink you first,
first,
Gentle fawn!" But
Gentle fawn!" But she
she would
would not
not from
from strange
strange hands.
hands.
And yet,
And yet, immediately
immediately after,
after, when
when
II took
took some
some water in my
water in my hand,
hand, she
she drank,
drank,
Absolute in her
Absolute in her trust. Then, with
trUSt. Then, with aa smile,
smile,
You said:
You said: "Each
"Each creature
creature hashas faith in its
faith in its own
own kind.
kind.
You are
You are children
children both
both ofof the
the same
same wild
wild wood,
wood, and
and each
each
Confides in
Confides in the
the other,
other, knowing
knowing where where its its trust is."
trust is."
King. Sweet,
King. fair and
Sweet, fair and false!
false! Such
Such women
women enticeentice fools.
fools. • • •
. . .

The female
The gift of
female gift of cunning
cunning may may bebe marked
marked
In creatures
In creatures of all kinds;
of all kinds; inin women
women mostmost.
The cuckoo
The cuckoo leaves her eggs
leaves her eggs forfor dupes
dupes toto hatch,
hatch,
Then flies
Then away secure
flies away secure and
andtriumphing.
triumphing.- 88
576
576 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.n:
(CHAP. XX

Shakuntala,
Shakuntala, spurned and despondent, is miraculously lifted lifted into the air
into the
spurned and despondent, is miraculously air

and
and carried
carried off
off to
to another
another forest,
forest, where
where she
she bears
bears her
her child-that
child that great
great
Bharata whose progeny
Bharata whose progeny mustmust fight
fight
all the
all battles of
the battles of the Mababbarata.
the Mahabharata.
Meanwhile
Meanwhile a a fisherman
fisherman has
has found
found the
the ring,
ring,
and
and seeing the King's
seeing the King's seal
seal on
on it,
it,

has brought
has brought it to Dushyanta.
it to
Dushyanta. His
His memory
memory of
of Shakuntala
Shakuntala is restored,
is restored, and
and he
he
seeks her everywhere.
seeks her Traveling
everywhere. Traveling in·
in his
his airplane over
airplane
over the
the Himalayas,
Himalayas, he
he
alights by dramatic
alights by
dramatic providence
providence at at the
the very hermitage where
very hermitage Shakuntala is
where Shakuntala is

pining away. sees the boy Bharata playing before the

pining away. He sees the boy Bharata playing before
the cottage,
cottage,
and
and envies
envies
his parents:
his parents:

"Ah, happy father,

"Ah, happy father, happy mother, who,
happy mother, who,
Carrying their little
Carrying their little son,
son, are
are soiled with dust
soiled with dust
Rubbed from his
Rubbed from his body; it
body; it nestles
nestles with
with fond
fond faith
faith
Into their lap,
Into their lap,
the
the refuge
refuge that
that he
he craves-
craves-
white buds
The white buds of of his
his teeth just visible
teeth just visible

When he he breaks
breaks out
out into
into aa causeless
causeless smile,
smile,
And hehe attempts
attempts sweet
sweet wordless
wordless sounds,
sounds, . •.
. . .

Melting
Melting
the
the heart
heart more
more than
than any
any word.,.
word" 54

ShakuntaIa
Shakuntala appears, the
the King begs her forgiveness, receiv~ it, and
her forgiveness, and makes
makes
receives
appears, King begs it,

her his
her his queen.
queen. The play
play
ends
ends with
with a
a strange
strange but
but typical
typical invocation:
invocation:

"May kings reign

"May kings reign only
only for
for their
their subjects'
subjects'
weal!
weal!
May the divine
May the divine Sarasvati,
Sarasvati, the
the source
source
Of speech,
speech, and
and goddess
goddess of
of dramatic
dramatic art,
art,
Be ever honored by
ever honored by the
the great
great and
and wise!
wise!
may the
And may the purple,
purple, self-existent
self-existent god,
god,
vital energy
Whose vital energy pervades all space,
pervades all space,
From future
future transmigrations save my so~! ,.
transmigrations save my soul!"*

Drama diddid not

not decline
decline after
after Kalidasa,
Kalidasa, butbut it
it did not again
did not again pro-
pro-
duce
duce a Shakuntalll or
a Shakuntala a Clay
or a Cart. King
Clay Cart. Harsha, if
King Harsha, if we may believe
may believe a a
possibly inspired
possibly inspired
tradition,
tradition, wrote
wrote three
three plays,
plays,
which
which held
held the
the stage
stage for
for
centuries. A hundred
centuries. hundred years after him
years after him Bhavabhuti,
Bhavabhuti, a a Brahman
Brahman of of Berar,
Berar,
wrote three
wrote three romantic
romantic dramas
dramas which
which are
are ranked second only
ranked second only to
to KalidaSa's
Kalidasa's
in the history
in the history of the Indian
of the Indian stage. His style, however, was so elaborate
stage. His style, however, was so elaborate
and
and obscure that he
obscure that he had
had to be-and
to be and ofof course protested that
course protested that he
he was-
was
content
content with narrow audie~ce.
with aa narrow audience. "How littlelittle do they know,"
do they know," he
he wrote,
wrote,
''who
'*who speak
speak of
of us
us with
with censure. entertaimne~t
censure. The entertainment is not
is not for
for them.
them.
Possibly
Possibly some
some one
one exists or
exists or will
will exist,
exist, of
of similar
similar tastes
tastes with
with myself;
myself; for
for
time is
time boundless, and
is boundless, and the
the world
world isis wide."·
wide."
8*
•
CHAP. :xx)
CHAP.XX) THE LIT
THE LITERATURE
ERA T U REOOF INDIA
FIN DI A 577
577
We cannot
We cannot rank
rank the
the dramatic
dramatic literature
literature of of India
India onon aa plane with that
plane with that
of Gre~ce
of Greece or or Elizabethan
Elizabethan .England; but
but it compares favorably with the
England; it
compares favorably with the
theatre of China
theatre of China or or Japan. Nor
Nor need we look to India for
need we look to India for the sophistica-the sophistica-
Japan.
tion
tion that
that marks
marks thethe modem
modern stage; that is an accident of time rather than
stage; that is an accident of time rather than
an
an eternal
eternal verity, and
verity, and may
may pass away even into
pass away-even into its
its opposite. The
opposite. The super-
super-
natural agencies
natural agencies of Indian drama
of Indian drama are are asas alien
alien toto our
our taste
taste as the deus
as the deus ex
ex
macbina
machina of of the
the enlightened Euripides;
enlightened Euripides; but
but this, too,
this, too, is
is aa fashion
fashion of
of history.
history.
The
The weaknesses
weaknesses of of Hindu
Hindu drama
drama (if (if they
they maymay be
be listed
listed diffidently by an
diffidently by an
alien)
alien) are
are artificial
artificial diction
diction disfigured with
disfigured with alliteration
alliteration and
and verbal
verbal conceits,
conceits,
characterization in
monochromatic characterization in which
which eacheach person is thoroughly good
person is thoroughly good
or
or thoroughly
thoroughly bad, bad, improbable
improbable plots turning upon unbelievable coinci-
plots turning upon unbelievable coinci-
dences,
dences, and an excess
excess of
of description
description and
and discourse
discourse overover thatthat action
action which
which
is, almost by
is, almost by definition,
definition, the
the specific
specific medium
medium by
by which
which drama
drama conveys
conveys
significance.
significance. Its Its virtues
virtues are
are its creative fancy, its
its creative tender sentiment, its
fancy, its tender sentiment, its
sensitive
sensitive poetry, and
poetry, and its its sympathetic evocation
sympathetic evocation of of nature's
nature's beauty
beauty and
and
terror.
terror. About national
national types of
types of art
art there
there can
can be
be no
no disputation;
disputation;
we
we can
can
judge
judge them only
only from the
the provincial standpoint of our own,
provincial standpoint of our own, and mostly and mostly
through the prism of translation. It is
It is enough that
enough that Goethe,Goethe, ablest
ablest ofof all
through the prism of transition. all

Europeans
Europeans to
to transcend
transcend provincial
provincial and
and national
national barriers, found the
barriers, found the readingreading
of Shakuntllla among
of Shakuntala among thethe profound
profound experiences
experiences of of his
his life,
life, and wrote of
and wrote of
it gratefully:
it gratefully:

Wouldst thou
Wouldst thou the
the young
young year's
year's blossoms,
blossoms, and
and the
the fruits of its
fruits of decline,
its decline,
all by
And' all
And which the
by which soul isis charmed,
the soul charmed, enraptured,
enraptured, feasted,
feasted, fed;
fed;
Wouldst thou
Wouldst thou the Earth and
the Earth and Heaven
Heaven itself in one
itself in one sole
sole name
name com-
com-
bine?
bine?.

I name
I name thee,
thee, 0 Shakuntala!
Shakuntala! and
and all once isis said.
at once
all at said.- 07

v.
V. PROSE AND
PROSE AND POETRY
POETRY
Their rmit'1 in
Their unity India-Fahles-History-Tllles-Minor
in India-Fables-History-Tales- poets-Rise
Minor poets Rise
of 'Vernacular literat1J,re-Chandi DllS-Tulsi
the vernacular literature-Chandi DasTulsi Das
of the Das-
Poets of
Poets of the
the south-Kabir
south-Kahir
is largely
Prose
Prose largely aa recent
is recent phenomenon
phenomenon in in Indian
Indian literature,
literature, and
and might
might
be termed
be termed an
an exotic
exotic corruption
corruption through
through contact with Europeans.
contact with Europeans. To the
To the
naturally poetic soul
naturally poetic soul of,
of the
the Hindu
Hindu .everything
.everything worth
worth writing
writing about
about had
had
aa poetic
poetic content,
content, and
and invited
invited aa poetic
poetic form.
fonn. Since
Since he
he felt
felt that
that literature
literature
should be
should be read
read aloud,
aloud, and
and knew
knew that
that his
his work
work would
would spread
spread.and
and endure,
endure,
 57 8 STORY
THE S TOR Y 0 CIVILIZATION
OFF C I V I LIZ A T ION (CHAP. XX
(CHAP.XX

if
if at
by oral
all, by
at all, rather than
oral rather than written
written dissemination,
dissemination, hehe chose
chose toto give to his
give to his
compositions
compositions a a metric
metric or
or aphoristic
aphoristic
form
form that would lend
that would lend itsc;lf
itself to
to recita-
recita-
tion and
tion memory. Consequently
and memory. nearly
Consequently nearly all
all the
the literature
literature of
of India
India is
is verse:
verse:
scientific, medical, legal
scientific, medical, legal and
and art
art treatises
treatises are,
are, more
more often
often than
than not,
not, pre-
pre-
sented in
sented metre or
in metre or rhyme
rhyme or
or both;
both; even
even grammars
grammars and
and dictionaries
dictionaries have
have
been turned
been turned into
into poetry. Fables and history, which in the West are con-
poetry. Fables and history, which in the West are con-
tent with
tent prose, found
with prose, found inin India
India aa melodious poetic form.
melodious poetic form.

Hindu literature is
Hindu literature especially rich in
is especially rich fables; indeed,
in fables; indeed, India India is is probably
probably
responsible
responsible for
for most
most of
of the
the fables
fables thatthat have
have passed
passed like
like an an international
international
currency
currency acrossacross the the frontiers
frontiers of of the world.* Buddhism
the world.· Buddhism flourished
flourished best best in in
the days
the days when
when the
the Jataka legends
Jataka legends of
of Buddha's
Buddha's birth
birth and
and youth
youth were
were popular
popular
among
among the the people.
people. The best-knownbest-known book book in in India
India is Panchatrmtra, or
the Ptmchatantra,
is lie or
"Five
"Five Headings"
Headings" (ca.
(ca. SOO
500 A.D.);
A.D.); it is
it is the
the source
source of
of many
many of
of the
the fables
fables that
that
pleased Europe
have pleased
have Europe as as well
well as as Asia. Hitopadesba, or
Asia. The Hitopadesha, or "Good Advice,"Advice,"
is a
is a selection
selection and and adaption
adaption of
of tales
tales from
from the
the Pancbllttmtra.
Panchatantra. Both, strange
Both, strange to to
say,
say,
are
are classed
classed by
by the
the Hindus
Hindus under
under the
the rubric
rubric of
of Niti-shastra-i.e.,
Niti-shastrai.t., instruc-
instruc-
tions in
tions in politics or
politics morals; every
or morals; every taletale isis told
told to point aa moral,
to point moral, aa principle
principle of
of
conduct
conduct or government; usually
or government; these stories pretend to have
usually these stories pretend to been in-
have been in-
vented by
vented by some
some wise Brahman for
wise Brahman for the instruction of
the instruction of a king's sons.
a king's sons. Often
Often
they turn the
they the lowliest
lowliest animals
animals to to the uses of
the uses of the
the subtlest philosophy. The
subtlest philosophy.
fable
fable of of the monkey who tried
the monkey tried to to warm himself himself by by the
the light
light of of a a glow-,
glow-
WOnD,
worm, and
and slew
slew the
the bird
bird who pointed
pointed out
out his
his error,
error, is
is a
a remarkably apt
remarkably apt
illustration
illustration of the fate
of the that awaits
fate that awaits the the scholar
scholar who exposes exposes a a popular
popular delu-
delu-
sion.t
sion^
Historical
Historical literature
literature did did not succeed in
not succeed rising above
in rising above the the level
level ofof either
either
bare chronicles or
bare chronicles or gorgeous
gorgeous romance.
romance. Perhaps through
Perhaps through a
a scorn
scorn of
of the
the
Maya
Maya events
events of
of space
space and
and time, perhaps
time, perhaps through through a
a preference
preference of
of oral
oral to
to
written traditions, the
written traditions, the Hindus
Hindus neglected
neglected to
to compose
compose works
works of
of history
history that
that
could
could bearbear comparison
comparison with with Herodotus
Herodotus or or Thucydides,
Thucydides, Plutarch Plutarch or or Tacitus,
Tacitus,
Gibbon or
Gibbon Voltaire. Details
or Voltaire. Details of place and
of pkce and date were so
date were scantily recorded,
so scantily recorded, eveneven
in the case
in the case of of famous
famous men, men, thatthat Hindu scholars scholars assigned
assigned to
to their
their greatest
greatest
GO
poet, Kalidasa, dates ranging over over a a millennium. Living to our
our own time time in
00

poet, Kalidasa, dates ranging millennium. Living to in

an
an almost unchanging world
almost unchanging world of of custom,
custom, morals
morals and
and beliefs,
beliefs, the
the Hindu hardly
hardly
dreamed
dreamed of progress, and
of progress, and never bothered about
never bothered about antiquities.
antiquities.
He waswas content
content

•* Sir William Jones

Jones reported laid claim inventions: chess,
Sir William reported that
that the
the Hindus
Hindus laid claim toto three
three inventions: chess, the
the
decimal
decimal system,
system, and
and teaching
teaching by by fables.
fables.

t A lively
t lively war rages in
war rages in the
the fields
fields of Oriental scholarship.as
of Oriental scholarship as toto whether
whether these
these fables
fables
passed from
passed from India to Europe,
India to Europe, or or turn about;
about; we leave the dispute
leave the me~ of
to men
dispute to of leisure.
leisure. Per-
Per-
haps they passed
haps they passed to
to both
both India
India and
and Europe
Europe from Egypt,
Egypt, via
via Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and
and Crete.
Crete. The
infiuence
influence of PlI1JChllttmt1'a upon
the Panchatantra
of the upon the Arabia Nights,
the Arabian however, is
N igbts, however, is beyond question.-
beyond question.
08
 CHAP.:XX)
CHAP.XX) THE LITERA
THE LITERATURE
TURE OF INDIA 579
579
to accept
to the epics
accept the epics as authentic
as authentic history, and to .let legend serve for biog-
history, and to .let legend serve for biog-
raphy.
raphy. When Ashvaghosha
Ashvaghosha wrote
wrote his
his life
life of
of Buddha
Buddha (the Buddha-charita),
(the Buddha-charita),
it was legend
it was
legend rather
rather than
than history;
history;
and
and when,
when, five
five hundred years later,
hundred years kter, Bana
Sana
wrote his Harsha-charita, it
wrote his Harsha-charita, it was
was again an idealization rather than a reliable
again an idealization rather than a reliable
portrait of
portrait
of the great king.
the great native chronicles
king. The native chronicles of Rajputana appear
of Rajputana to be
appear to be
exercises in patriotism. Only one
exercises in one Hindu
Hindu writer
writer seems
seems to
to have
have grasped the
patriotism. Only grasped the
function
function of of the historian. Kalhana,
the historian. Kalhana, author
author of of .the Rajatarangini, or
.the Rajatarangini, or "Stream
"Stream
of
of Kings," expressed himself
Kings," expressed himself as as follows:
follows: "That noble-minded poet
"That noble-minded alone
poet alone
merits praise
merits praise whose
whose word, word, like
like the
the sentence
sentence of
of a
a judge, keeps
judge, keeps
free
free from
from
love
love or hatred in
or hatred in recording the past." Wintemitz calls him
recording the past." Winternitz calls him "the only great "the only great
historian that India
historian that India has has produced.'·
produced."*
The Moslems
Moslems were more acutely acutely conscious
conscious of history, and
of history, and left some ad-
left some ad-
. mirable
mirable prose
prose records
records of their doings in
of their in India.
India. We have have mentioned
mentioned Alberuni's
Alberuni's
doings
ethnographical
ethnographical study study of of India,
India, and
and Babur's Memoirs. Contemporary
Babur's Memoirs.
Contemporary with with
Akbar was an excellent
Akbar was excellent historian,
historian, Muhammad Qazim Firishta,
Qazim Firishta, whose
whose His-
His-
tory of
tory of India
India is
is our
our most
most reliable
reliable guide
guide to
to the
the events
events of
of the
the Moslem
Moslem period.
period.
Less
Less impartial
impartial waswas Akbar's
Akbar's prime
prime minister
minister or or general political factotum,
general political factotum, Abu-l
Abu-1
Faz1,
Fazl, who putput his master's administrative
his master's administrative methods
methods down for posterity in
for posterity in the
the
Ain-i Akbari,
Ain-i Akbari, or or "Institutes
"Institutes of of Akbar,"
Akbar," and told his
and told master's life
his master's with for-
life with for-
givable fondness in the Akbar N trmll. The Emperor·
givable fondness in the Akbar Nama.
returned his
Emperor 'returned his affeetioJ;l;
affection;
and
and when thethe news
news came that ]ehangir
came that Jehangir had
had slain the
slain the vizier,
vizier, Akbar
Akbar burst
burst into
into
passionate grief, and cried out: "If Salim
passionate grief, and cried out: "If Salim (Jehangir)
(Jehangir) wished
wished to
to be
be emperor,
emperor,
he might
he have slain
might have slain me and and spared
spared Abu-l
Abu-1 Fazl."·
Fazl."*

Midway between fables

Midway between fables and
and history
history werewere the vast collections
the vast collections of of poetic
poetic
tales put
tales together by
put together by industrious
industrious versifiers
versifiers for
for the
the delectation
delectation of of the
the roman-
roman-
tic In~ soul.
tic Indian soul. As far far back
back as the first
as the first century A.D.
century A.D. one one Gunadhya
Gunadhya wrote wrote inin
one hundred thousand
one hundred thousand couplets
couplets the
the Brihatkatha,
Brihatkatha, or
or ccGr~at
"Great Romance";
Romance"; and
and
aa thousand years later
thousand years later Somadeva
Somadeva composed
composed the the Klltbasaritzagarll,
Kathasaritzagara^ or or CCOcean
"Ocean
of the Rivers
of the Rivers ofof Story,"
Story," a
a torrent
torrent 21,500 couplets
21,500 couplets long.long. In
In the
the same
same eleventh
eleventh
century
century a a clever
clever story-teller
story-teller
of uncertain identity
of uncertain built aa framework
identity buUt framework for for his
his

Vetalapanchavimcbatikll
Vetalapanchavimchatika ("The ("The Twenty-five
Twenty-five StoriesStories of the Vampire")
of the Vampire") by by
representing King Vikramaditya
representing King Vikramaditya
as
as receiving annually
receiving annually from an ascetic
ascetic a a fruit
fruit

containing
containing a stone. The King
precious stone.
a precious King inquires
inquires how he may
he may prove prove his
his

gratitude;
gratitude;
he
he is
is asked
asked to
to bring
bring to
to the
the yogi
yogi the
the corpse
corpse of
of a
a man hanging
hanging on
the gallows,
the gallows, but
but is
is warned
warned not
not to
to speak
speak if
if the
the corpse
corpse should
should address
address him.
him.
The
The corpse is inhabited by a vampire who, as
corpse is inhabited by a vampire who,
the King
as the King stumbles along,
stumbles along, fas-
fas-

cinates him with

cinates him with aa story;
story;
at
at the
the endend ofof the
the story
story thethe vampire
vampire propounds
propounds a a
question which
which the King,
the forgetting
King, forgetting his
his instructions,
instructions, answers.
answers. Twenty-five
Twenty-five
question
times the
times King attempts
the King attempts thethe task
task of bringing aa corpse
of bringing corpse to the ascetic
to the ascetic and

holding
holding
his
his peace; twenty-four
peace; twenty-four
times
times he
he is
is so
so absorbed
absorbed in the
in the story that the
story that the
S80
580 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XX
(CHAP.

vampire
vampire tells him that
tells him that he
he answers
answers the question put
the question put to him at
to him at the
the end*
end.· It
It
was an
was an excellent scaffold on
excellent scaffold on which
which to
to hang
hang aa score
score of
of tales.
tales.

. Meanwhile
Meanwhile therethere waswas nono dearth
dearth of of poets
poets writing
writing what
what we should
should call
call
poetry. Abu-l Fazl describes "thousands of poets" at
poetry. Abu-1 Fazl describes "thousands of poets" at Akbar's court; thereAkbar's court; there
were hundreds
were hundreds at at minor
minor capitals,
capitals, and
and doubtless
doubdess dozens
dozens in every home.*
in every home.·
One of
One of the
the earliest and greatest
earliest and greatest was was Bhartrihari,
Bhartrihari, monk, grammarian and
monk, grammarian and
lover, who,
lover, who, before
before retiring
retiring into
into the
the arms
arms of
of religion,
religion, instructed
instructed hishis soul
soul with
with
amours. He has
amours. has left
left us
us aa record
record of of them
them inin his
his "Century
"Century of Love"-aa Heine-
of Love" Heine-
like sequence
like sequence of of aa hundred
hundred poems.
poems. "Erstwhile,"
"Erstwhile," he he writes
writes toto one
one of his
of his
loves, "we twain
loves, twain deemed
deemed that that thou
thou wast
wast II and
and II was
was thou;
thou; how comescomes it it
that thou
now that thou areare thou
thou and
and II am I?" I?" He did did not care for
not care for reviewers,
reviewers, andand
told them:
told "It is
them: "It easy to
is easy satisfy one
to satisfy one who is is ignorant,
ignorant, even
even easier
easier to satisfy
to satisfy
a connoisseur;
a connoisseur; butbut not
not the
the Creator himself can
Creator himself can please
please the
the man who has just
has just
a morsel
a morsel of knowledge."" In
of knowledge." 68
Jayadeva's Gita-GO'lJi'lUia,
In Jayadeva's Gita-Govinda, or
or "Song
"Song of
of the
the
Divine Cowherd,"
Divine Cowherd," the the amorousness
amorousness of of the
the Hindu
Hindu tarns
turns toto religion,
religion, and
and in-in-

tones the
tones sensuous love
the sensuous love of Radha and
of Radha Krishna. It
and Krishna. It is
is a poem. of
a poem, of full-bodied
full-bodied
passion, but
passion,
but India
India interprets it reverendy as
interprets it reverently
as aa. mystic
mystic andand symbolic
symbolic por-por-
trayal
trayal
of
of the
the soul's
soul's longing
longing for
for God-an interpretation
interpretation
that
that would
would be
be intelligi-
intelligi-
ble to
ble to those immovable divines
those immovable divines who composed such
composed such pious pious headings
headings for the
for die
Song of Songs.
Song of Songs.

In the eleventh
In the eleventh century
century the
the vernaculars
vernaculars made
made inroads upon .the
inroads upon the classical
classical

dead
dead language
language as as a
a medium of of literary
literary expression,
expression, as they were
as they were to do in
to do in
Europe a
a century later. The first
later. first major poet to to use
use the
the living speech of
of
Europe century major poet living speech
the
the people was Chand Bardai, who wrote
people was Chand Bardai, wrote inin Hindi
Hindi anan immense
immense historical
historical

poem
poem of of sixty
sixty cantos,
cantos, and was only
and was only persuaded
persuaded to interrupt his
to interrupt his work by by
the call
the call of
of death.
death. Sur
Sur Das,
Das, the
the blind
blind poet
poet of
of Agra,
Agra, composed 60,000 verses
composed 60,000 verses
on
on the
the life and adventures
life and adventures ofof Krishna;
Krishna; we are are told
told that
that he
he was helped
helped
by
by the
the god himself,
god himself, who became
became his
his amanuensis,
amanuensis, and
and wrote
wrote faster than
faster than
the poet
the could dictate." Meanwhile
Meanwhile a a poor
poor priest, Chandi Das,
Chandi
61

poet could dictate. priest, Das, was

shocking Bengal by composing
shocking Bengal by composing Dantean
Dantean songs
songs to
to a
a peasant
peasant Beatrice, ideal-
Beatrice, ideal-

izing her
her with
with romantic
romantic passion, exalting her
passion, exalting
her as a symbol
as a
symbol ofof divinity,
divinity, and
and
izing

•* Poetry
Poetry tended
tended now to to be
be less
less objective than in
objective than the days
in the days of
of the
the epic, gave itself
epic, and gave itself

more
more andand more to the
more to the interWeaving
interweaving of of religion
religion and
and love.
love. Metre,
Metre, which had been been loose
loose
and free in
and free the epics,
in the varying in
epics, varying in the
the length
length ofof the
the line,
line, and
and requiring regularity only
requiring regularity only inin
the list
the last four
four or five syllables,
or five became at
syllables, became
at once
once strieter
stricter and
and more varied;
varied; aa thousand
thousand com-
plications of prosody were introduced, which disappear in translation; artifices of letter
plications of prosody were introduced, which disappear in translation; artifices of letter
and
and phrase
phrase abounded, and rhyme
abounded, and rhyme appeared not only
appeared not at the
only at the end
end but
but often
often in
in the
the middle
middle of
of
the line.
the line. Rigid rules
Rigid rules were
were composed
composed for for the
the poetic art, and
poetic art, and the
the fonn became more pre-
form became pre-
cise
cise asas the content thinned.
the content thinned.
CHAP. xx)
CHAP.XX) THE LITERATURE OF INDIA 581
581

making his
making his love
love an
an allegory of his
allegory of his desire
desire for
for absorption in God;
absorption in God;
at
at the
the same
same
time he
time he inaugurated
inaugurated the the use
use of Bengali as
of Bengali as a a literary language. "I
literary language.
"I have
have
taken refuge
taken refuge at at your feet,
your feet, my my beloved.
beloved. When I
I do
do not
not see
see you
you my my mind
mind
has no
has no rest . . . II cannot
rest •.... cannot forget
forget your your grace
grace and your chann,-and
and your charm, and yet yet
there is
there no desire
is no desire inin mymy heart."
heart." Excommunicated
Excommunicated by
by his
his fellow
fellow Brahmans
Brahmans
on
on thethe ground
ground thatthat he he was
was scandalizing the public, he agreed to renounce
scandalizing the public, he agreed to renounce
his
his love, Rami, in
love, Kami, in a a public
public ceremony
ceremony of recantation; but
of recantation; when, in
but when, in thethe
course
course of this ritual,
of this ritual, he saw Rami
he saw Kami in in the
the crowd,
crowd, he
he withdrew
withdrew his
his recanta-
recanta-
tion, and
tion, and going
going up up to
to her,
her, bowed
bowed before
before her with hands
her with joined in
hands joined in adora-
adora-
tion.'"*
tion.
6

The supreme
supreme poet poet of of Hindi literature is
Hindi literature is Tulsi
Tulsi Das,
Das, almost
almost a a contem-
contem-
porary
porary of
of Shakespeare.
Shakespeare. His
His parents exposed
parents exposed him
him because
because he
he had
had been
been
born under
bora under an an unlucky
unlucky star.
star. He was was adopted
adopted by by a
a forest
forest mystic,
mystic, who
instructed
instructed him him in in the
the legendary
legendary lore lore ofof Rama.
Rama. He married; married; but but when his his

son
son died,
died, TuIsi
Tulsi Das
Das retired
retired to
to the
the woods
woods to
to lead
lead a
a life
life of
of penance
penance and
and medi-
medi-
tation. There,
tation. There, and and in in Benares,
Benares, he wrote his
he wrote religious epic,
his religious
epic,
the Ramll-
the Rama-
cbarita-11ll11J4Sfl,
charita-manasa, or
or "Lake
"Lake of
of the
the Deeds
Deeds of
of Rama,"
Rama," in
in which
which he
he told
told again
again
the story
the story of
of Rama,
Rama, and
and offered
offered him
him to
to India
India as
as the
the supreme
supreme and
and only
only god.
god.
"There is
"There is one God," says
one God," says TuIsi
Tulsi Das;
Das; "it is RaIna,
"it is Rama, creator
creator of
of heaven
heaven and
and
earth,
earth, and
and redeemer
redeemer of
of mankind.....
mankind. . . . For
For the
the sake
sake of
of his
his faithful
faithful people
people
aa very
very god,god, Lord
Lord RamI,
Rama, became
became incarnate
incarnate as
as aa king,
king, and
and for
for our
our sanctifica-
sanctifica-

tion lived,
tion lived, as it were,
as it were, the the life
life ofof any
any ordinary man."· Few Europeans
ordinary man."" Europeans
have been
have been ableable toto read
read the the work in in the
die now archaic
archaic HindiHindi original;
original; one one
of these considers
of these considers that that it it establishes
establishes Tulsi Tulsi Das Das as as "the
"the mostmost important
important
figure in the whole of Indian
figure in the whole of
Indian literature."·
literature."
88
To thethe natives
natives of of Hindustan
Hindustan
the Pgem
the poem constitutes
constitutes a a popular
popular Bible Bible of theology and
of theology and ethics.
ethics. "I "I regard
regard
the RtmJIlyana of
the Rwnayana of TuIsi
Tulsi Das," says
Das," says Gandhi, Gandhi, "as
"as the
the greatest
greatest book in
in allall

devotional
devotional literature.""
literature."
97
.
Meanwhile
Meanwhile the the Deccan
Deccan was was also producing poetry.
also producing poetry. Tukaram composed composed
in the Mahrathi
in the Mahrathi tonguetongue 4600 4600 religious songs which
religious songs
which are are as c~ent in
as current in India
India
today as as the Psalms of
the Psalms of "David"
"David" are are inin Judaism
Judaism or or Christendom.
Christendom. His :first first
today
wife having died,
wife having died, he married he married a
a shrew
shrew and
and became
became a
a philosopher.
philosopher. "It
"It is
is

not hard
not hard to win salvation,"
to win salvation," he he wrote,
wrote, "for"for itit may readily be
may readily be found in in the
the
bundle on
bundle on our our back."·
back."* .&
As early
early as
as the
the second
second century
century A.D.
A.D. Madura
Madura became
the capital
the of
of Tamil
Tamil letters;
letters; a Sangllm,
a Sangom, or
or court
court of poers and critics,
of poets critics, was
capital
set
set up
up there
there under
under the
the patronage
patronage of
of the
the Pandya kings,
Pandya kings, and,
and, like
like the
the French
Academy, regulated
Academy, regulated the the development
development of of the
the language,
language, conferred titles,
conferred tides,

and
and gave prizes.·
69
Tiruvallavar,
gave prizes. Tiruvallavar,
an
an Outcaste
Outcaste weaver,
weaver, wrote
wrote in
in the
the moSt
most
S8:!
582 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XX
(CHAP.XX

difficult of
difficult Tamil meters
of Tamil meters aa religious
religious andand philosophical
philosophical work-the
work-the KurralKU"'ll-
expounding moral and political ideals. Tradition
expounding moral and political ideals.
Tradition assures
assures us
us that
that when the the
members of
members of the Sangtrm, who
the Smgam, who were
were allall Brahmans,
Brahmans, sawsaw the
the success
success of this
of this
Pariah's poetry, they
Pariah's poetry, they drowned
drowned themselves
themselves to to aa man;
man;'lO but this isis not
but this
70
not toto
be believed
be believed of any Academy.
of any Academy.
have kept
We have kept forfor the
the last,
last, though
though out out of
of his
his chronological
chronological place,
place, thethe
greatest lyric poet
greatest lyric poet
of
of medieval
medieval India.
India. Kahir,
Kabir, a
a simple
simple weaver
weaver of
of Benares,
Benares,
prepared
prepared
for
for his
his task
task of
of uniting
uniting Islam
Islam and
and Hinduism
Hinduism by having, we are
by having, are
told, aa Mohammedan
told, Mohammedan for for his
his 'father
father andand aa Brahman virgin for
Brahman virgin for his
his mother.
mother.'r1 71

Fascinated by the preacher Ramananda,

Fascinated by the preacher Ramananda, he
he became
became a
a devotee
devotee of
of Rama,
Rama, en- en-
larged him (as Tulsi Das
larged him (as Tulsi
Das would
would also
also do)
do) into
into aa universal
universal deity,
deity, and
and began
began
to write
to Hindi poems
write Hindi poems of of rare
rare beauty
beauty to to explain
explain aa creed
creed inin which
which there
there
should be
should be no
no temples,
temples, nono mosques,
mosques, no no idols,
idols, no
no caste,
caste, no
no circumcision,
circumcision,
and but
and but one god.- "Kabir,"
one god.* "Kahir," hehe says,
says,

is aa child
is of Ram and
child of and Allah,
Allah, and
and accepteth
accepteth all Gurus and
all Gurus Pirs. . • •
and Pirs. . . .

o God,
O God, whether
whether Allah
Allah or Rama, II live
or Rama, live by thy
by thy name.•..
name. . Lifeless
Lifeless
. .

are all the

are all the images
images
of
of the
the gods; they
gods; they cannot
cannot speak;
speak; I
I know it, for
it, for II
have called aloud to
have called aloud to them.them. ... .
. What
. avails
avails it
it to
to wash
wash your mouth,
your mouth,
count
count youryour beads,
beads, bathe
bathe inin holy
holy streams,
streams, andand bow in temples, if,
in temples, if,

whilst you
whilst you mutter
mutter your prayers
your prayers or
or go
go on pilgrimages,
pilgrimages, deceitfulness
deceitfulness
is
is in
in your
your hearts?'lI
hearts?
71

The
The Brahmans
Brahmans were
were shocked,
shocked, and
and to
to refute
refute him (the story
him (the story rons)
runs) sent
sent a
a
courtesan
courtesan to
to tempt him;
tempt him; but
but he
he converted
converted her
her to
to his
his creed.
creed. This
This was
was easy,
easy,
for
for he
he had no dogmas,
had no dogmas, but
but only profound religious feeling.
only profound religious feeling.

There
There is is an
an endless
endless world,
world, 0 O my
my brother,
brother,
there is
And there is aa nameless
nameless Being,
Being, of
of whom naughtnaught cancan be
be said;
said;
Only
Only he
he knows
knows who has
has reached
reached that
that region.
region.
It is
It is other
other than all that
than all is heard
that is heard or
or said.
said.

No form,
form, no no length, is seen
seen there;
no body,
body, no length, no breadth is
no breadth there;
How can can II tell
tell you that
you that which it
it is?
is?

Kabir
Kabir says:
says:
cannot be
"It cannot
"It by the
told by
be told the words
words of of the
the mouth,
mouth, itit can...
can-
not
not be
be written
written on paper;
paper;
It is
It is like
like a
a dumb person
person
who tastes
tastes a
a sweet
sweet thing-how
thing-how shall it be
shall it be
explained?"
explained?
78

•* Rabindranath
Rabindranath Tagore has translated,
Tagore has with chara~istic
translated, with characteristic perfection,
perfection, one
one hundred
hundred SO'IJgs
Songs
of
of Kabir, York, 1915-
Kabir, New York, 1915.
CHAP. xx)
CHAP.XX) THE
THE LITERATURE
LITERATURE OF OF INDIA
INDIA 583
583

He accepted
He accepted the
the theory
theory ofof reincarnation
reincarnation which
which was
was inin the
the air
air about
about
him,
him, and
and prayed,
prayed,
like
like aa Hindu,
Hindu, to
to be
be released
released from
from the
the chain
chain of
of re-
re-
birth and
birth and redeath.
redeath. But his ethic
But his ethic was
was the
the simplest in the
simplest in the world:
world: live justly,
live jusdy,
and look
and look for
for happiness
happiness atat your
your elbow.
elbow.

I laugh
I laugh when
when II hear that the
hear that fish in
the fish in the
the water thirsty;
water isis thirsty;
You do
You do not
not see
see that
that the
the Real in your
Real isis in your home,
home, and
and youyou wander
wander from
from
forest to
forest to forest listlessly!
forest listlessly!
Here isis the
Here the truth!
truth!Go where
Go you will,
where you will, to
to Benares
Benares or
or toto Mathura,
Mathura,
if you
you do
if do not
not find
find your
your soul,
soul, the world isis unreal
the world unreal to
to you.
you. • • • . .

To what
To what shore
shore would
would you cross, O
you cross, my heart?
0 my heart? There
There isis no
no traveler
traveler
before you, there
before you, is no
there is no road.
road. • ... . .

There there
There is neither
there is neither body
body nor
nor mind;
mind; and
and where
where is the
is the place
place that
that
shall still die
shall still the thirst
thirst of
of the
the soul? shall find
soul? You shall find naught in the
naught in the
emptiness.
emptiness.
Be strong,
Be strong, and
and enter
enter into
into your
your own body;
body; for
for there
there your
your foothold
foothold
is:firm.
is firm. Consider well, O
it well,
Consider it my heart!
0 my heart! Go not
not elsewhere.
elsewhere.
Kabir
Kabir says:
says:
Put
Put all
all imaginations
imaginations
away,
away, and stand
stand fast in
fast in that which
that which
you
you are-"
are."

After his death,

After his death, runs the legend,
runs the legend, Hindus
Hindus and and Mohammedans contendedcontended
for his body, and disputed
for his body, and disputed whether
whether it
it should
should be
be buried
buried or burned. But
while
while they disputed some one raised the
they disputed some one raised
the cloth that covered
cloth that covered the corpse,
the corpse, and
and
nothing could be seen but a mass of
nothing could be seen but a mass
of flowers.
flowers. The Hindus burned a a part
part
in
15
of the flowers
of the flowers in Benares,
Benares, and
and the
the Moslems
Moslems buried
buried the
the rest."
rest. Mter
After his
his

death his songs passed

death his songs passed from from mouth to
to mouth among
among the people;
people; Nanak
the
the Sikh
Sikh was
was inspired by
inspired by
them
them to
to found
found his
his sturdy
sturdy sect;
sect; others
others made
made the
the
poor weaver into aa deity." Today two small
poor weaver into deity. Today
78
sects, jealously
small sects, jealously separate,
separate, follow
follow
the doctrine
the doctrine and
and worship
worship the
the name of
of this
this poet
poet who tried·
tried to
to unite
unite Moslems
Moslems
and
and Hindus.
Hindus. One sect is
One sect is Hindu,
Hindu, the other is
the other is Moslem.
 CHAPTER XXI
CHAPTER

Indian
Indian Art
I.
I. THE MINOR ARTS

The great
great age
age of
of Indian
Indian art-Its
art Its uniqueness-Its
uniqueness Its association
association with
with
industry-P ottery-Metal-W ood-Ivory-
industry-Pottery-MetalWood-Ivory-Jewelry Jewelry-
Textiles
Textiles

B EFORE Indian
BEFORE stand in
stand
Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro
Indian art,

are
are
art, as
in humble wonder at
not
not all
all
as before
before every
every phase
at its
its age and

utilitarian;
age
amo'ng
utilitarian; among
phase of
and its
them
them
of Indian
Indian civilization,

continuity.
are
are
civilization, we
its continuity. The ruins

limestone
limestone
ruins of
bearded
bearded
of

men (significantly
(significantly like like Sumerians),
Sumerians), terra-cotta
terra-cotta figures
figures of
of women and and
animals, beads and other
animals, beads other ornaments
ornaments of of carnelian,
carnelian, and jewelry of
and jewelry of finely
finely
1
polished' gold.
gold. One seals seal shows
shows in bas-relief aa bull
bull so vigorously and and in-
1 8
polished in bas-relief so vigorously in-
cisively
cisively drawn that
that the
the observer
observer almost
almost leaps
leaps
to
to the
the conclusion
conclusion that
that art
art
does not progress,
does not progress, but but only
only changes
changes its its form.
form.
From thatthat time
time to to this,
this, through
through the the vicissitudes
vicissitudes of of five thousand years,
five thousand
years,
India has
India has been
been creating
creating its
its peculiar type of
peculiar type of beauty
beauty in
in a
a hundred
hundred arts. The
arts.
record is
record broken and
is broken and incomplete,
incomplete, not not because
because India
India ever ever rested,
rested, but
but be-
be-
cause war and
cause and the the idol-smashing
idol-smashing ecstasies
ecstasies of of Moslems
Moslems destroyed
destroyed uncounted
uncounted
masterpieces
masterpieces of
of building
building and
and statuary,
statuary, and
and poverty neglected
poverty neglected the
the preserva-
preserva-
tion of
tion others. We
of others. We'shall
shall find
find it diffic~t to
it difficult to enjoy
enjoy thisthis art
art atat first
first sight; its
sight; its
music will
music will seem
seem weird,
weird, its
its painting
painting obscure,
obscure, itsits architecture confused, its
architecture confused, its
sculpture grotesque.
sculpture grotesque. We shall
shall have
have to
to remind
remind ourselves
ourselves at
at every step
every step that
that
our tastes are
our tastes are the
the fallible
fallible product
product of of our
our local
local and
and limited
limited traditions
traditions and and
environments; and that
environments; and that we do ourselves
do ourselves and and foreign
foreign nationsnations injustice
injustice
when we judge judge them,them, or or their
their arts,
arts, byby·standards
-standards and and purposes
purposes natural
natural to to
our life
our and alien
life and alien toto their
their own.
own.
In India
In India thethe artist
artist had
had not
not yet been separated
yet been separated from from the artisan, making
the artisan, making
artificial and
art artificial
art and work aa drudgery;
drudgery; as as in
in our
our Middle
Middle Ages, Ages, so, in the
so, in the India
India
died at
that died
that at Plassey,
Plassey, every
every mature
mature workman was was aa craftsman,
craftsman, givinggiving form
form
and personality
and personality to to the
the product
product of his skill
of his skill and
and taste.
taste. Even Even today,
today, when
when
584
584
CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) INDIAN ART
INDIAN ART 585
585
factories
factories replace handicrafts,
replace handicrafts, and and craftsmen
craftsmen degenerate into "hands," the
degenerate into "hands," the
stalls and shops
stalls and shops of of every
every Hindu
Hindu town town showshow squatting artisans beating
squatting artisans beating
metal,
metal, moulding drawing designs,
moulding jewelry, drawing designs, weaving delicate shawls
jewelry, weaving delicate shawls and and
embroideries,
embroideries, or carving carving ivory and wood. Probably no other nation
or and wood. no other nation
ivory Probably 1
known to to us
us has
has ever
ever had had soso exuberant
exuberant a a variety of arts.
variety of arts.
8

Strange to say,
Strange to say, pottery
pottery failed
failed toto rise
rise from
from an an industry to an art in India;
industry to an art in India;
caste
caste rules
rules put
put so
so many
many limitations
limitations upon
upon the
the repeated
repeated
use
use of
of the
the same
same dish·
dish*
that
that there
there was smallsmall incentive
incentive to to adorn with beauty the frail
adorn with beauty the frail and transientand transient
earthenware that that came so so rapidly
rapidly from the
from the potter's hand.4 If the vessel was
4
potter's hand. If the vessel was
to be
to be made of some precious precious metal,
metal, thenthen artistry could spend itself upon it
artistry could spend itself upon it
without stint;
without stint; witness
witness the the Tanjore
Tanjore silver vase in
silver vase in the
the Victoria
Victoria Institute
Institute at at
Madras,
Madras, or or the
the gold
gold Betel
Betel Dish
Dish of
of Kandy.1
Kandy.
8
Brass
Brass was
was hammered
hammered into
into an
an
endless
endless variety
variety of of lamps,
lamps, bowls
bowls and and containers;
containers; a bkck alloy
a black (bidri) of zinc
alloy (bidri) of zinc
was often
often used
used forfor boxes,
boxes, basins
basins andand trays;
trays;
and
and one
one metal
metal was
was inlaid
inlaid oror
overlaid
overlaid upon another,
upon another, or
or encrusted
encrusted with
with silver or
silver or gold.'
gold.
6
Wood was carved
was carved
with aa profusion
profusion of
of plant
plant and animal
animal forms.
forms. Ivory
Ivory was
was cut
cut into
into everything
everything
from deities
deities toto dice;
dice; doors
doors and
and other
other objects
objects of
of wood were
were inlaid
inlaid with
with it;
it;
and dainty receptacles were made of
dainty receptacles of it for cosmetics
it for cosmetics andand perfumes.
perfumes. Jew-
Jew-
elry
elry abounded,
abounded, and and was wom worn by by richrich and
and poorpoor asas ornament
ornament or or hoard;
hoard;
Jaipur excelled in firing
Jaipur excelled in firing enamel
enamel colors upon aa gold
colors upon background; clasps,
gold background; clasps,
beads, pendants,
beads, pendants, knives
knives and and combs
combs were were moulded
moulded into into tasteful
tasteful shapes,
shapes,
.
with floral,
with animal, or
floral, animal, or theological, designs; one
theological, designs; one Brahman
Brahman pendant harbors.
pendant harbors,
in its tiny
in its space half
tiny space half aa hundred
hundred gods. 7
gods.' Textiles
Textiles were
were woven
woven with with an an
artistry
artistry never
never since
since excelled;
excelled; from
from the
the days
days of
of Czsar
Caesar to
to our
our own the
the fabrics
fabrics
of India
of India have
have been
been prized
prized by by allall the world.tt Sometimes,
the world, Sometimes, by by thethe subtlest
subtlest
and most
and painstaking of
most painstaking of precalculated
precalculated measurements,
measurements, every every thread
thread of warp
of warp
and woof was.
and woof was, dyed dyed before
before being placed
being placed upon upon the
the loom;
loom; the
the des,ign
design ap-ap-
peared as
peared as the
the weaving
weaving progressed,
progressed, and and was
was identical
identical onon either
either side.*
side.' From
homespun
homespun khadd"
khaddar to
to complex
complex brocades
brocades flaming
flaming with
with gold,
gold, from
from pictur-
pictur-
esque pyjamast to
esque pyjamasj to the invisibly-seamed shawls
the hvisibly-seamed shawls of Kashmir,§ every
of Kashmir, every gar-gar-
ment woven
ment woven in in India
India hashas aa beauty
beauty that that comes
comes onlyonly ofof aa very
very ancient,
ancient, andand
almost instinctive,
now almost instinctive, art. art.

*Cf. p.497
• Cf. p. 497 above.
above.
ft Perhaps
Perhaps the
the oldest printing of
oldest printing of textiles
textiles from
from blocks
blocks was in India,
done in
was done though
India,18 though it never
it never
grew there
there into the kindred of block-printing books.
*
grew
From the
jFrom
I These
the Hindu
These fine
Hindu pajamas,
fine woolen
woolen shawls
art of block-printing books.
into the kindred art
paijfl'11lllS, meaning
shawls are
meaning leg-clothing.
are made
leg-c1othing.
made of
of several strips, skilfully
several strips, skilfully joined
joined into
into what seems
what seems
to be a single fabric.:IO
to be a single fabric.
30
 86
5586 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXI

ll.
H. MUSIC

A concert
concert in India-Music and
in India-Music the dance-Musicians-Scille
and tbe dance-Musicians Scale and
and
forms-Themes-Music
forms Themes Music and philosophy
and philosophy

Ainerican traveler,
An American traveler, permitted
permitted to to intrude
intrude upon concert in
upon aa concert in Madras,
Madras,
found
found anan audience
audience of of some
some two two hundred
hundred Hindus,
Hindus, apparendy
apparently all
all Brahmans,
Brahmans,
seated
seated some
some on on benches,
benches, some some on on aa carpeted floor, listening intently to
carpeted floor, listening intently
to aa
small ensemble
smaIl ensemble beside beside whichwhich our our orchestral
orchestral mobs mobs would
would have have seemed
seemed
designed
designed to
to make
make themselves
themselves heard
heard on
on the
the moon.
moon. The instruments
instruments were
were
unfamiliar to
unfamiliar to the
the visitor,
visitor, andand to to his
his provincial eye
provincial eye they
they looked
looked likelike the
the
strange
strange and
and abnormal
abnormal products
products of
of some
some neglected garden.
neglected garden. There were
were
drums
drums of many shapes
of many shapes and
and sizes,
sizes, ornate
ornate flutes
flutes and
and serpentine horns, and.a
serpentine horns, and, a
variety
variety of
of strings.
strings.
Most
Most of
of these
these pieces
pieces
were
were wrought
wrought with
with minute
minute work-
work-
manship, and
manship, and some
some werewere studded
studded with gems. One drum,
with gems. drum, the the mridtmgll,
mridmga }

was fonned
was formed like like a a small
small barrel;
barrel; both
both ends
ends were
were covered
covered with
with a
a parchment
parchment
whose pitch
whose pitch was was changed by tightening
changed by tightening or
or loosening
loosening it with
it with little
little leather
leather
thongs;
thongs; one
one parchment
parchment head
head had
had been
been treated
treated with
with manganese dust, boiled
manganese dust, boiled
rice and
rice tamarind juice
and tamarind juice in in order
order to to elicit
elicit from
from it it a peculiar tone.
a peculiar tone. The
drummer
drummer used used only his hands-sometimes
only his hands-sometimes the
the palm,
palm, sometimes
sometimes the
the fingers,
fingers,
sometimes
sometimes the the merest
merest finger-tips.
finger-tips.
Another
Another player
player had
had a
a tll11'lbura,
tambura, or
or lute,
lute,
whose pitch
whose pitch was changed by
was changed by tightening
tightening or or loosening
loosening it with little leather
it with little leather
ground
ground for
for the
the theme.
theme. One instrument,
instrument, the
the vina,
vina, was
was especially
especially sensitive
sensitive

and eloquent; its

and eloquent; its strings, stretched
strings,
stretched over over a a slender metal plate
slender metal plate fromfrom a a parch-
parch-
ment-covered drum
ment-covered drum of of wood at at one
one end
end toto a resounding hollow
a resounding hollow gourdgourd at at

the other,
the other, werewere keptkept vibrating
vibrating with with a plectrum, while
a plectrum, while the the player's
player's left
left

hand etched
hand etched in in the
the melody
melody with
with fingers moving
fingers moving deftly deftly from
from string
string to to
string. The visitor listened humbly,
visitor listened humbly, and understood nothing.
and understood nothing.
string.
Music
Music in in India
India hashas a a history
history of
of at
at least
least three
three thousand
thousand years. The Vedic
years. Vedic
hymns, like
hymns, like all
all Hindu poetry, were
poetry, were written to
written to be be sung; poetry and
sung; poetry and song,
song,
music and
music and dance,
dance, were
were made one
one art
art in
in the
the ancient
ancient ritual.
ritual. The Hindu
dance, which, to
dance, which, the beam in
to the in the
the Occidental
Occidental eye, eye, seems
seems as as voluptuous and
voluptuous and
obscene
obscene as Western ~cing
as Western dancing seems
seems to
to Hindus,
Hindus, has
has been, through
been, through the the
greater part of
greater part of Indian
Indian history,
history, a a form
form of worship, aa display
religious worship,
of religious display of of
beauty
beauty in
in motion
motion and
and rhytlun
rhythm for
for the
the honor
honor and
and edification
edification of
of the
the gods;
gods;
only in
in modem
modern times
times have
have the devadasis
the devadasis emerged
emerged from.the
from.the temples in
in great
only temples great
number to
number to entertain
entertain the the secular
secular and profane. To the
and profane. the Hindu
Hindu these these d~ces
dances
 CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) INDIAN ART 587
587

were no
were no mere display of
mere display of flesh;
flesh; they
they were, in one
were, in one aspect,
aspect, an
an imitation
imitation of
of
the rhythms
the rhythms and
and processes
processes of
of the
the universe.
universe. Shiva
Shiva himself
himself was
was the
the god
god ofof
the dance,
the dance, and
and the
the dance of Shiva
dance of symbolized the
Shiva symbolized the very
very movement
movement of of the
the
world.-
world.*
Musicians, singers and dancers, like all
Musicians, singers and dancers, like artists in
all artists India, belonged
in India, belonged to to the
the
lowest castes.
lowest castes. Brahman might
The Brahman might like
like to
to sing in private,
sing in private, and
and accompany
accompany
himself on
himself vina or
on aa vim or another
another stringed
stringed instrument;
instrument; he he might
might teach
teach others
others to
to
play,
pky, or
or sing,
sing, or
or dance;
dance; but
but he
he would
would never
never think
think of
of playing
playing
for
for hire,
hire, or
or of
of
putting
putting an
an instnunent
instrument to
to his
his mouth.
mouth. Public
Public concerts
concerts were,
were, until
until recently,
recently,
a rarity
a rarity in In~; secular
in India; secular music
music was
was either
either the
the spontaneous
spontaneous singing
singing or
or
thrumming of
thrumming of the
the people,
people, or
or it
it was
was performed,
perfonned, likelike the
the chamber
chamber music
music of
of
Europe,
Europe, before
before small
small gatherings
gatherings in
in aristocratic
aristocratic homes.
homes. Akbar, himself
Akbar, himself
skilled in music,
skilled in music, had many musicians
had many musicians atat his
his court;
court; one
one of his singers,
of his singers, Tansen,
Tansen,
became popular
became popular and wealthy, and
and wealthy, died of
and died drink at
of drink at the
the age
age of thirty-four.u
of thirty-four. 11

There were
There were nono amateurs, there were
amateurs, there only professionals;
were only professionals; music
music waswas not
not
taught
taught as
as a
a social
social accomplishment,
accomplishment, and
and children
children were
were not
not beaten
beaten into
into
Beethovens. The
Beethovens. The function
function of the public
of the public was
was not
not toto play poorly,
play poorly, but
but to
to
listen well..u
listen well 11

For
For listening to music, in India, is
listening to music, in India,
is itself
itself an art, and
an art, requires long
and requires long training
training
of
of ear
ear and
and soul.
soul The words words may may be
be no
no more
more intelligible
intelligible
to
to the
the Westemer
Westerner
than the
the words
words of of the
the operas feels itit his
than operas which
which he he feels his class
class duty to
duty to enjoy;
enjoy; they
they
range,
range,
as
as everywhere,
everywhere, a~out
about the
the two subjects
subjects of
of religion
religion and
and love;
love; but
but the
the
words are of
words are of little little moment in
in Hindu
Hindu music,
music, and
and the
the singer,
singer, as
as in
in our
our most
most
advanced
advanced literature,
literature, often
often replaces
replaces
them with
with meaningless
meaningless syllables.
syllables.
The
music is
music written in
is written in scales
scales more
more subde
subtle andand minute
minute thanthan ours.
ours. To our our scale
scale

of twelve
of twelve tones
tones it adds ten
it adds "microtones," making
ten "microtones," making a scale of
a scale of twenty-two
twenty-two
quarter-tones
quarter-tones
in all. Hindu
in all. Hindu music may music may be
be written
written in
in a
a notation
notation composed
composed
of
of Sanskrit letters; usually
Sanskrit letters; usually it is neither
it is neither written
written nor read, read, but
but ~
is passed down
passed
<4
''by
by ear"
ear" from
from generation
generation
to
to generation,
generation,
or
or from composer
composer to to learner.
learner. It It is
is

not
not separated
separated
into
into bars,
bars, but
but glides
glides
in
in a
a continuous
continuous legato
legato which frustrates
frustrates

aa listener
listener accustomed
accustomed to to regular
regular emphases
emphases or or beats.
beats. ItIt has
has no chords,
chords, and
and
does
does not deal in
not deal harmony; it
in harmony; confines itself
it confines itself toto melody,
melody, with
with perhaps
perhaps a a back-
back-
, ground
ground of
of undertones;
undertones; in
in this
this sense
sense it
it is
is much simpler
simpler and.
and. more primitive
primitive

•* The
The secular
secular Hindu dance has
Hindu dance has been
been revealed
revealed to Europe and America by
to Europe by the
the Dot
not quite
quite
orthodox
orthodox artart of Shankar, in
of Shankar, which every
in which every movement
movement of of the
the body,
body, the hands, the
the hands, the fingers
fingers
and the eyes
and the conveys a subde and
eyes conveys a subtle
and precise significance to the
precise significance
the initiated
initiated spectator,
spectator, and
carries
carries an
an undulating grace,
undulating grace,
and
and aa precise
precise
and
and corporeal poeay,
corporeal poetry, unknown in
in the
the West-
ern dance
em dance since
since our
our democratic
democratic retmu
return to
to the African in
the African in art.
art.
 88
5588 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP.XXI XXI
than
than European
European music,
music, while
while it is more
it is more complex
complex in' in scale
scale and
and rhythm.
rhythm. The The
melodies
melodies are are both
both -limited
limited andand infinite:
infinite: they must
they must all derive
all derive from
from one
one or
or an-
an-
other
other of the thirty-six
of the thirty-six
traditional
traditional modes
modes or
or airs,
airs, but
but they may
they may weave
weave upon
upon
these
these themes
themes an an endless
endless and
and seamless
seamless web web of of variation.
variation. Each Each ofof these
these themes,
themes,
or ragas,·
or ragasf consists
consists of
of five, six or
five, six or seven
seven notes,
notes, to to one
one of of which
which the the musician
musician
constantly
constantly returns.
returns. Each
Each raga
raga is named
is named from
from the
the mood that
that it
it wishes
wishes to
to sug-
sug-
gest-"Dawn,"
gest- 'Dawn," "Spring," "Evening
"Spring," "Evening Beauty," Beauty," "Intoxication,"
"Intoxication," etc.-and
etc.-and is
is as-
as-

sociated with a
sociated with a specific
specific
time
time of
of the
the day
day or
or the
the year.
year.
Hindu
Hindu legend
legend ascribes
ascribes
an
an occult
occult power
power to these ragas;
to these ragas; so is said
said that
that a a Bengal
it is
so it Bengal dancing-girl
dancing-girl endedended
aa drought by singing, as a kind of "Rain-drop Prelude,"
drought by singing, as a kind of "Rain-drop Prelude," the Megh mallar the Megb mallar
u
ragll,
raga, or rain-making theme.
or rain-making theme." TheirTheir antiquity has given the ragas aa sacred
antiquity has given the ragas
sacred
character;
character; he he who plays
plays them
them must
must observe
observe them
them faithfully;
faithfully,
as
as forms
forms enacted
enacted

by Shiva
by Shiva himself.
himself. One player, Narada,
pkyer, Narada, having performed them carelessly,
having performed them carelessly,
was ushered
ushered into hell by Vishnu,
into hell
by Vishnu, and and waswas shown
shown men and and women weepingweeping
over
over their
their broken
broken limbs; these,
limbs; these, said
said the
the god, were
god, were
the
the ragas
ragas andand raginis
raginis dis-
dis-

torted and tom by

torted and torn by Narada's
Narada's reckless
reckless playing. Seeing which,
playing. Seeing which,
we areare told,
told,
Narada sought
sought more humbly
humbly aa greater perfection
greater perfection
in
in his
his art.
art"u

The Indian performer is

Indian performer is not
not seriously hampered by the
seriously hampered by
the obligation
obligation to to
remain faithful:
remain faithful to the raga
to the raga that
that he
he has
has chosen
chosen for
for his
his program,
program, any any more
more
that the
that the Western
Western composer
composer of of sonatas
sonatas or symphonies is
or symphonies is hampered by
hampered by
adhering
adhering to
to his
his theme;
theme; in
in either
either case
case what
what is
is lost
lost in
in liberty is
liberty is gained in
gained in
access
access to coherence of
to coherence of structure
structure and and symmetry
symmetry of
of form.
form. The Hindu
Hindu
musician is
musician is like the Hindu philosopher; he
like the
philosopher; he starts with the
starts with the finite
finite and
and "sends
"sends
his
his soul into the
soul into the infinite";
infinite"; he
he embroiders
embroiders upon
upon his
his theme
theme until, through an
until, through an
undulating stream
undulating stream of rhythm and
of rhythm recurrence, even
and recurrence, even through
through aa hypnotizing
hypnotizing
monotony
monotony of
of notes,
notes, he
he has
has created
created a
a kind
kind of
of musical
musical Yoga,
Yoga, a
a forgetfulness
f orgetfulness
of ~ and
of will and individuality,
individuality, of matter, space
of matter, space andand time;
time; the soul is
the soul is lifted
lifted into
into
almost mystic
an almost
an mystic union
union with
with something
something "deeply"deeply interfused,"
interfused," some
some pro-
pro-
found, immense
found, immense and and quiet
quiet Being,
Being, some
some primordial
primordial and and pervasive
pervasive reality
reality
that smiles
that smiles upon
upon allall striving wills, all
striving wills, all change
change and and death.
death.
Probably
Probably we shall
shall never
never care
care for
for Hindu
Hindu music,
music, andand never
never comprehend
comprehend
it, until
it, until we have have abandoned
abandoned striving
striving forfor being,
being, progress
progress forfor permanence,
permanence,
desire for
desire for acceptance,
acceptance, and and motion
motion for for rest.
rest. This
This maymay come
come when
when Europe
Europe
again is
again is subject,
subject, and
and Asia again isis master.
Asia again master. But But then
then Asia will have
Asia will have tired
tired of
of
being, permanence, acceptance
being, permanence, acceptance and
and rest.
rest.

• More strictly
*More speaking'there
strictly speaking are six
there are ragas, or
six ragas, or basic
basic themes,
themes, each
each with :five modifica-
with five modifica-
tions called ,agini. Raga
tions called ragtni. means color,
Raga means color, passion,
passion, mood;
mood; ragmi is its
f'agini is its feminine
feminine form.
form.
CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) INDIAN ART 589

m.
HI. PAINTING

Prehistoric
Prehistoric - The frescoes
frescoes of
of Ajanta
- Rajput miniatures
Ajanta - Rajput miniatures -- The
The
Mogul
Mogul school-The
school-The painters-The theorists
painters-The theorists
A provincial is
A provincial is a
a man who judges
judges the world in
the world in terms
terms of of his
his parish, and
parish,
and
considers all unfamiliar
considers all unfamiliar things
things barbarous.
barbarous. It It isis told
told ofof the
the Emperor
Emperor Je- Je-
hangir-a
hangir a man of taste and learning in
of taste in the
the ans-that
arts that when he
he was
was shown
shown aa
learning
European painting
European he rejected it summarily; being "in
it oyle, he liked it not.'nI
15
painting rejected summarily; being "in oyle, he liked it not"
It is
It is pleasant to
pleasant to know that that even
even an an emperor
emperor can can bebe aa provincial, and that it
provincial, and that it
was as as difficult
difficult for
for Jehangir to
to enjoy the
the oil-painting of
of Europe as
as it
it is
is for
for us
us
Jehangir enjoy oil-painting Europe
to
to appreciate
appreciate the
the minatares
minatures of
of India.
India.
It
It is
is clear,
clear, from the drawings, in
the drawings, in red
red pigment,
pigment, of of animals
animals arid
arid aa rhinoceros
rhinoceros
hu:nt in the prehistoric
hunt in the prehistoric caves
caves of of Singanpur
Singanpur and and Mirzapur,
Mirzapur,
that
that Indian
Indian paint-
paint-
ing
ing has
has had a a history
history of of many
many thousands
thousands of of years.
years.
Palettes
Palettes with
with ground
ground
co~ors
colors ready
ready for for use
use abound among among the the remains
remains of of neolithic
neolithic India.
India." Great
18
Great
gaps
gaps occur
occur in
in the
the history
history of
of the
the art,
art, because
because most
most of
of the
the early
early
work
work was
was
ruined
mined by by the
the climate,
climate, and
and much of
of the
the remainder
remainder was
was destroyed
destroyed by by Moslem
Moslem
Aurangzeb" The Vinaya
1f
"idol-breakers"
"idol-breakers" from Mahmud to to Aurangzeb. Pitaka (ca.
Vinaya Pitaka (ca. 3 00
300
B.C.)
B.C.) refers
refers to
to King
King Pasenada's
Pasenada's palace
palace as
as containing pictUre galleries,
containing picture galleries, and and
Fa-Hien
Fa-Hien and Yuan Chwang describe many
Chwang describe buildings as
many buildings as famous
famous for for thethe ex-
ex-
cellence
cellence of their murals;lI
of their murals; but
18
but no trace
trace of of these
these structures remains. One
structures remains. One of of the
the
oldest frescoes in
oldest frescoes in Tibet
Tibet shows
shows an an artist
artist painting a portrait of
painting a portrait of Budclha;lI
Buddha;" the the
kter artist
later took it
artist took it for
for granted
granted that
that painting
painting was
was an
an established
established art
art in
in Buddha's
Buddha's
days.
days.
earliest dateable
The earliest dateable Indian painting is
Indian painting a group
is a group of
of Buddhist
Buddhist frescoes
frescoes
(ca.
(ca. B.C.) found on the
100 B.C.) the walls
walls of cave in
of aa cave Sirguya, in
in Sirguya, the Central
in the Central
Provinces.
Provinces. that time
From that time on the
the art of fresco
art of fresco painting
painting-that
that is, painting
is, painting

upon freshly
upon freshly laid
laid plaster
plaster before
before it
it dries
dries-progressed
progressed step by step until on the
step by step until on the
walls of
walls of the
the caves
caves at Ajanta·
at Ajanta* it reached
it reached aa perfection
perfection never
never excelled
excelled even by
even by
Giotto or
Giotto or Leonardo.
Leonardo. These
These temples
temples were
were carved
carved out
out of
of the
the rocky
rocky face
face of
of aa
mountain-side at
mountain-side at various
various periods
periods from
from the first to
the first to the
the seventh
seventh century
century A.D.
A.D.
For
For centuries they
centuries they were
were lost
lost to
to history and history
and human memory
memory after
after the
the decay
decay
of Buddhism;
of Buddhism; the
the jungle
jungle grew
grew about
about them
them and
and almost
almost buried
buried them;
them; bats,
bats,
snakes and
snakes and other
other beasts
beasts made their
their home there,
there, and
and aa thousand
thousand varieties
varieties of
of
birds and
birds and insects
insects fouled
fouled the
the paintings with their
paintings with their waste.
waste. In
In 1819 Europeans
1819 Europeans
stumbled into
stumbled into the
the ruins,
ruins, and
and were
were amazed
amazed toto find
:find on
on the
the walls
walls frescoes
frescoes that
that .
are now ranked
are ranked among
among the
the masterpieces
masterpieces of
of the
the world's
world's art.*
art..
temples have
The temples have been
been called
called caves,
caves, for in most
for in most cases
cases they
they are
are cut
cut into
into
the mountains.
the mountains. Cave
Cave No.
No. XVI, for XVI,
for example,
example, is
is an
an excavation
excavation sixty-five
sixty-five feet
feet
*
• Near
Near the village of
the village of Fardapur, in the
Fardapur, in the native
native state of Hyderabad.
state of Hyderabad.
59
590 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XU
(CHAP. XXI

each way,
each way, upheld
upheld by by twenty
twenty pillars; alongside the the central
central hall hall are are sixteen
sixteen
pillars; alongside
monastic
monastic cells;cells; a a porticoed
porticoed verandaveranda adorns
adorns thedie front,
front, and
and a a sanctuary
sanctuary
hides
hides in
in
the back. Every
the back. Every wall
wall is
is covered
covered with
with frescoes.
frescoes. In
In 1879
1879 sixteen
sixteen of
of the
the
twenty-nine
twenty-nine temples temples contained
contained paintings; by 1910 the
paintings; by 1910 frescoes in
the frescoes in ten
ten ofof these
these
sixteen
sixteen had had been
been destroyed by
destroyed by exposure,exposure, and
and those
those in
in the
the remaining
remaining six
six had
had
been mutilated by
been mutilated inept attempts at
at restoration.- Once these frescoes were
21
by inept attempts restoration. these frescoes were
~rilliant
brilliant withwith red,
red, green,
green, blueblue and purple pigments;
and purple pigments; nothing
nothing survives
survives of of the
the
colors
colors now except low-toned
except low-toned and
and blackened surfaces.
blackened surfaces. Some of the paintings,
of the paintings,
thus
thus obscured
obscured by by time
time and and ignorance,
ignorance, seem seem coarse
coarse andand grotesque
grotesque to to us,
us, who
cannot
cannot read read the Buddhist legends
the Buddhist legends with
with Buddhist
Buddhist hearts;
hearts; others
others are
are at
at once
once
powerful
powerful and
and graceful,
graceful,
a
a revelation
revelation of
of the
the skill
skill of
of craftsmen
craftsmen whose
whose names
names
perished
perished long long before
before theirtheir work.
work.
Despite
Despite these
these depredations, Cave I is still rich in masterpieces. Here, on
depredations, Cave I is still rich in masterpieces. Here, on
one
one wall,
wall, is
is (probably)
(probably) aa Bodhisattrwa-a
Bodhisattwa-z Buddhist Buddhist saintsaint entitled
entitled to to Nirvll1lIl,
Nirvana,
but
but choosing,
choosing, instead,
instead, repeated rebirths in
repeated rebirths in order
order to to minister
minister to to men.
men. NeverNever
has
has the
the sadness
sadness of of understanding
understanding been been more profoundly
profoundly portrayed;** one
portrayed;- one
wonders which is
wonders is finer
finer oror deeper-this,
deeper this, or
or Leonardo's
Leonardo's kindred
kindred study
study of
of the
the
head
head ofof Christ.·
Christ.* On another another wallwall ofof the
the same
same temple
temple is
is a a study
study of
of Shiva
Shiva and
and
his
his wife
wife Parvati, dressed in
Parvati, dressed jewelry.- Nearby
in jewelry.*
8

Nearby is is aa painting
painting of of four
four deer,deer,
tender
tender withwith the Buddhist sympathy
the Buddhist sympathy for
for animals;
animals; and
and on the
the ceiling
ceiling is
is aa de-
de-
sign
sign still alive
still alive with
with delicately
delicately drawn
drawn flowers
flowers and
and fowl.
fowl,**
14
On aa wall
wall of
of Cave
Cave
XVII is
XVII is aa graceful
graceful representation,
representation,
now half
half destroyed, of
destroyed, of the the god god Vishnu,
Vishnu,
with his
with retinue, :flying
his retinue, down. from
flying dowft from heaven to
heaven to attend
attend some event
event in
in the
the life
life

of
of Buddha;-
Buddha;* on another another wall wall is is aa schematic but colorful portrait of of a a prin-
5
schematic but colorful portrait prin-
cess
cess and
and her her maids.
maids.1II Mingled
88
Mingled with
with these
these cbef-d'(2'U,wes
chef-d'oeuvre* are
are crowded
crowded fres-
fres-

coes of
coes of apparently
apparently poor poor workmanship,
workmanship, describing
describing the the youth,
youth, flight Hight and
temptation of
temptation of Buddha.*
Buddha." 7

But we cannot
But cannot judgejudge these works in
these works their original
in their original form
form from from what what sur- sur-
vives of
vives of them today;today; and doubtless there are
doubtless there are clues
clues to their appreciation
to their appreciation that that
are not
are not revealed
revealed to to alien
alien souls. Even the
souls. Even the Occidental,
Occidental, however,
however, can can admire
admire
the nobility
the nobility of of the
the subject,
subject, the majestic scope
the majestic scope of of the
the plan,
plan, the the unity
unity of of the
the
composition,
composition, the
the clearness,
clearness, simplicity
simplicity and
and decisiveness
decisiveness of
of the
the line,
line, and-
and
among many
among many details
details-the astonishing perfection
the astonishing perfection of of that
that banebane of of allall artists,
artists,
the hands.
the hands. Imagination
Imagination can can picture
picture thethe artist-priestst
artist-priestst who prayed prayed in in these
these
cells and
cells and perhaps
perhaps painted
painted thesethese walls
walls andand ceilings
ceilings withwith fondfond and and pious
pious art art
while Europe
while Europe lay lay buried
buried in in her
her early-medieval
early-medieval darkness.
darkness. Here Here at at Ajanta
Ajanta re- re-
ligious devotion
ligious devotion fusedfused architecture,
architecture, sculpture
sculpture and and painting
painting into happy unity,
into aa happy unity,
and produced
and produced one one of of the
the sovereign
sovereign monuments
monuments of of Hindu
Hindu art. art.

*
• Among
Among his
his preliminary
preliminary sketches
sketches for The Last
for The Lart Supper.
Supper.
t A supposition.
t supposition. We do not
do not know who painted these
,vito painted these frescoes.
frescoes.
CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) INDIAN ART
INDIAN ART 591
59!
When their
When their temples were
temples were closed closed or or destroyed by Huns and Moslems the
destroyed by Huns and Moslems the
Hindus
Hindus turned turned their their pictorial skill
pictorial skill to
to lesser
lesser forms.
forms. Among
Among the the Rajputs
Rajputs a
a
school
school of of painters
painters arose
arose who
who recorded in delicate miniatures
recorded in delicate miniatures the the episodes
episodes of
of
the MahabhllTata
the Mahabharata and and the Ramayana, and
the Rtrmaytl1la, and the the heroic
heroic deeds
deeds of the Rajputana
of the Rajputana
chieftains;
chieftains; oftenoften theythey werewere meremere outlines,
outlines, but but always they were instinct with
always they were instinct with
life, perfect in
and perfect
life, and design. There
in design. There is, in
is, the lvluseum
in the Museum of of Fine
Fine Arts
Arts atat Boston,
Boston,
aa charming
charming example example of
of this
this style, symbolizing
style, symbolizing
one
one of
of the
the ragas
ragas of
of music
music by by
means
means of of graceful
graceful women,women, aa stately tower, and a lowering sky.- Another
stately tower, and a lowering sky* Another
example, in
example, in the
the ArtArt Institute
Institute of of Detroit,
Detroit, represents with unique delicacy a
represents with unique delicacy a
80
scene from the Gita-Govinda.
scene from the Gita-Govinda* The The human
human figures in these and other Hindu
figures in these and other Hindu
paintings
paintings were rarely rarely drawn from from models;
models; the the artist
artist visualized
visualized them them out out of of
imagination
imagination and and memory.
memory. He painted, usually,
painted, usually, in
in brilliant
brilliant tempera upon
tempera upon aa
paper
paper surface;
surface; he used fine
fine brushes
brushes made from
from the
the most
most delicate
delicate hairs
hairs that
that hehe
could
could get get from the
the squirre~
squirrel, the
the camel,
camel, the
the goat or the mongoose;1L
goat or the mongoose; and he
81
and he
achieved
achieved a a refinement
refinement of of line
line and and decoration
decoration that that delight even the foreign
delight even the foreign
~d inexpert
and inexpert eye. eye.
Similar
Similar work was done in in other
other parts
parts of of India,
India, especially in the state of
especially in die state of
8*
Kangra.·
Kangra. Another variety
variety of
of the
the same
same genre
genre developed under the
developed under the Moguls
Moguls at
at
Delhi. Rising
Delhi. Rising out of Persian calligraphy
out of Persian
calligraphy and and the art of
the art of illuminating
illuminating manu-
manu-
scripts, this style
scripts, style grew
grew into into a a form of of aristocratic
aristocratic portraiture corresponding,
this
portraiture corresponding,
in
in its refinement and exclusivesness,
its refinement
exclusivesness, to to the
the chamber
chamber music music thatthat :flourished
flourished at at
the court
the court. LikeLike the the Rajput
Rajput school,
school, the the Mogul
Mogul painters
painters strove
strove forfor delicacy
delicacy
of
of
line, sometimes
line, sometimes using using aa brush
brush made made fromfrom aa singlesingle hair;
hair; and they, too,
and they, too, rivaled
rivaled
one another in the skilful portrayal
one another in the skilful portrayal of of thethe hand.
hand. But But they
they putput more
more colorcolor
into their
into drawings, and
their drawings, less mysticism;
and less mysticism; they they seldom
seldom touched
touched religion
religion or or
mythology; they
mythology; they confined
confined themselves
themselves to to the the earth,
earth, and
and werewere as as realistic
realistic as as
caution would
caution would permit.
permit. Their Their subjects
subjects were living men
were living men and and women of im-
of im-
perial position
perial position and and temper,
temper, not not noted
noted for for humility;
humility; one after another
one after these
another these
dignitaries
dignitaries sat
sat for
for their
their portraits,
portraits, until
until the
the picture galleries
picture galleries of
of that royal
that royal
dilettante, Jehangir,
dilettante, Jehangir, were were filled
:filled with
with thethe likenesses
likenesses of of every impo~t ruler
every important ruler
or courtier since the
or courtier since the coming
coming of of Akbar
Akbar· to to thethe throne.
throne. Akbar Akbar was was thethe first
first
of his dynasty
of his dynasty to to encourage
encourage painting;painting; at at the
the endend of of his
his reign,
reign, if if wewe maymay
believe Abu-1
believe Abu-l Fazl,Fazl, there
there were
were aa hundred
hundred masters masters in in Delhi,
Delhi, and and aa thousand
thousand
Jehangir~s intelligent
amateurs.- Jehangir-s and widened
88
amateurs. intelligent patronage
patronage developed
developed the the art,
art, and widened its its
field from
field from portraiture
portraiture to to thethe representation
representation of of hunting
hunting scenesscenes and and other
other
natural backgrounds
natural backgrounds for for the human figure
the human :figure-whichwhich stillstill dominated
dominated the pic-
the pic-
ture; one
ture; one minature
minature shows shows the the Emperor
Emperor himself himself almost
almost in in the cla~ of
the daws of aa lion
lion
that has
that has clambered
clambered upon upon the the rumprump of of thethe imperial
imperial elephant
elephant and and isis reaching
reaching
for the
for the royal flesh, while
royal flesh, while an an attendant
attendant realistically
realistically takestakes to his heels.
to his heels."8
*

Under Shah
Under Shah JehanJehan the the art reached its
art reached its height,
height, and and began
began to to decline;
decline; as in the
as in the
case of
case of Japanese
Japanese prints,
prints, thethe widened
widened popularity
popularity of of the
the form
form gavegave itit at
at once
once aa
59
5921 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
CIVILIZATION (CH\p.:lP.
^

wider audience
wider audience and
and a
a less
less exacting taste.- Aurangzeb, by
exacting taste* Aurangzeb, by restoring
restoring '"'
strict rule of
strict rule of Islam
Islam against images, completed
against images, completed
the
the decay.
decay. e~
e
^
Through
Through the
the intelligent
intelligent
beneficence
beneficence of
of the
the Mogul kings
Mogul kings Indian
Indian painte~
painterF
enjoyed at Delhi a prosperity that they had not
enjoyed at Delhi a prosperity that they
not known for many centuries.
for many centuries.

The guild of painters, which

guild of painters,
which had
had kept
kept itself
itself alive
alive from Buddhist times,
from Buddhist times, re-
re-

newed its
newed its youth, and
youth, and some
some ofof its
its members
members escaped
escaped from the the anonymity
anonymity with
which time's
which time's forgetfulness,
forgetfulness,
and
and Hindu
Hindu negligence
negligence of
of the
the individual,
individual, cover
most Indian
most art. Out
Indian art. Out of seventeen artists
of seventeen artists considered preeminent in
considered preeminent in Akbar's
Akbar's
reign, thirteen were Hindus.- The most favored
reign, thirteen were Hindus.*
favored of of all the painters
all the painters atat the
the
great Mogul's court was
great Mogul's court was Dasvanth,
Dasvanth, whose
whose lowly origin
lowly origin as
as the
the son
son of
of a
a palan-
palan-
quin-bearer
quin-bearer
aroused
aroused no
no prejudice
prejudice
against
against
him in the
in the eyes
eyes of
of the
the Emperor.
Emperor.
youth was
The youth was eccentric,
eccentric, andand insisted
insisted on drawing pictures wherever he
drawing pictures
went, and
went, and on on whatever
whatever surface
surface hehe found
found at hand. Akbar recognized
at hand. recognized hishis

genius,
genius,
and
and had
had his own drawing-master
his drawing-master teach
teach him.
him. The boy
boy became
became in
in time

the greatest master of his his age; but

but atat the
the height
height of his fame he
of his stabbed him-
he stabbed him-
die greatest master of age;
self to death."
self to death.*
1

Wherever men do
Wherever do things, other men will
things, other
will arise
arise who will will explain
explain to to them
how things
things should
should be
be done.
done. The Hindus,
Hindus, whose
whose philosophy
philosophy did
did not
not exalt
exalt
logic,
logic,
loved
loved logic
logic
none
none the
the less,
less, and
and delighted
delighted
to
to fQrmulate
formulate in
in the
the strictest
strictest

and most rational

and most rational rules
rules the
the subtle
subtle procedure of
procedure of every art. So,
every art. early in
So, early in our
our
era,
era, the
the SandanglZ,
Smdanga, or
or "Six
"Six Limbs
Limbs of
of Indian
Indian Painting,"
Painting,"
laid
laid down,
down, like
like a
a later
later

and perhaps imitative

and perhaps imitative Chinese,·
Chinese,* six:six canons
canons of of excellence
excellence in in pictorial art:
pictorial
art:

((i)
I) thethe knowledge
knowledge of of appearances; (2)
appearances; (2) correct
correct perception,
perception, measure
measure and
and
structure;
structure; (3) (3) the
the action
action of
of feelings
feelings
on
on forms;
forms; (4)
(4) the
the infusion
infusion of
of grace,
grace, or or
artistic
artistic representation; (5) similitude;
representation; (5) similitude; and
and (6)
(6) an
an artistic
artistic use
use of
of brush
brush and
and
colors.
colors. Later
Later an an elaborate
ekborate esthetic
esthetic code
code appeared,
appeared, the Shilpa-shastra, in
the Sl:Jilpa-shflStTfl, in
which the
which the rules
rules andand traditions
traditions ofof each art were
each art were formulated
formulated for for allall time.
time. The

artist, we are
artist, told, should
are told, should be learned in
be learned the Vedas,
in the "delighting in
Vedas, "delighting in the
the wor-
ship
ship of of God, faithful to
God, faithful to his
his wife,
wife, avoiding
avoiding strange women, and piously
strange women, piously ac- ac-
quiring
quiring a
a knowledge
knowledge of
of various
various sciences."·
sciences."*
We shallshall bebe helped
helped in in understanding Oriental
understanding Oriental painting painting if if we remember,
remember,
nrst,
first, that
that it
it seeks
seeks to
to represent
represent not
not things
things but
but feelings,
feelings,
and
and not to
not to represent
represent
but to
but to suggest;
suggest; thatthat it
it depends not
depends not on color but on
color but on line; that it
line; that it aims
aims toto create
create
esthetic and religious
esthetic and religious emotion rather than
emotion rather than toto reproduce reality; that
reproduce reality; that it it isis

interested in
interested the "soul"
in the "soul" or or "spirit"
"spirit"
of
of men and things, rather
and tilings, rather thanthan in
in their
their
material forms.
material forms. Try Try as as we will,
will, however,
however, we shall shall hardly find in Indian
hardly find in Indian
painting
painting the
the technical
technical development,
development, or
or range
range and
and depth
depth of
of significance,
significance, that
that
characterize
characterize the the pictorial
pictorial art
art of
of China
China and
and Japan.
Japan. Certain
Certain Hindus
Hindus explain
explain

•* Hsieh cf. p. 157.

Ho; el. Sandanga is to us
Hsieh Ho; p. 752 below.
below. The Srmdtm.gll is of uncertain date,
of uncertain being known
date, being known to us
through aa thirteenth-century
through thirtecnth-eentury commenwy.
commentary.
 CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) ART
INDIAN AB. T 593
593
this
this very fancifully: painting decayed among them, they tell
very fancifully: painting decayed among them, they tell us, us, because
because it it

was too
was too easy,
easy, it was not
it not a
a sufficiently laborious gift to offer to the
sufficiently laborious gift to offer to the gods."
gods."
Perhaps pictures, so
Perhaps pictures, so mortally frail
mortally frail and
and transitory, did not quite satisfy the
transitory, did not quite satisfy the
craving of the Hindu for
craving of the some lasting
for some
lasting
embodiment
embodiment of his chosen
of his chosen deity.
deity.
Slowly,
Slowly, as as Buddhism reconciled itself
Buddhism reconciled to imagery,
itself to
imagery,
and
and the
the Brahmanic
Brahmanic shrines
shrines
increased
increased and multiplied, painting was
multiplied, painting was replaced by statuary, color and line
replaced by statuary, color and line
by lasting
by lasting stone.
stone.

IV.
IV. SCULPTURE

Primiti'Ue-Buddhist-Gandhll1a-Guptfl-
Pr^'rive-Bwrfd*^ cCColonial" -Estimate
We cannot trace the
cannot trace the history
history of of Indian
Indian sculpture from the statuettes of
sculpture from the statuettes of
Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro to
to the
the age
age of
of Ashoka,
Ashoka, but
but we may suspect
may suspect that that this
this isis aa gap
gap
in our knowledge
in knowledge rather rather than
than in in the art Perhaps
the art. India, temporarily im-
Perhaps India, temporarily im-
poverished
poverished by by the
the Aryan invasions,
Aryan invasions, reverted
reverted from
from stone
stone to
to wood for
for its
its

statuary; or
statuary; perhaps the
or perhaps die Aryans
Aryans were were too too intent
intent upon upon war war to to care
care for for

figures surviving
surviving in
art The oldest
art. oldest stone
stone figures in India
India go back onlyonly to to Ashoka;
go back Ashoka;
but these show aa skill
but these so highly
skill so developed
highly developed that
that we cannot
cannot doubt
doubt that
that the
the
art had then
art had then behind
behind it it many centuries
many centuries in
in growth.
growth.
4040
Buddhism
Buddhism set
set up
up definite
definite
obstacles
obstacles toto both
both painting
painting and and statuary
statuary in in its
its aversion
aversion to to idolatry
idolatry
and
and secular
secular
imagery:
imagery: Buddha
Buddha forbade
forbade "imaginative drawings
"imaginative drawings painted painted in
in figures
figures
-of
of men
and women";A1 and
and women";* under this
and under this almost Mosaic prohibition pictorial
almost Mosaic prohibition pictorial and plas- and plas-
tic art
tic suffered in
art suffered in India
India asas itit had done in
had done in Judea
Judea and and waswas to to dodo in in Islam.
Islam.
Gradually
Gradually this
this Puritanism
Puritanism seems
seems to
to have
have relaxed
relaxed as
as Buddhism
Buddhism yielded
yielded its
its aus-
aus-
terity
terity and partook
partook more and
and more of
of the
the Dravidian
Dravidian passion
passion for
for symbol
symbol and and
myth.
myth. When the
the art
art of
of carving appears again
carving appears again (ca. (ca. 200 B.C.),
B.C.), in
in the
the stone
stone
bas-reliefs on
bas-reliefs the "rails"
on the "rails" enclosing the
enclosing die Buddhist
Buddhist cc stupas" or
"stupas"
burial mounds at
or burial at
Bodh-gaya
Bodh-gaya and Bharhut,
Bharhut, it
it is
is as
as a
a component
component part part of
of an architectural
architectural design
design
than as
rather than as anan independent art; and
and to to thedie end end of its history Indian
of its
rather
independent art; history Indian
sculpture remained for
sculpture remained for the
the most part an
most part an accessory
accessory to to architecture,
architecture, and and pre-
pre-
ferred
ferred relief to carving,
relief to carving in
in the
the round.-
round.* In
In the
the Jain
Jain temples
temples at
at Mathura,
Mathura, and
and
the Buddhist
the Buddhist shrines
shrines at at Amaravati
Amaravati and and Ajanta,
Ajanta, this
this art
art of
of relief
relief reached
reached aa
high point
high point of
of perfection.
perfection.
The rail at
rail at Amaravati,
Amaravati, says
says a
a learned
learned authority,
authority,
"is the most
"is the most voluptuous
voluptuous and and the
the most
most delicate
delicate flower
flower of of Indian
Indian sculpture."·
sculpture."*
1
-
.
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, in
in the
the province
province of
of Gandhara
Gandhara in
in not$western
northwestern India,
India, another
another
type of
type of sculpture was developing Under
sculpture was developing
under the patronage of
the patronage the Kushan kings.
of the kings.
This mysterious dynasty,
This mysterious dynasty, which
which came
came suddenly
suddenly out
out of
of the
the north-probably
north probably

•*An
An exception colossus of
exception outweighing this generalization
outweighing this was the
generalization was the copper
copper colOSSUs of Buddha,
Buddha,
eighty feet high,
eighty feet which Yuan Chwang saw
high, which Yuan Chwang
saw at
at Pataliputra; through Yuan
Pataliputra; through Yuan and
and other
other Far
Far
Eastern pilgrims to
Eastern pilgrims to India this may
India this may have
have been
been one
one ancestor
ancestor of
of the
the great
great Buddhu
Buddhas at
at Nara
Nara
and Kamakura in
and in Japan.
Japan.
 594
594 TH E STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXI
XXI

from
from Hellenized
Hellenized Bactria-brought
Bactria-brought with with it it aa tendency
tendency to to imitate
imitate Greek
Greek forms.forms.
The Mahayana
Mahay ana BuddhismBuddhism that that captured the
captured the council
council of
of Kanishka
Kanishka opened
opened the the
way by rescinding
way by rescinding the
the prohibition
prohibition
of
of imagery.
imagery.
Under
Under the
the tutelage
tutelage of
of Greek
Greek
instructors Hindu sculpture took
instructors on for a time a smooth Hellenistic Hellenistic face;
sculpture took on for a time a smooth face;
Buddha was was transformed
transformed into into thethe likeness
likeness of of Apollo,
Apollo,
and
and became
became an
an aspirant
aspirant
to Olympus; drapery
to Olympus;
drapery began began to to flow about Hindu
flow about Hindu deitiesdeities and saints in
and saints in the
the

style of
style of Pheidias'
Pheidias' pediments,
pediments, and and pious Bodbisattwas robbed elbows with
pious Bodhisattwas rubbed elbows
with jolly
jolly
drunken Sileni."
Sileni.
48
Idealized
Idealized and and almost
almost effeminate
effeminate representations
representations
of
of thethe Mas-
Mas-
ter
ter and
and hishis disciples were
disciples
were offset
offset with
with horrible
horrible examples of decadent Greek
examples of decadent Greek
realism,
realism, like
like the
the starving Buddha
starving Buddha of
of Lahore,
Lahore, in
in which
which every
every rib rib and tendon is
and tendon is

shown underneath
underneath a a feminine
feminine face face with
with ladylike
ladylike
coiffure
coiffure and
and masculine
masculine beard."
beard.
44

This Greco-Buddhist
This Greco-Buddhist art impressed Yuan Chwang,
art impressed Yuan
Chwang, and through him
and through him and and later
later

pilgrims its way into and Japan;41S

pilgrims found its way into China, China, KoreaKorea and but it
it had little
little influ-
45

Japan; but had influ-

ence
ence upon
upon the the sculptural
sculptural forms forms and and methods
methods of of India
India itself.
itself. When,
When, after after some
some
centuries
centuries of of flourishing activity,
flourishing activity, the
the Gandhara
Gandhara school
school passed away,
passed away,
Indian
Indian art
art
came to to life
life again under
again under Hindu
Hindu rulers,
rulers, took
took up
up the
the traditions
traditions 'left
left by
by the
the
native artists of
native artists of Bharhut,
Bharhut, Amaravati
Amaravati and and Mathura,
Mathura, and and paid
paid
'scant
scant attention
attention to to
the Greek interlude
the interlude at at Gandhara.
Gandhara.
like nearly everything else
Sculpture,
Sculpture, like nearly everything else in in India,
India, prospered
prospered under under the the Gupta
Gupta
line.
line. Buddhism had now forgotten its
forgotten its hostility to
hostility
to images;
images;
and
and a
a reinvigorated
reinvigorated
Brahmanism encouraged encouraged symbolism symbolism and and the the adornment
adornment of of feligion
religion with
with
every art. The Mathura
art. Mathura l\1useum
Museum holds
holds a
a highly finished stone
stone Buddha,
Buddha, with with
every highly finished
meditative eyes,
meditative eyes, sensual
sensual lips, too
lips,
too graceful
graceful aa form,form, and and clumsy
clumsy Cubist
Cubist feet.feet. The

Sarnath
Sarnath Museum has has another
another stone Buddha, in
stone Buddha, in the
the seated
seated posepose that
that ,vaswas des-
des-
tined to
tined dominate Buddhist
to dominate Buddhist sculpture;
sculpture;
here
here the
the effect
effect of
of peaceful contempla-
peaceful contempla-
tion and
tion and aa pious
pious kindliness
kindliness isis perfectly
perfectly revealed.
revealed. At Karachi isis aa small
At Karachi small bronze
bronze
Brahma, scandalously like Voltaire.~
40
Brahma, scandalously like Voltaire.

Everywhere in
Everywhere in India,
India, in in the
the millennium
millennium before before the the coming
coming of of the
the Moslems,
Moslems,
the art
the of the
art of the sculptor,
sculptor, thoughthough limited
limited as as well
well as as inspired
inspired by by its
its subservience
subservience
to architecture
to architecture and and religion,
religion, produced
produced masterpieces.
masterpieces. The The pretty
pretty statuestatue of of
Vishnu from
Vishnu Sultanpur,''' the
from Sultanpur, 47
the finely
finely chiseled statue of
chiseled statue Padmapani," the
of Padmapani, 48
the gigan-
gigan-
tic three-faced
tic three-faced Shiva Shiva (commonly
(commonly called called "Trimurt?')
"Trimurti") carved carved in in deep
deep relief
relief inin
the caves at Elephanta,
the caves at Elephanta,- the 40
the almost
almost Praxitelean
Praxitelean stone stone statue
statue worshiped
\vorshiped at at
Nokkas as as thethe goddess Rukmini,GO the
goddess Rukmini, 60
the graceful
graceful dancingdancing Shiva,Shiva, or Natarajll,
or Nataraja,
cast inin bronze
bronze by by thethe Chola
Chola artist-artisans
artist-artisans of Tanjore,Gl the
of Tanjore, the lovely stone deer
lovely stone deer
1

81
I cast

Mamallapuram,·* and
of Mamallapuram
of and thethe handsome
handsome Shiva Shiva of Perur--these are
of Perur^-these are evidences
evidences of of
the spread
the spread of of the' carver's art
the' carver's into every
art into every province
province of of India.
India.
The same
The same motives
motives and and methods
methods crossed
crossed the the frontiers
frontiers of of India
India proper,
proper, and and
produced masterpieces
produced masterpieces from from Turkestan
Turkestan and and Cambodia
Cambodia to to Java
Java and and Ceylon.
Ceylon.
The student
The student will will find
find examples
examples in in the
the stone
stone head,head, apparently
apparently of of aa bov,boy, dugdug
up
up from
from the
the sands
sands of
of Khotan
Khotan by
by Sir
Sir Aurel
Aurel Stein's
Stein's expedition;'"
expedition;
84
the
the head
head of of
CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) INDIAN ART 595
595
Buddha from Siam;- Slam;* the the Egyptianly fine the mag-
Egyptianly fine "Harihara""Harihara" of of Cambodia;-
Cambodia;" the mag-
nificent
nificent bronzes
bronzes of of Java;rrr
Java;" the
the Gandhara-like head of Shiva
Gandhara-like head of Shiva from Prambanam; from Prambanam;1I8 88

the
the supremely
supremely beautiful
beautiful female
female figure ("Prajnaparamita") now in the Leyden
figure ("Prajnaparamita") now in the Leyden
Museum; the perfect
Museum; the Bodhisatfwa in
perfect Bodhisfltt'Wa in the
the Glyptothek at Copenhagen;- the calm
Glyptothek at Copenhagen; the calm
89

and powerful Buddha,~ and

powerful Buddha, and thethe finely chiseled Avalokiteshvara ("The
("The Lord
60

finely chiseled Avalokiteshvara Lord

who lookslooks down with pity upon all all men"),f1 81
both
both from
from the
the great Javanese
pity upon men"), great Javanese
temple
temple of Borobudur;
Borobudur; or or the massive primitive Buddha,·
the massive
primitive Buddha,
9*
and
and the the lovely
lovely
"moonstone"
"moonstone" doorstep,·
doorstep,*
8
of
of Anuradhapura in Ceylon.
Anuradhapura in Ceylon. This dull list of This dull list of works
works
must have of many in many centuries will
that many centuries will suggest
that must have cost
cost thethe blood
blood of many men men in suggest
the influence of Hindu genius on
the intIuence
genius on the
the cultural
cultural colonies
colonies of
of India.
India.

sculpture at first:
find it
We find it hard to like this
to like this sculpture at first sight; only profound and and modest
modest
sight; only profound
minds can leaveleave their environment behind
their environment behind them them when they
when they travel traveL We should
should
have to to be· Hindus, or
be -Hindus, or ci~ens
citizens of those countries
of those countries that that accepted the cultural
accepted the cultural
leadership
leadership of of India,
India, toto understand
understand the the symbolism
symbolism of of these
these statues,
statues, the the complex
complex
functions
functions and superhuman
superhuman powers powers denoted
denoted by
by these
these multiple
multiple
arms
arms and
and legs,
legs,
the
the terrible realism of
terrible realism of these
these fanciful
fanciful figures, expressing the the Hindu
Hindu sense sense of of
figures, expressing
supernatural
supernatural forces
forces irrationally creative,
irrationally creative, irrationally
irrationally fertile
fertile and
and irrationally
irrationally
destructive.
destructive. It It shocks
shocks us us to to find
everybody in
that everybody
find that in Hindu
Hindu villages
villages
is
is thin,
thin,

everybody in Hindu sculpture

and everybody sculpture is is fat;
fat; we forget forget that that the the statues
statues ate aw
and in
mostly
mostly of gods, who received
of gods, received the the first
first fruits
fruits of of the
the land.
land. We are are ,discon-
-discon-
certed discovering ~at
certed on discovering that the Hindus colored
the Hindus colored their statuary, whereby
their statuary, whereby we
reveal our
reveal unawareness of
our unawareness of thethe fact that the
fact that the Greeks
Greeks did likewise, and
did likewise, and thatthat
something
something of
of the
the classic
classic nobility of
nobility of the
the Pheidian
Pheidian deities is
deities ~ due
is .due to
to the
the acci-
acci-
dental
dental disappearance
disappearance of their paint. We are
of their are displeased at the comparative
paint displeased at the comparative
paucity of
paucity of female figures in the
female figures in the Indian gallery; we mourn
Indian gallery; mourn over over the the subjec-
subjec-
tion of
tion of women which which this this seems
seems to to indicate,
indicate, and and never
never reflect
relleet that that the
the cult
cult
of the
of the nude female is
nude female not the
is not the indispensable
indispensable basis basis of of plastic
plastic art, that the
art, that the pro-pro-
foundest
f beauty of
oundest beauty of woman may may be b,e more
more in in motherhood
motherhood than than in in youth,
youth, more more
in Demeter than
in Demeter than in in Aphrodite. Or we forget
Aphrodite. forget that
that the
the sculptor
sculptor carved
carved not
not
what
what he
he dreamed
dreamed of
of so
so much as
as what
what the
the .priests
priests
laid
laid down;
down; that
that every
every art, art,
in India,
in India, belonged
belonged to religion rather
to religion rather thanthan to to art,
art, andand waswas thethe handmaiden
handmaiden of of
theology.
theology. Or
Or we take
take too
too seriously
seriously figures
figures intended
intended by
by the
the sculptor,
sculptor to
to be
be
caricatures, or
caricatures, jests, or
or jests, ogres designed
or ogres designed to frighten away
to frighten away evil spirits; 'if
evil spirits; if we
turn away
turn from them
away from them in in horror
horror we merely merely attestattest the fulfilment of
the fulfilment of their
their aim.aim.
, . Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the the sculpture of
sculpture of India India never
never quite
quite acquired
acquired the the grace
grace of of her
her
literature, or
literature, or the
the sublimity
sublimity of of her
her architecture,
architecture, or or the
the depth
depth of of herher philosophy;
philosophy;
mirrored chiefly
it mirrored
it chiefly the the confused
confused and and uncertain
uncertain insightinsight of of herher religions.
religions. It It
excelled the
excelled sculpture of
the sculpture China and
of China and Japan,
Japan, but but it never equaled
it never equaled the cold per-
the cold per-
fection of
fection Egyptian statuary,
of Egyptian statuary, or or thethe living
living and tempting beauty
and tempting beauty of of·'Greek
Greek
marble. To understand
marble. understand even even itsits assumptions
assumptions we should shoul~ have have to to renew
renew in in our
our
hearts the earnest and trusting
hearts the earnest and trusting piety piety of
of medieval
medieval days.
days. In
In truth
truth we ask
ask too,
too
 596 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XXI
(CHAP.XXI

much of of sculpture, as of painting, in India; we judge as if

sculpture, as of painting, in India; judge them
them as if they had
they had
been there,
been there, as
as here, independent arts,
here, independent arts, when in
in truth
truth we have
have artificially
artificially
isolated
isolated them
them for
for treatment
treatment according
according to to our
our traditional
traditional rubrics
rubrics and
and nonns.
norms.
If
If we could
could see
see them
them asas the
the Hindu
Hindu knows
knows them,them, as
as integrated parts of the
integrated parts of the
unsurpassed
unsurpassed architecture
architecture of
of his
his country, we should
country, should have
have made
made some
some modest
modest
beginning
beginning towards
towards understanding
understanding Indian
Indian art.
art.

v.
V. ARCHITECTURE

1.
1. Hindu
Hindu Architecture
Architecture

Before Ashokfl- Ashokan

Before Ashoka Buddhist -- Jain
Ashokan - Buddhist - The masterpieces
Jain - The masterpieces
of
of the
the north
north - Their
Their destruction
destruction - The
The southern
southern style-
style
Monolithic
Monolithic temples
temples - Structural
Structural temples
temples

Nothing remains
Nothing remains of of Indian architecture before
Indian architecture before Ashoka's
Ashoka's time. time. We have have
the
the brick
brick ruins
ruins of
of Mohenjo-daro,
Mohenjo-daro, but
but apparendy
apparently
the
the buildings
buildings of
of Vedic
Vedic and
and
Buddhist India
Buddhist India were
were of of wood,
wood, and and Ashoka
Ashoka seems seems to to have
have beenbeen the the :first
first toto
use
use stone
stone for for architectural
architectural purposes!' We hear,
purposes.
6*
hear, in
in the
the literature,
literature, of
of seven-
seven-
storied structures,* and
storied stmctures,· and of of palaces of some magnificence, but not a trace of
palaces of some magnificence, but not a trace of
them survives.
survives. Megasthenes describes
Megasthenes describes the the imperial
imperial
residences
residences of of Chandragupta
Chandragupta
as superior
as
superior to to anything
anything in in Persia
Persia except Persepolis, on
except Persepolis, on }Vhose
jvhose model
model they
they seem
seem
to have been
to have been designed.-
designed." This
This Persian
Persian ~uence
influence persisted
persisted
till Ashoka's
till Ashoka's time;
time;
it appears in the ground-plan
it appears in the ground-plan of his palace, which
of his palace,
which corresponded
corresponded with with the the
"HaIl
"Hall of a a Hundred Columns"
Columns" at at Persepolis;" and
Persepolis;*
1
and it shows
it shows again
again
in
in the
the fine
fine
pillar of Ashoka
pillar Ashoka at at Lauriya, crowned
Lauriya, crowned with with aa Iion-capital.
lion-capital.
With the
With the conversion
conversion of Ashoka to
of Ashoka to Buddhism,
Buddhism, IndianIndian architecture
architecture began began to to
thow off this alien influence,
thow off this alien influence, and to take
and to take its inspiration and
its inspiration and itsits symbols
symbols from
from
the new
the new religion. Th~ transition
religion. The transition is evident. in,
is evident the great
in, the great capital which is
capital which is all
all

that now
that now remains
remains of another
another Ashokan pillar, at
Ashokan pillar, at Sarnath;-
Sarnath;* here,here, in
in a
a composi-
composi-
tion of
tion astonishing perfection,
of astonishing ranked by
perfection, ranked Sir John
by Sir John Marshall
Marshall as as equal
equal to to "any-
"any-
thing
thing of
of its
its kind
kind in
in the
the ancient
ancient world,'"
world,"* we have
have four
four powerful lions,
powerful lions, stand-
stand-
ing back
ing back to to back
back on guard, and
on guard, thoroughly Persian
and thoroughly Persian in in form
form and and countenance;
countenance;
but beneath
but beneath them them is is aa frieze
frieze of of well-carved
well-carved figures
figures including
including so Indian aa
so Indian
favorite as the elephant,
favorite as the elephant, andand so Indian aa symbol
so Indian symbol as as the
the Buddhist
Buddhist Wheel Wheel of of the
the
La~; and
Law; and under
undc:r the
the frieze
frieze is is aa great
great stone
stone lotus,
lotus, formerly mistaken for
fonnerly mistaken for aa
Peman bell-capital,
Persian but now accepted
bell-caPltal, but accepted as as the
the most
most ancient,
ancient, universal
universal and and char-
char-
acteristic of
acteristic of all
all the symbols in
the symbols in Indian
Indian art* Represented upright,
art." Represented upright, with with thethe
petals
petals turned
turned down
down and
and the
the pistil
pistil or
or seed-vessel
seed-vessel showing, it stood
showing, it stood for the
'for the
womb
womb -of ·of the
the world;
world; or,or, asas one
one ofof the
the fairest
fairest of of nature's
nature's manifestations,
manifestations, it it
served as the throne of a god.
served as the throne of a god. HieThe lotus
lotus oror water-lily
water-lily symbol
symbol migrated
migrated with with
Buddhism, and
Buddhism, and permeated
penneated the ~ of
the art China and
of China and Japan.
Japan. A like like form,
form, usedused as as
CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) IINDIAN ART
N D I A NAB. T 597
597
aa design
design forfor windows and and doors,
doors, became
became the the "horseshoe
"horseshoe arch" arch" of of Ashokan
Ashokan
vaults
vaults and
and domes, originally
domes, originally derived
derived from
from the
the "covered
"covered wagon" curvature of
wagon" curvature of
Bengali
Bengali thatched
thatched roofs
roofs supported
supported by rods of bent bamboo.'l1
by rods of bent bamboo.
71

The religious
religious architecture
architecture of of Buddhist
Buddhist days has left us a few mined tem-
days has left us a few ruined tem-
ples
ples and a
a large
large number of
of "topes"
"topes" and
and "rails."
"rails." The
The "tope" or "stupa." was
"tope" or "stupa" was
in
in early days
early days a
a burial
burial mound;
mound; under Buddhism it became a memorial shrine,
under Buddhism it became a memorial shrine,
usually
usually housing
housing the the relics
relics of of a a Buddhist
Buddhist saint. saint Most Most often often the the tope
tope
took
took the
the
form of of aa dome of of brick,
brick, crowned
crowned with with a a spire,
spire,
and
and surrounded
surrounded with
with a
a stone
stone
rail carved
rail carved withwith bas-reliefs.
bas-reliefs. One of of the
the oldest
oldest topes is at Bharhut; but the
topes is at Bharhut; but the
reliefs
reliefs there
there are are primitively coarse.
primitively coarse. The most
most ornate
ornate of
of the extant rails
the extant rails is is

at
at Amaravati;
Amaravati; here
here 17,000 square
17,000 square feet
feet were
were covered
covered with
with minute
minute reliefs
reliefs of
of aa
workmanship
workmanship so
so excellent
excellent that Fergusson judged this rail
that Fergusson judged this rail to be "probably the to be "probably the
most
most remarkable
remarkable monumentmonument in in India.'''''
India."* The The bestbest known of the stupar
of the stupas is is the
the
Sanchi
Sanchi tope,
tope, one of
of a
a group
group at
at Bhilsa
Bhilsa in
in Bhopal.
BhopaL The stone
stone gates apparently
gates apparently
imitate
imitate ancient
ancient wooden forms, forms, and and anticipate the pailus or toriis that usually
anticipate the pailus or toriis that usually
mark thethe approach
approach to to the
the temples
temples of of the
the Far East Every
Far East. Every foot foot of of space
space on
on
pillars, capitals, crosspieces
pillars, capitals, crosspieces
and
and supports
supports is cut
is into a wildemess
cut into a wilderness of plant, of plant,
animal,
animal, human and and divine
divine forms.
forms. On a a pillar
pillar
of
of thethe eastern
eastern gateway is
gateway is a a
delicate
delicate carving
carving of of aa perennial
perennial Buddhist
Buddhist symbol-the
symbol-the Bodhi-tree,
Bodhi-tree, scene
scene of
of the
the
Master's gracefully spanning
Master's enlightenment;
enlightenment; on the the same
same gateway,
gateway, gracefully a bracket,
spanning a bracket,
is
is aa sensuous
sensuous goddess (a
goddess (a Yakshi)Yakshi) with
with heavy
heavy limbs,limbs, full
full hips,
hips,
slim
slim waist,
waist, andand .
abounding
abounding breasts."
breasts.
18
.
While the
While the dead saints slept in
dead saints the topes,
in the topes, the the living
living monks
monks cut cut into the
into the
slept
mountain rocks
mountain rocks temples
temples wherewhere they they might
might live live in isolation, sloth
in isolation, sloth and peace,
and peace,
secure from
secure from the the elements
elements arid arid from
from the the glare
glare and and heatheat of of the
the sun.
sun. We may may
judge
judge the
the strength
strength of
of the
the religious impulse in India
religious impulse in India by noting that over by noting that over
twelve hundred
twelve hundred of of these
these cave-temples
cave-temples. remain remain of of thethe manymany thousands
thousands that that
were built
were built inin the
the early
early centuries
centuries of of ourour era, partly for
era, partly Jains and
for Jains and Brahmans,
Brahmans,
but mostly
but mostly for for Buddhist
Buddhist communities.
communities. Often Often the the entrance
entrance of these 'Viharas
of these viharas
(monasteries)
(monasteries) "Was
was a
a simple portal
simple portal in
in the
the form
form of
of a
a "horseshoe"
"horseshoe" or
or lotus
lotus arch;
arch;
sometimes,
sometimes, as
as at
at Nasik,
Nasik, it
it was
was an
an ornate
ornate f~de
fajade of
of strong columns,
strong columns, animal
animal
capitals, and
capitals,
and patiently
patiendy carved carved architrave;
architrave; often often it it was
was adorned
adomed with pillars,
with pillars,
stone screens
stone screens or or porticoes
porticoes of of admirable
admirable design. design.'I'. The interior
74
interior included
included aa
cbaitya or
chaitya assembly hall,
or assembly hall, with colonnades dividing
with colonnades dividing nave nave fromfrom aisles,
aisles, cells
cells for
for
the monks
the on
monks on either either side,
side, and
and an an altar,
altar, bearing
bearing relics,
relics, at a~ the
the inner
inner end.*
end.· One One
of the
of the oldest
olaest of of these
these cave-temples,
cave-temples, and and perhaps
perhaps the the finest surviving, isis
:finest now surviving,
at Karle,
at Karle, between
between Poona Poona and and Bombay;
Bombay; here Hinaytma Buddhism
here Hinaytma Buddhism achievedachieved its its
cbef-d'rzuvre.
chef-<fceuvre.

. *• The
The correspondence
correspondence of
of this
this interior with that
interior with Christian churches
of Christian
that of churches has suggested aa
has suggested
possibl~ infiuence of
possible influence
of Hindu
Hindu styles
styles upon early Christian
upon early architeeture.'"
Qlristian architecture."* .
 59
5988 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXI
XXI

The
The caves
caves at at Ajanta, besides being the hiding-place of the greatest of
Ajanta, besides being the hiding-place of the greatest of
Buddhist
Buddhist paintings,
paintings,
rank
rank with
with Karle
Karle as as examples of
examples of that that composite
composite art, art, half
half
architecture
architecture and half sculpture,
and half sculpture,
which
which characterizes
characterizes the
the temples
temples of
of India.
India.

Caves
Caves II andand II n have
have spacious
spacious assembly
assembly halls halls whose
whose ceilings,
ceilings,
cut
cut andand painted
painted
in
in sober
sober yet elegant
yet elegant designs,
designs,
are
are held
held up
up by
by powerful
powerful fluted
fluted pillars square at
pillars square
at
the
the base,
base, round
round at at the
the top,
top,
ornamented
ornamented with
with :flowery
flowery bands,
bands, and
and crowned
crowned with
with
lnajestic
majestic capitals;TI
capitals;
78
Cave
Cave XIX XIX isis distinguished by a fa~ade richly decorated
distinguished by a fajade richly decorated
with
with adipose statuary
adipose statuary and
and complex bas-reliefs;'18
complex bas-reliefs; in
18
Cave XXVI gigantic
in Cave
gigantic col-
col-
umns rise rise toto a a frieze
frieze crowded with with figures which
which only the
the greatest religious
figures only greatest religious
and
and artistic
artistic zealzeal could
could have carved In
have carved in such
such detail.'" Ajanta
Ajanta can can hardly be
77

hardly be
detail.

refused
refused the the tide
tide of of one
one of of the
the nlajor
major works works in in the
the history of art.
history of art.
Of other
other Buddhist
Buddhist temples still existing in
still India
India the
the most
most impressive is the
temples existing in
impressive is the
great tower
tower at Bodh-gaya, significant for
at for its thoroughly Gothic
its Gothic arches,
arches, and and
great Bodh-gaya, significant thoroughly
W
yet dating, apparently,
yet dating, apparently, back
back to
to the
the :first
first century
century A.D.'"
A.D. All
All in
in all,
all, the
the remains
remains
of
of Buddhist
Buddhist architecture
architecture are are fragmentary, and
fragmentary, and their their glory is
glory is more more sculpturaI
sculptural
than structural; a
than structural; a lingering Puritanism,
lingering Puritanism, perhaps, kept them externally forbid-
perhaps, kept them externally forbid-
ding bare. The Jains
ding and ·bare. Jains gave
gave a a more
more concentrated
concentrated devotiondevotion to to architecture,
architecture,
and during
during th~
the eleventh
eleventh and
and twelfth
twelfth centuries
centuries their
their temples
temples
were
were the
the finest
finest
in India.
in India. They did did not
not create
create a
a style of
of their
their own, being
own, being content
content to
to copy at
They style copy at
:first
first (as
(as at
at Elura)
Elura) the
the Buddhist
Buddhist plan
plan of
of excavating temples
excavating temples
in
in the
the mountain
mountain
rocks, thenthen the the Vishnu or temples rising
of temples usually in a walled
or Shivi
Shiva typetype of
rocks, rising usually in a walled
group upon
group upon aa hill.hill. These,
These, too,too, were
were externally
externally simple, but inwardly complex
simple, but inwardly complex
and rich-a
and rich-a happy
happy symbolsymbol of
of the
the modest
modest life.
life. Piety placed statue after statue
Piety placed statue after statue
Jain heroes
of Jain
of heroes in in these
these shrines,
shrines, UntilUntil in group at
the group
in the at Shatrunjaya
Shatrunjaya FergussonFergusson
counted 6449
counted figures.'"
6449 figures.
The Jain temple
The Jain temple at at Aihole
Aihole is built almost
is built almost in Greek style,
in Greek with rectangular
style, with rectangular
form,
form, external
external colonnades,
colonnades, a
a portico,
portico, and
and a cell or central chamber
a cell or central chamber within* within.eo
Khajuraho Jains,
At Khajuraho Jains, Vaishnavites
Vaishnavites and and Shivaites,
Shivaites, as if to
as if to illustrate
illustrate Hindu
Hindu toler-
toler-
ance, built
ance, built in close proximity
in close proximity some some twenty-eight
twenty-eighf temples; temples; among among them them the the
almost perfect
almost perfect Temple
Temple of Parshwanath81 rises
of Parshwanath 81
rises in in cone
cone uponupon cone cone to to aa majes-
majes-
tic height,
tic height, and and shelters
shelters on on its carved surfaces
its carved surfaces aa veritable
veritable city city of Jain saints.
of Jain saints.
On Mt Mt. Abu,
Abu, lifted
lifted four
four thousand
thousand feet feet above
above the the desert,
desert, thethe Jains
Jains built many
built many
temples,
temples,. .of
of which
which two
two survivors,
survivors, the
the temples of- Vimala and
temples of Vimala and Tejahpala, are Tejahpala, are
the greatest
the greatest achievement of
achievement this sect
of this sect in the field
in the field ofof art The dome
art. The dome of of the
the
Tejahpala shrine
Tejahpala shrine isis one one ofof those overwhelming experiences
those overwhelming experiences which which doom doom all all'
writing about
writing about art art toto impotence
impotence and futility.- The
and futility. 81
The Temple
Temple of of Vimala,
Vimala, built built
entirely of
entirely of white
white marble,
marble, isis aa maze maze of of irregular
irregular pillars,
pillars, joined
joined with fanciful
with fanciful
brackets to
brackets to aa more
more simple,
simple. carved
carved entablature;
entablature; above above isis aa marble
marble dome dome too too
opulent in statuary,
opulent in statuary, but carved into a stone
but carved into a stone lacework
Iacework of of moving
moving magnifi-
magnifi-
cence, "finished,"
cence, "finished," says says Fergusson,
Fergusson, "with "with aa delicacy
delicacy of of detail
detail andand appropriate-
appropriate-
ness of
ness of ornament
ornament which which isis probably
probably unsurpassed
unswpassed by by anyany similar
similar example
example to to
CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) ARTT
INDIAN AR 599
599
be found anywhere
be anywhere else.
else. Those
Those introduced by the
introduced by the Gothic
Gothic architects in Henry
architects in Henry
VII's Chapel
VITs Chapel at
at Westminster,
Westminster, or
or at
at Oxford,
Oxford, are
are coarse
coarse and
and clumsy in com-
clumsy in com-
parison."..
parison."
88

In these Jain
In these temples, and
Jain temples, and their
their contemporaries, we
contemporaries,
we see the transition
see the transition fromfrom
the circular
the circular form of of the
the Buddhist
Buddhist shrine
shrine to to the
the to,ver
tower style
style
of medieval
of medieval India.
India.
The nave, nave, or pillar-enclosed interior,
or pillar-enclosed interior, of of the
the assembly hall is taken outdoors,
assembly hall is taken outdoors,
and mademade into
into a a m~d(lpfll1l or this is
mandapam or porch; behind this is the cell;
porch; behind the cell; and
and above
above thethe
cell rises,
cell rises, in successively
in
successively receding
receding
levels,
levels, the
the carved
carved and
and complicated
complicated
tower.
tower.
It was on this
It was this plan
plan that
that thethe Hindu
Hindu temples of the north were built. The
temples of the north were built The
most impressive
impressive of these is
of these is the
the group at Bhuvaneshwara, in
group at Bhuvaneshwara, the province of
most in the
province of
Orissa;
Orissa; and the the finest
finest of of the
the group is
group is the
the Rajarani Temple
Rajarani Temple erected
erected to
to Vishnu
Vishnu
in the eleventh
in the eleventh century
century A.D. A.D. ItIt is
is aa gigantic tower formed of juxtaposed semi-
gigantic tower formed of juxtaposed
semi-
circular pillars covered
circular pillars covered with with statuary
statuary
and sunnounted by
and surmounted by receding layers of
receding layers of
stone,
stone, thethe whole
whole inward-curving
inward-curving tower
tower ending
ending
in
in a
a great
great
circular
circular crown
crown and
and
aa spire. Nearby is
spire. Nearby
is the
the Lingaraja Temple, larger than
Lingaraja Temple, larger than the the Rajarani,
Rajarani,
but
but not
not soso

beautiful; nevertheless every

beautiful; nevertheless every inch
inch of
of the
die surface
surface has
has felt
felt the
the SCUlptor's
sculptor's
chise~
chisel,
·so that the
so that the cost
cost ofof thethe carving has been reckoned at three times the cost of
carving has been reckoned at three times the cost of
the stnlcture."
the structure. The Hindu expressed.
8*

expressed his his piety not

piety
merely by
not merely the imposing
by the imposing
grandeur
grandeur of his temples,
of his
temples, but but byby their
their patiently worked
patiently
worked detail; detail; nothing
nothing was was
too
too good
good for the god.
for the god.
It would be
It would be dull
dull to to list,
list, without
without specific description and photographic repre-
and photographic
specific description repre-
sentation,
sentation, the
the other
other masterpieces
masterpieces
of
of Hindu
Hindu building
building
in
in the
the north. And yet
north. yet nono .
record of
record of Indian
Indian civilization
civilization couldcould leave unnoticed the
leave unnoticed the temples
temples of of Surya
Surya at at

Kanarak
Kanarak and Mudhera, the
and Mudhera, the tower
tower of of Jagannath
Jagannath Purl, Puri, the the lovely
lovely gateway
gateway at at

Vadnagar,·
Vadnagar, the
88
the massiye
massive temples
temples of
of Sas-Bahu
Sas-Bahu and
and Teli-ka-Mandir
Teli-ka-Mandir at
at Gwalior,·
Gwalior,
86

the palace of
the palace Rajah Man S~g,
of Rajah also at Gwalior,· and
Sing, also at Gwalior,"
and the the Tower of of Victory
Victory
at
at Chitor.-
Chitor. Standing
88

Standing out
out from
from the
the mass
mass are
are the
the Shivaite temples
Shivaite temples at
at Khajuraho,
Khajuraho,
while in
while the same
in the same city the do~e of the porch of
city the dome of the porch
the Khanwar Math
of the Math Temple
Temple
shows
shows again the masculine
again the masculine strength of Indian architecture, and the
strength of Indian architecture,
and the richness
richness
and patience of of Indian
Indian carving.- Even in
Even its ntins
in its the Temple
Temple of of Shiva
Shiva at
89
and patience carving. ruins the at

Elephanta,
Elephanta,
with
with its
its massive
massive fluted
fluted columns,
columns, its
its "mushroom"
"mushroom" capitals,
capitals,
its
its un-
un-
surpassed reliefs, and
surpassed reliefs,
and itsits powerful statuary,fIJ suggests to
powerful statuary,* suggests to us us an an age
age ofof national
national
vigor
vigor and
and artistic
artistic skill
skill of
of which
which hardly
hardly the
the memory
memory lives
lives today.
today.

We shall never be
shall never be able
able toto do to Indian
justice to
do justice for ignoran~
art, for
Indian art, ignorance and
and
fanaticism have destroyed
fanaticism have destroyed itsits greatest achievements,
greatest achievements,
and have half
and have half ruined
ruined
the rest.
the At Elephanta
rest. At Elephanta thethe Portuguese
Portuguese certified their
certified their piety by smashing
piety by smashing
statuary
statuary
and
and bas-reliefs
bas-reliefs in
in unrestrained barbarity;
unrestrained barbarity; and
and almost
almost everywhere
everywhere
in the north
in the north the
the Moslems
Moslems brought
brought to
to the
the ground
ground those
those triumphs of
triumphs of Indian
Indian
architecture,
architecture, of the :fifth
of the and sixth
fifth and sixth centuries, tradition ranks as
which tradition
centuries, which ranks as far
far
600
600 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XXI
(CHAP.XXI

superior to the later '\vorks

superior to the later
works that that arouse
arouse our our wonder
wonder and and admiration
admiration today. today.
The
The Moslems
Moslems decapitated
decapitated
statues,
statues, and
and tore
tore them
them limb
limb fromfrom limb;
limb; they
they ap-
ap-
propriated
propriated
for
for their
their mosques, and
mosques, and in
in great measure
great
measure imitated,
imitated, the
the graceful
graceful
the Jain
1Il
pillars of
of the Jain temples. Time
Time and fanaticism joined in
and fanaticism in the
the destruc-
1
destruc-
pillars temples." joined
tion,
tion, for
for the
the orthodox
orthodox Hindus
Hindus abandoned
abandoned and
and neglected temples
neglected temples that
that had
had
been profaned
been profaned by by the
the touch
touch of
of alien
alien hands.-
hands."

We may may guess at the lost grandeur of north Indian l1'chiteeture by the
guess at the lost grandeur of north Indian architecture by the
powerful edifices
powerful edifices thatthat still survive in
still survive in the
the south,
south, where Moslem role
where Moslem rule entered
entered
only
only in
in minor
minor degree,
degree,
and
and after
after somesome habituation
habituation to to India
India had had softened
softened
Mohammedan
Mohammedan hatred hatred of of Hindu
Hindu ways. ways. Further,
Further, the the great age of temple
great age of temple
architecture in
architecture in the
the south
south camecame in in the sixteenth and
the sixteenth and seventeenth
seventeenth centuries,
centuries,
after
after Akbar
Akbar had had tamed
tamed the the Moslems
Moslems and and taught
taught themthem some some appreciation
appreciation
of Indian
of art. Consequently the south is rich inin temples, usually superio~
Indian art. Consequently the south is rich
temples, usually superior
to
to those
those that
that remain
remain standing
standing in in the
the nonh,
north, and and m9re
more massive
massive and and impres-
impres-
sive;
sive; Fergusson
Fergusson counted
counted some
some thirty
thirty "Dravidian"
"Dravidian" or
or southern
southern temples
temples any
any
one
one of of which,
which, in
in his
his estimate,
estimate, must
must ha~e
have cost
cost as
as much
much ~
as anan E~glish
English
.
1I
cathedral.
cathedral." The south south adapted
adapted the the styles of
of the north by
the north by prefacing the
styles prefacing the
mandapflm
mandapam or
or porch
porch with
with a
a gopuram or gate, and supporting
gopuram or gate, and supporting the porch the porch
with aa lavish
with lavish multiplicity of
multiplicity
of pillars. It
pillars. played fondly with a
It played fondly with a hundred
hundred
symbols,
symbols, from the
the swastika,·
swastika? emblem
emblem of
of the
the sun
sun and
and the
the wheel
wheel of
of life,
life,

through aa very
through very menagerie
menagerie of of sacred animals. The
sacred animals. The snake,
snake, through
through its moult-
its moult-

ing, symbolized
ing, symbolized reincarnation;
reincarnation; the the bull
bull was the enviable
was the enviable paragon
paragon of pro-
of pro-
creative power;
creative power; the the ling",
linga, or or phallus,
phallus, represented
represented the the generative
generative excellence
excellence
of Shiva,
of Shiva, andand often
often determined
determined the the form
form of of the
the. temple
temple itself.
itself.
Three elements
Three elements composed
composed the the structural
structural planplan of of these
these southern
southern temples:
temples:
the gateway,
the gateway, the the pillared
pillared porch,
porch, and and the the tower
tower (wmna),
(vimana) , which which con- con-
tained the
tained the main
main assembly
assembly hall hall or or cell.
cell. With
With occasional
occasional exceptions
exceptions like like
the palace
the palace of of Tirumala
Tirurnala NayyakNayyak at at Madura,
Madura, all all this
this south
south Indian
Indian architec-
architec-
ture was
ture was ecclesiastical.
ecclesiastical. Men did did notnot bother
bother to to build
build magnificently
magnificendy for for
themselves, but
themselves, but gave
gave their
their art
art to to the
the priests
priests and
and thethe gods;
gods; no no circumstance
circumstance
could better
could better showshow how spontaneously
spontaneously theocratic theocratic was was thethe real
real government
government
of India.
of India. Of the many buildings
the many buildings raised raised by by the
the Chalukyan
Chalukyan kings kings and and their
their
people, nothing
people, nothing remains
remains but
but temples.
temples. Only Only aa Hindu
Hindu pietist
pietist
rich
rich in
in words
words
could describe
could describe the the lovely
lovely symmetry
symmetry of of the
the shrine
shrine at Ittagi, in
at Ittagi, Hydera-
in Hydera-
*
• Swastika
S'WtUtika isis aa Sanskrit
Sans1a'it word,
word, from su, well,
from *, well, and tuti, being.
and asti, being. This
This eternally
eternally recurring
recurring
appears among
symbol appears
symbol among aa great
great variety
variety of
of peoples,
peoples, primitive
primitive and
and modern, usually as
modern, usually sign
as aa sign
of well-being or good
of well-being or good luck
luck
CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) INDIAN ART 601
601
*
94
bad;"· or the
or the temple at
Somnathpur in
temple at Somnathpur in Mysore,1I in which gigantic masses
98
bad;
Mysore, in which gigantic masses
of stone are carved with
of stone are with thethe delicacy of
delicacy of lace;lace; oror thethe Hoyshaleshwara
Hoyshaleshwara Tem-
Tem-
pIe
ple at
at Halebid,·
Halebid," also
also in
in Mysore-"one
Mysore-"one of
of the
the buildings," says Fergusson,
buildings," says Fergusson,
"on
"on which
which the advocate of
the advocate of Hindu
Hindu architecture
architecture would would desire
desire toto take
take his
his
stand." Here,
stand." Here, he adds, "the artistic
adds, "the combination of
artistic combination of horizontal
horizontal with with ver-
ver-
tical lines,
tical lines, and the play
and the play ofof outline
outline andand of of light and shade, far surpass any-
light and shade, far surpass any-
thing in
thing in Gothic art.art. The effects are just
effects are
just
what
what the
the medieval
medieval architects
architects were
were
often aiming
often aiming at,at, but
but which they never
never attained perfectly
attained so perfectly as was done
so as was done
they
at Halebid."11
atHalebid.""
HIf we marvel
marvel at at the
the laborious
laborious piety
piety that
that could
could carvecarve eighteen hundred
eighteen hundred
fe~t of frieze in
feet of frieze in thethe Halebid
Halebid temple,
temple, and could portray
and could in them two
portray in them two
thousand
thousand elephants each different from all the rest,· what shall we say
shall
99
elephants each different from all the rest, what say
of the patience
of the patience and courage
and courage thatthat could
could undertake
undertake to to cut
cut a a complete
complete temple
temple
out
out ofof the
the solid
solid rock?
rock? But But this
this was
was a a common achievement
achievement of of the
the Hindu
Hindu
artisans. At Mamallapuram, on
artisans. on the
the east
east coast
coast near
near Madras,
Madras, they they carved
carved
Mamallapuram,
several rathas
several rathas oror pagodas,
pagodas, of
of which
which the
the fairest
fairest is
is the
the Dharma-rllja-ratha,
Dharma-raja-ratha, or
or
monastery
monastery for
for the
the highest discipline.
highest discipline. At Elura,
Elura, a
a place
place
of
of religious pil-
religious pil-
grimage
grimage in in Hyderabad, Buddhists, Jains
Hyderabad, Buddhists, Jains andand onhodox
orthodox Hindus Hindus vied vied in
in ex-
ex-
cavating
cavating out
out of
of the
the mountain
mountain ro~k
rock great
great monolithic
monolithic temples
temples of
of which
which
example is
100
the supreme
supreme example is the
the Hindu shrineshrine of of Kailasha
Kailasha -named named afterafter Shiva's
100
the Shiva's

mythological paradise in
mythological paradise the Himalayas.
in the
Himalayas. Here
Here the
the tireless
tireless builders
builders cut
cut a a
hundred feet
hundred feet down into into the
the stone
stone to to isolate
isolate the block-150
the block 250 byby 160 feet-
feet
that was
that was to to be
be thethe temple;
temple; then then they
they carved
carved the walls into
the walls into powerful
powerful
pillars,
pillars,
statues
statues and
and 'bas-reliefs;
bas-reliefs; then
then they
they chiseled
chiseled out
out the
the interior,
interior, andand
lavished there
lavished there the
the most
most amazing
amazing art:
art: let
let the
the bold
bold fresco
fresco of
of "The Lovers'"
Lovers""
1

serve
serve as specimen. Finally,
as aa specimen. their architectural
Finally, their passion still unspent,
architectural passion still unspent, they
they
carved aa series
carved series of
of chapels
chapels and
and monasteries
monasteries deep
deep into
into the
the rock
rock on
on three
three sides
sides
of the
of quarry.utI Some Hindus"
the quarry." 1
Hindus· consider
8
consider the the Kailasha Temple equal
Kailasha Temple equal to to
any
any achievement
achievement in
in the
the history
history of
of art.
art. I

Such aa structure,
Such structure, however,
however, was tour de
was aa tour de force,
force, like
like the Pyramids, and
the Pyramids, and
must have
must have cost
cost the
th,e sweat
sweat and and blood
blood of many men.
of many men. EitherEither the guilds or
the guilds or the
the
masters never
masters never tired,tired, for
for they
they scattered
scattered through every
through every province province of
of southern
southern
India gigantic
India gigantic shrines
shrines so so numerous
numerous that that thethe bewildered
bewildered student student or or traveler
traveler
loses their
loses their individual
individual quality
quality in
in the
the sum of
of their
their number and
and their
their power.
power.

• Here,
* says Meadows Taylor,
Here, says Taylor, "the carving on some of
"the carving of the
the pillars,
pillars, and
and of
of the lintels
the lintels
and architraves
and architraves of
of the
the doors,
doors, is quite
is quite beyond description. No chased
beyond description. chased work in in silver
silver or
or
gold
gold
could
could possibly
possibly
be
be finer.
finer. By
By what
what tools
tools this
this very
very hard,
hard, tough
tough stone
stone could
could have
have been
wrought and
wrought ~ed as
and polished as it is, is
it is, is not
not at
at all intelligible at
all intelligible at the
the present day."
present day."*
 602
602 STORY
THE S TOR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F C I V I LIZ A T ION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXI

At
At Pattadakal Queen
Pattadakal Queen Lokamahadevi,
Lokamahadevi, one one of the wives
of the wives of of the
the Chalukyan
Chalukyan
King Vikramaditya
King Vikramaditya II,
II, dedicated
dedicated to
to Shiva
Shiva the Virupaksha
the Virupaksha Temple,
Temple, which
which
W
ranks high among
ranks high among the
the great
great
fanes
fanes of India.
of 104
India. At
At Tanjore,
Tanjore, south
south of Madras,
of Madras,
the Chola King
the Chola Rajaraja
King Rajaraja the
the Great,
Great, after
after conquering
conquering all southern India
all southern India

and
and Ceylon, shared his spoils with Shiva by raising to
Ceylon, shared his spoils with Shiva by raising
him aa stately
to him stately temple
temple
w
designed
designed
to
to represent
represent
the
the generative
generative
symbol
symbol of the
of the god.-
god.
#MB
Near
Near Trich-
Trich-
inopoly, west of Tanjore, the
inopoly, west of Tanjore,
the devotees
devotees of Vishnu erected
of Vishnu erected on on a lofty hill
a lofty hill

the Shri Rangam Temple,

the Shri Rangam Temple, whose distinctivewhose distinctive feature
feature was
was a
a many-pillared
many-pillared
mandapam
mandapam in
in the
the form
form of
of a
a "Hall
"Hall of
of a
a Thousand
Thousand Columns,"
Columns," each
each column
column
aa single block
single block
of
of granite, elaborately
granite, elaborately carved;
carved; the
the Hindu
Hindu artisans
artisans were
were yet
yet
at work completing
at work
completing
the
the temple when
temple when they
they were
were scattered,
scattered, and
and their
their labors
labors

ended, by
ended, the bullets
by the bullets of of Frenchmen
Frenchmen and and Englishmen
Englishmen fighting for the po~­
fighting for the pos-
JOe
session
session of of India. Nearby, at at Madura,
Madura, the brothers MuttuMuttu and and Tirutna-
108
India. Nearby, the brothers Tirutna-
la
la Nayyak erected
Nayyak erected to
to Shiva
Shiva a
a spacious
spacious slU'ine
shrine with
with another
another Hall
Hall of
of aa
Thousand
Thousand Columns,
Columns, a a Sacred
Sacred Tank,
Tank, and and ten
ten gOfJ' Ura'l1ZS or
gopurams or gateways,
gateways, of of
which four
which four rise
rise to to a a great height
great height and
and are
are carved
carved into
into a
a wildemess
wilderness of
of

statuary. TheseThese structures

statuary. structures form form together
together one one of the most
of the most impressive
impressive
sights
sights
in
in India;
India; we may judge
may judge from
from such
such fragmentary
fragmentary survivals
survivals the
the rich
rich
and
and spacious architecture
architecture of of the Vijay~gar kings. Finally, at
the Ramesh-
spacious Vijayanagar kings. Finally, at Ramesh-
varam, amid
varam, amid the
the archipelago
archipelago of
of isles
isles that
that pave "Adam's
pave "Adam's Bridge" Bridge" fromfrom India
India
to Ceylon,
to Ceylon, the
the Brahmans
Brahmans of
of the
the south
south reared
reared through
through five
five centuries (I
centuries (1200- %00-
1769 A.D.) aa temple
1769 A.D.) temple whose perimeter was
whose perimeter was graced
graced withwith the most imposing
the most imposing
of all
of all corridors
corridors or or porticoes-four
porticoes-four thousand
thousand feet
feet ofof double
double colonnades,
colonnades,
exquisitely carved, and
exquisitely carved,
and designed
designed to to give
give cool
cool shade,
shade, andand inspiring vistas of
inspiring vistas of
sun
sun andand sea,
sea, to
to the
the millions
millions of
of pilgrims
pilgrims who to
to this
this day
day find
find their
their way
way ·
from distant
from distant cities
cities to to lay
lay their
their hopes and
hopes and griefs upon the
griefs upon
knees of
the knees of the
the care-
care-
less
less gods.
gods.

2.
2. "Colonial" Architecture
"Colonial? Architecture
Ce, Il'lJfl-Cambodia-The
lrm-JJava
Ceylon Khmers-Their
Cambodia The Khmers Their religion-Angkor
religionr-Angkor
-Fall
fall of
of the
the Kbmers-Siam-Burma
Khmers Siam Burma

Meanwhile Indian
Meanwhile art had
Indian art accompanied Indian
had accompanied religion across
Indian religion across straits
straits

and
and frontiers into Ceylon,
frontiers into Java, Cambodia, Siam, Burma, Tibet, Khotan,
Ceylon, Java, Cambodia, Siam, Burma, Tibet, Khotan,
Turkestan,
Turkestan, Mongolia,
Mongolia, China,
China, Korea
Korea and
and Japan;
Japan; "in Asia all
"in Ask all roads
roads lead
lead

•* The
The summit
summit ofof 'the temple is
the temple is a
a single block of
single block of stone
stone twenty-five feet
twenty-five feet square, and
square, and
weighing some eighty
weighing some eighty tons.
tons. According
According to to Hindu tradition
tradition it raised into
was raised
it was into place by be-
place by be-
ing drawn up
ing drawn up an
an incline
incline four
four miles long. Forced
miles long. Forced labor was probably
labor was
employed in
probably employed in such
such
works, instead
works, "man-enslaving" machinery.
of "man-enslaving"
instead of
machinery.
CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) INDIAN
INDIAN ART
ART 603
603

from India."
from India.'''' Hindus
Hindus from
107
from the
the Ganges
Ganges valley
valley settled
settled Ceylon
Ceylon in in the
the fifth
fifth
century before
century before Christ;
Christ; Ashoka,
Ashoka, two
two hundred
hundred years
years later,
later, sent
sent aa son
son and
and
a daughter to convert the population to Buddhism; and though the
a daughter to convert the population to Buddhism; and though the
teeming island had to fight for fifteen centuries against Tamil invasions,
teeming island had to fight for fifteen centuries against Tamil invasions,
maintained aa rich
it maintained
it rich culture
culture until
until itit was
was taken
taken over
over by by thethe British
British in in 1815.
ISIS.
Singhalese
Singhalese art
art began
began with
with dagobas-domed
dagobas domed relic
relic shrines
shrines like
like the
the stupas
stupas
of the
of the Buddhist
Buddhist north;north; itit passed
passed to to great
great temples
temples like like that
that whose ruins mark
whose ruins mark
the ancient
the ancient capital,
capital, Anuradhapura;
Anuradhapura; itit produced produced some some of of the finest of
the finest of the
the
Buddha statues,
Buddha statues,· and
108
and aa greatgreat variety
variety of objets d'art;
of objets d'art; and and it it came
came to to an
an
end,
end, for
for the
the time
time being,
being, when
when the
the last
last great
great king
king of
of Ceylon,
Ceylon, Kirti
Kirti 8hri
Shri
Raja Singha,
Raja Singha, builtbuilt thethe "Temple
"Temple of of the
the Tooth"
Tooth" at Kandy. The loss
at Kandy. loss ofof
independence has
independence has brought
brought decadence
decadence to to the
the upper classes, and
upper classes, and thethe patron-
patron-
age
age and
and taste
taste that
that provide
provide a
a necessary
necessary stimulus
stimulus and
and restraint
restraint for
for the
the
artist have
artist have disappeared
disappeared from from Ceylon.
Ceylon.- 100

strange
Strange
to
to say,
say,
the
the greatest
greatest
of Buddhist
of Buddhist templestemples-some students would
some students would
uo
call it
call the greatest
it the greatest of of all
all temples anywhere -is
temples anywhere 130
not in
is not India but
in India but in in Java.
Java.
In
In thethe eighth
eighth century
century the the Shailendra
Shailendra dynasty dynasty of of Sumatra
Sumatra conquered
conquered Java, Java,
established Buddhism
established Buddhism as the official
as the religion, and
official religion, and financed
financed the the building
building of of
m
the massive
the massive fane fane of of Borobudur
Borobudur (i.e., (i.e., "Many
"Many Buddhas,,).m
Buddhas"). The templetemple
proper
proper
is of moderate
is of moderate size, size, and
and of
of peculiar
peculiar
design-a
design a small
small domical.
domical stupa
stupa
surrounded
surrounded by seventy-two smaller
smaller topes arranged about
about it in
it in concentric
concentric
by seventy-two topes arranged
circles. If
circles. If this were all,
this were all, Borobudur
Borobudur would would be be nothing;
nothing; what constitutes
constitutes the the
grandeur of the structure is
grandeur of the structure
is the
the pedestal,
pedestal,
four'
four hundred
hundred feet feet square,
square, an
immense
immense mastaba
mastaba in
in seven
seven receding stages.
receding stages. At
At every
every turn there
there are
are niches
niches
for
for statuary;
statuary; 436
436 times
times the the sculptors
sculptors
of
of Borobudur
Borobudur thought thought fit to carve
fit to carve
the
the figure of Buddha.
Buddha. Still Still discpntent,
discpntent, they the walls
they cut cut into
into the walls of of the
the
figure of
stages three miles
stages three
miles of of bas-reliefs,
bas-reliefs, depicting
depicting the the legendary
legendary birth, birth, youth
youth and and
enlightenment
enlightenment
of
of thethe Master,
Master, and
and with
with such
such skill
skill that
that these
these reliefs
reliefs are are
*
among the finest
among the finest in Asia. in Asia. 1UI
With
With this
this powerful
powerful Buddhist
Buddhist shrine,
shrine, and
and the
the
Brahmanical.
Brahmanical temples nearby
temples nearby
at
at Prambanam,
Prambanam, Javanese
Javanese architecture
architecture reached reached
its
its zenith,
zenith, andand quickly decayed. The
quickly decayed.
The island
island became for for a a time
time a a maritime
maritime
power, rose to wealth and and luxury,
luxury, and supported many
and supported many poets.poets. But in 1479
But in 1479
power, rose to wealth
the
the Moslems
Moslems began began to to people this tropical Paradise, and
people this tropical Paradise,
and fromfrom thatthat time
time
itit produced no art of consequence. The
produced no art of consequence.
The Dutch
Dutch pounced
pounced upon upon it in 1595,
it in 1595,
and consumed it,
and consumed province by province
it, province by province during
during the
the following
following century,
century,
until
until their
their control
control was was complete.
complete.
Only
Only
one
one Hindu
Hindu temple surpasses that
temple surpasses
that of of Borobudur,
Borobudur, and and it, too,
it, too, isis

far from India-lost,

far from India-lost, indeed, indeed, in
in a
a distant
distant jungle
jungle that
that covered
covered it
it for
for ,cen-
cen-
 604
604 TH E STORY
THE OF CIVILIZATION
S TOR Y OF elVI LI ZATION (CHAP. XXI
(CHAP.XXI

turies. In
tunes. In 1858
18s8 aa French
French explorer,
explorer, picking
picking his his way
way through
through the the upper
upper
valley of the Mekong River, caught aa glimpse,
valley of the Mekong River, caught
glimpse, through
through trees trees and brush,
and brush,
of a sight
of a sight that
that seemed
seemed to
to him
him miraculous:
miraculous: an
an enormous
enormous temple, incredibly
temple, incredibly
majestic
majestic
in
in design,
design,
stood
stood amid
amid the
the forest,
forest, intertwined
intertwined and
and almost covered
almost covered
with shrubbery
with shrubbery and
and foliage.
foliage.
That
That day
day he
he saw
saw many temples,
many temples, some
some of
of them
them
already overgrown or split apart by trees; itit seemed
already overgrown or split apart by trees;
seemed that he had arrived
that he had arrived
just
just
in
in time
time to
to forestall
forestall the
the triumph
triumph of
of the
the wildemess
wilderness over these
over these works
works
of men. Other Europeans
of men. Other Europeans had to had to come
come and
and corroborate
corroborate his
his ts:le
tale before
before
Henri Mouhot
Henri Mouhot was was believed;
believed; thenthen scientific expeditio~ descended
scientific expeditions descended upon upon
the once silent retreat,
the once silent retreat, and a and a whole
whole school
school at
at Paris
Paris (L'Ecole
(UEcole de
de l'Extreme
^Extreme
Orient)
Orient) devoted
devoted itself
itself to
to charting
charting and
and studying
studying the
the find. Today
find. Today Angkor Angkor
Wat is is one
one of of the
the wonders
wonders of of the
the world.*
world.·
At the beginning
At the beginning of of thethe Christian
Christian era era Indo-China,
Indo-China, or or Cambodia,
Cambodia, was was
inhabited by a people essentially Chinese,
inhabited by a people essentially Chinese, partly Tibetan, partly Tibetan, called
called Kham-
bujas or Khmers. When Kublai
bujas or Khmers.
Kublai Khan's
Khan's ambassador,
ambassador, Tcheou-ta-Kouan,
Tcheou-ta-Kouan,
visited the
visited the Khmer capital, Angkor
Khmer capital, Angkor Thorn,Thom, he he found
found aa strong
strong government
government
ruling
rilling
a nation
a that had
nation that had drawn
drawn wealth
wealth out out of of its
its rice-paddies
rice-paddies and and itsits sweat.
sweat.
The king, Tcheou
The king, Tcheou reported,
reported, had had five wives: "one
five wives: "one special,
special,
and
and four
four others
others
for the cardinal
for the cardinal points
points of
of the
the compass,"
compass," with with somesome four thousand concu-
four thousand concu-
" 1U
bines for
bines more precise
for more readings.
precise readings.
3
Gold
Gold and
and jewelry abounded;
jewelry abounded; pleasure-pleasure-
boats dotted the lake;
boats dotted the lake; the streets the streets of
of the
the capital
capital
we~e
were filled
filled with chariots,
chariots,
curtained palanquins,
curtained ele~hants
palanquins, elephants
in
in rich
rich caparison,
caparison, and a
a population
population of of al-
al-

most a million
most million
a souls.
souls. Hospitals
Hospitals
were
were attached
attached to
to the
die temples,
temples, and each
each had
had
us
its
its corps of
corps of nurses
nurses and
and physicians.
physicians."
5

Though
Though the the people
people were were Chinese,
Chinese, theirtheir culture
culture 'Yaswas Hindu.
Hindu. Their Their re- re-
ligion was based
based uponupon a primitive wo~hip
a primitive worship of of the
the serpent,
serpent, Naga, Naga, whose
ligion was
fanlike
fanlike head
head appears everywhere
appears everywhere
in
in Cambodian
Cambodian art;
art; then
then the
the great
great godsgods
of
of the
the Hindu
Hindu ttiad-Brahma,
triad Brahma, Vishnu Vishnu and and Shiva-entered
Shiva entered through Bunna;
through Burma;
almost
almost at at the
the same
same timetime Buddha
Buddha came,came, and and waswas joined
joined withwith Vishnu and and
Shiva as a favorite divinity
Shiva as a favorite divinity of the of the Khmers.
Khmers. Inscriptions
Inscriptions tell
tell of
of the
the enor-
enor-
mous
mous quantity of
of rice,
rice, butter
butter and
and rare
rare oils contributed daily
oils contributed
daily by by the
the people
people
quantity
U8
to
to the
the ministrants
ministrants of
of the
the gods.
gods.*
8

To Shiva
Shiva thethe Khmers,
Khmers, toward toward thethe endend of the ninth
of the ninth century,
century, dedicated
dedicated
the
the oldest
oldest of of their
their surviving temples-the
surviving temples the Bayon,
Bayon, now a
a forbidding
forbidding ruin ruin
half
half overgrown
overgrown with with tenacious
tenacious vegetation.
vegetation. The The stones,
stones, laid laid without
without

In 1604
. •* In Portuguese missionary
1604 aa Portuguese missionary told
told of
of hunters
hunters reporting
reporting Some ruins in
some ruins in the
the jungle,
jungle,
and
and another
another priest made a similar report in
priest made a similar report 1672; but
in 16']2.; but no attention was
no attention was paid to these
paid to these state-
state-
ments.11I
CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) INDIAN
INDIAN ART
ART 60S
605

cement, have
cement, have drawn
drawn apart in the
apart in course of
the course of aa thousand
thousand years,' stretching
stretching years,.
into ungodly
into ungodly grins
grins the
the great
great faces
faces of
of Brahma
Brahma and
and Shiva which almost
Shiva which almost con-
con..
stitute the towers. Three centuries later the slaves and \var-captives of
stitute the towers.Three centuries later the slaves and war-captives of
the kings built Angkor UT
Wat,l1T
the kings built Angkor Wat, a
a masterpiece equal to the finest
masterpiece
finest archi- equal to the archi-
tectural: achievements of the Egyptians, the Greeks, or the cathedral-
tectural achievements of the
Egyptians, the Greeks, or the cathedral-
builders of Europe.
builders of
Europe. An enormous moat, twelve miles in length, sur-
enormous moat, twelve miles in length, sur-
rounds the
rounds the temple;
temple; over over the the moat
moat runs
runs aa paved
paved bridge
bridge guarded
guarded by by dissua-
dissua-
sive Nagas
sive Nagas in in stone;
stone; then
then an ornate enclosing
an ornate enclosing wall; wall; thenthen spacious ~eries,
spacious galleries,
whose reliefs
whose reliefs telltell again
again the the tales
tales ofof the MahabhflTatll and
the Mahabharata and the RamaYI1Ja; ,
the Ramayam;
then the
then the stately
stately edifice
edifice itself,
itself, rising
rising upon
upon aa broadbroad base,
base, by level after
by level after level
level
of aa terraced
of terraced pyramid,
pyramid, to to the
the sanctuary
sanctuary of of the
the god,
god, two two hundred
hundred feet feet high.
high.
Here magnitude
Here magnitude does does notnot detract
detract fromfrom beauty,
beauty, but helps itit to
but helps to an
an impos-
impos-
ing magnificence
ing magnificence that that startles
startles the the Western
Western mind mind into into some
some weak
weak realiza-
realiza-
tion of
tion the ancient
of the ancient grandeur
grandeur once once possessed
possessed by Oriental civilization.
by Oriental civilization. One One
sees in
sees in imagination
imagination the the crowded
crowded population
population of of the
the capital:
capital: the the regimented
regimented
slaves cutting,
slaves cutting, pulling
pulling and and raising
raising thethe heavy
heavy stones;
stones; the the artisans carving
artisans carving
reliefs and
reliefs statuary as
and statuary as if time would
if time would nevernever failfail them;
them; the the priests
priests deceiving
deceiving
and CQDSoling the
and cqnsoling people; the
the people; devadasis (still
the devadasis pictured on
(still pictured on the granite) de-
the granite) de-
ceiving the people and
ceiving the people
and consoling
consoling the priests; the
the priests; the lordly
lordly aristocracy
aristocracy build-build-
ing palaces
ing palaces
like
like the
the Phinean-Akas,
Phinean-Akas, with
with its
its spacious
spacious Terrace
Terrace of
of Honor;
Honor;
and,
and, raised above ~
raised above all by the
by the labor
labor of
of all,
all, the
the powerful
powerful and
and ruthless
ruthless kings.
kings.
The kings,
The needing many slaves,
kings, needing many slaves, waged many
waged many wars.
wars. Often
Often they
they won; won;
but
but near
near the close of
the close of the
the thirteenth century "in the
thirteenth century-uin the middle
middle of the way"
of the way" of of
Dante's life-the
Dante's armies of
life the armies Siam defeated
of Siam defeated the Khmers, sacked
the Khmers, sacked their
their cities,
cities,

and
and left
left their
their resplendent
resplendent temples
temples and and palaces
palaces in ruins. Today
in ruins. Today a a few
tourists prowl
tourists among the loosened stones, and· and ~bserve
observe how patiendy patiently the
the
prowl among the loosened stones,
trees have
trees have sunk sunk their
their roots
roots or
or insinuated
insinuated their
their branches
branches into
into the
the crevices
crevices .
of the
of the rocks, slowly tearing
rocks, slowly tearing
them
them apart
apart because
because stones
stones cannot
cannot desire
desire and

grow.
grow.
Tcheou-ta-Kouan
Tcheou-ta-Kouan speaks
speaks of
of the
the many
many books
books that
that were written
written by
by
the
the people
people
of
of Angkor,
Angkor, but
but not
not a
a page
page of
of this
this literature
literature remains;
remains; like
like our-
our-
selves
selves they wrote perishable thoughts upon perishable tissue, and all
they wrote perishable thoughts upon perishable tissue,
all their
their

immortals
immortals are are dead.
dead. The The marvelous
marvelous reliefs show
reliefs show men and
and women wearing
wearing
veils
veils and
and netsnets to to guard against
guard against mosquitoes mosquitoes and slimy,
slimy, crawling things.
crawling things.
The men and
The men and women women are
are gone, surviving
gone, surviving only only on the stones.
the stones. The mos-

quitoes and
and thethe lizards
lizards remain.
remain.
quitoes

Nearby, in Siam, aa people

Nearby, in Siam, people
half
half Tibetan and half
Tibetan and half Chinese
Chinese hadhad gradually
gradually
expelled
expelled
the
the conquering
conquering
Khmers,
Khmers, and
and had
had developed
developed aa civilization
civilization based
based upon
upon
 606
606 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
( CHAP.
XXI

Hindu
Hindu religion
religion
and
and art.
art. After
After o,"ercoming
overcoming CambodiaCambodia the the Siamese
Siamese built
built a a new
capital, Ayuthia,
capital, Ayuthia,
on the site
on the site of an of an ancient
ancient city
city
of
of the
the Khmers.
Khmers. From this
this

seat they extended

seat they extended their
their S\vay
sway until,
until, about 1600, their
about 1600, their empire included
empire included south- south-
ern
ern Burma,
Burma, Calnbodia,
Cambodia, and and thethe l\'lalay
Malay Peninsula.
Peninsula. Their Their trade
trade reached
reached to
to China
China
on
on the
the east
east and
and toto Europe on
Europe on the
the west.
west Their
Their artists
artists made
made illuminated
illuminated manu-
scripts, painted with
scripts, painted
with lacquer
lacquer on wood, fired
on wood, fired porcelain in
porcelain
in the
the Chinese
Chinese style,style,
embroidered beautiful silks,
embroidered beautiful silks, andand occasionally carved
carved statues
statues of of unique
unique ex- ex-
occasionally
cellence.-
cellence.* Then,
Then, in in the
the impartial rhythm
impartial rhythm
of
of history,
history,
the
the Burmese
Burmese captured
captured
Ayuthia,
Ayuthia, and and destroyed it with all its art. In
destroyed it with all its art their new capital
In their at Bangkok
capital at Bangkok
the
the Siamese
Siamese builtbuilt aa great pagoda,
great pagoda, whose whose excess
excess of of ornament
ornament cannotcannot quite quite
conceal
conceal the the beauty
beauty of
of its design.
its design.
in Asia.
Asia. Coming
The Burmese
Burmese were were among
among the builders in
the greatest builders
greatest Coming down into into
these
these fertile
fertile fields
fields from
from Mongolia
Mongolia and
and Tibet, they
Tibet, they fell
fell under
under Hindu
Hindu influences,
influences,
and
and from
from thethe fifth
fifth century on\vard
century onward produced produced an an abundance
abundance of of Buddhist,
Buddhist,
Vaishnavite
Vaishnavite and and Shivaite
Shivaite statuary, and
statuary, and great
great
stupas
stupas that
that culminated
culminated in
in thethe
majestic temple
majestic temple of
of Ananda-one
Ananda-one of
of the
the five
five thousand
thousand pagodas
pagodas of
of their
their ancient
ancient
capital, Pagan. Pagan was
capital, Pagan. Pagan
was sacked
sacked by by Kublai
Kublai Khan,
Khan, and and for
for five
five hundred
hundred yearsyears
the
the Burmese
Burmese government
government vacillated
vacillated from
from capital to capital. For a time
capital to capital. For a time Manda-
Manda-
lay flourished as the center
lay flourished as the center of of Burma's
Burma's life, life, and
and thethe home
home of of artists
artists who

achieved beauty in
achieved beauty in many fieldsfields from
from embroidery and
and jewelry to
to the
the royal
many embroidery jewelry royal
ua
palace-which
palace-which showed
showed what
what they
they could
could do
do in
in the
the frail
frail medium
medium of
of wood.
wood.**
The English, displeased with
English, displeased with the the treatment
treatment of of their missionaries and
their missionaries and their
their
merchants, adopted
merchants, adopted Burma in
in 1886,
1886, and
and moved the
the capital
capital
to
to Rangoon,
Rangoon, a
a city
city
amenable
amenable to ~e disciplinary
to the disciplinary influence
influence of
of the
the Imperial
Imperial Navy.
Navy. There
There the
the
Burmese had
Burmese had built
built one
one of their finest
of their finest shrines,
shrines, the
the famous
famous Shwe
Shwe Dagon,
Dagon, that
that
Golden Pagoda
Golden Pagoda whichwhich draws
draws to to its
its spire millions upon millions of Burmese
spire millions upon millions of Burmese
Buddhist pilgrims
Buddhist pilgrims every year. For
every year. For doesdoes not this temple
not this temple contain
contain the very
the very
hairs
hairs ofof Shakya-muni's
Shakya-muni's head?
head?

3. Moslem
3. Moslem Architecture
Architecture in
in India
India
The Afghan
The Afghan style -
style - The Mogul style -
Mogul style Delbi-Agra -
- Delhi-Agra - The
The Taj
Taj
Mahal
Mahal

The final triumph

triumph of
final of Indian
Indian architecture
architecture came
came under
under the
the Moguls.
Moguls. The
The
followers of
followers Moh~ed had
of Mohammed proved themselves
had proved themselves master
master builders wher-
builders wher-
ever they had
ever they had carried their arms-at
carried their Granada, at
arms-at Granada, Cairo, at
at Cairo, Jerusaiem, at
at Jerusalem, at
Baghdad; itit. was
Baghdad; was to
to be
be expected
expected that this vigorous
that this vigorous stock, after establish-
stock, after establish-
ing itself securely
ing itself in IndiP., would
securely in India, would raise upon the
raise upon the conquered
conquered soil
soil mosques
mosques'
*
• ILg.,
.E.g., the
the lacquered
lacquered stone
stone Buddha in the
Buddha in the Boston
Boston Museum
Museum of
of Fine
Fine Arts.
Ans.
FIG. 61-zw,indranath
FIG. 62-Rabindranath
Tllgore
Tagore
Underwood at
Underwood & Underwood

FIG. 63-Ananda Palace

6-$Ananda Palace ~
i

Pagan, Burma
Pagan, Burma
& Underwooc
Underwood &. Underwoo<
CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) INDIAN
IND ART
I AN AR T 60
6077
as
as resplendent as
resplendent as Omar's Omar's at at Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, as as massive
massive as as Hassan's
Hassan's at at Cairo,
Cairo, andand
as
as delicate
delicate as as the
the Alhambra.
Alhambra. It It is
is true
true thatthat the
the "Afghan"
"Afghan" dynasty dynasty used used
Hindu
Hindu artisans, copied
artisans, copied Hindu
Hindu themes,
themes, and
and even
even appropriated
appropriated
the
the pillars
pillars
of
of Hindu
Hindu temples,
temples, for for their
their architectural
architectural purposes, and
purposes, and that
that many mosques
many mosques
"
were merely
merely Hindu temples rebuilt for
temples rebuilt Moslem prayer;11O
for i\t{oslem but this natural
1

prayer; but this natural

imitation
imitation passed
passed quickly
quickly into into a a style so typically Moorish that one is sur-
style so typically Moorish that one is sur-
prised
prised to
to find
find thethe Taj
Taj Maha!
Mahal in
in India
India rather
rather thanthan in in Persia,
Persia, NonhNorth Africa
Africa
or Spain.
or Spain.
The beautiful
beautiful Kutb-Minar·
Kutb-Minar* exemplifies the transition. It was part of
exemplifies the transition. It was part of
aa mosque begun
mosque begun at
at Old Delhi
Delhi by
by Kutbu-d
Kutbu-d Din
Din Aibak;
Aibak; it it commemorated
commemorated
the
the victories
victories of of that
that bloody
bloody Sultan
Sultan over
over the
the Hindus,
Hindus, and
and twenty-:seven
twenty-seven
Hindu temples
temples were dismembered
dismembered to
to provide
provide material
material for
for the mosque
the mosque and and
ele~ents
1m 1"
the
the tower.
tower. After
After withstanding
withstanding the
the elements for
for seven
seven centuries
centuries the
the
great minaret-25°
great minaret-zjo feet
feet high,
high, built
built of
of fine
fine red
red sandstone, perfecdy
sandstone, perfectly propor- propor-
tioned,
tioned, and crowned on its its topmost stages with
topmost stages with white marble is still
white marble-is still one
one
of
of the
the masterpieces of
masterpieces of Indian
Indian technology
technology and
and art.
art. In In general the
general the Sultans
Sultans
of
of Delhi were too too busy
busy with
with killing
killing
to
to have
have much time
time for
for architecture,
architecture,
and such buildings
buildings as
as they
they have
have left
left us
us are
are mostly
mostly the tombs that
the tombs that they
they
raised during
raised during theirtheir own lifetime
lifetime as as reminders
reminders that that eveneven theythey would
would die. die.
The bestbest example
example of these is
of these the mausoleum
is the mausoleum of of Sher
Sher Shah Shah at at Sasseram,
Sasseram,
in Bihar;U1 gigantic,
in Bihar;"
1
gigantic, solid, masculine, it
solid, masculine, it was
was thethe last
last stage of
stage of the
the more
more
virile Moorish
virile Moorish mannermanner beforebefore it softened into
it softened into the
the architectural
architectural jewelry jewelry of of
kings.
l\logul kings.
the Mogul
the .
tendency to
The tendency to unite
unite the the Mohammedan
Mohammedan and and the the Hindu
Hindu stylesstyles waswas
fostered by
fostered by the eclectic impartiality
the eclectic impartiality of of Akbar;
Akbar; and and the the masterpieces
masterpieces that that
his artisans
his artisans built
built for
for him him wovewove IndianIndian and and Persian
Persian methodsmethods and motifs
and motifs
into an
into exquisite harmony
an exquisite hannony symbolizing
symbolizing the frail merger
the frail merger of of native
native and and
Moslem creeds
Moslem creeds in in Akbar's
Akbar's synthetic
synthetic faith. faith. The first first monument
monument of his
of his
reign, the
reign,
the tomb
tomb erected
erected by by him near Delhi for his
him near Delhi for father Humayun, isis
his father Humayun,
already
already
in
in a
a style
style
of
of its
its own-simple
own simple in
in .line,
line, moderate
moderate in
in decoration,
decoration, but
but
foreshadowing in
foreshadowing in its grace its grace the
the fairer
fairer edifices
edifices of
of Shah
Shah Jehan.
Jehan. At Fath-
Path-
pur-Sikri
pur-Sikri
his
his artists
artists built
built aa city
city in
in which
which all
all the
the strength
strength of of thethe early
early
Moguls merged
Moguls merged with with the the refinement
refinement of of the later emperors.
the later emperors. A flight of
flight of
steps
steps
leads
leads up
up to
to an
an imposing
imposing portal portal in
in red
red sandstone,
sandstone, through
through whose
whose
lordly
lordly
arch
arch one
one passes
passes
into
into an
an enclosure
enclosure filled
filled with
with chef-d' fn/UTes. The
chef-d'oeuvres. Th~
• L&,
*
I.e., minaret,
minaret, from
from the
the Arabic
Arabic manarat, lAmp or
'mIl'IlI61lt, aA lamp or lighthouse.
lighthouse.
 608
608 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XXI
(CHAP.XXI

major building is
major building is a
a mosque,
mosque, but the lqveliest
but the of the
loveliest of structures are
the structures are the
the three
three
pavilions
pavilions for the Emperor's favorite wives, and the marble tomb of his
for the Emperor's favorite wives, and the marble tomb of his

friend,
friend, Salim
Salim Chisti
Chisti the
the sage;
sage;
here
here the
the artists
artists of
of India
India began
began to
to show
show that
that
skill
skill in
in embroidering stone which
embroidering stone which waswas to culminate in
to culminate in the
die screen
screen of
of the
the
Taj
Taj Mahal.
Mahal.
Jehangir
Jehangir contributed
contributed little little to
to the
the architectural
architectural history of his people,
history of his people,
but his
but his son
son Shah Jehan made his
Shah Jehan his name
name almost
almost as as bright as AJtbar's by
bright as Akbar's by his
his

passion
passion for
for beautiful
beautiful building.
building. He scattered
scattered money
money as
as lavishly among
lavishly among
his
his artists
artists asas Jehangir
Jehangir had scattered it
had scattered it among his
among his wives.
wives. Like
Like the the kings
kings
of
of northern
northern Europe,Europe, he
he imported
imported the
the surplus
surplus
artists
artists of
of Italy,
Italy,
and
and had
had
them
them instruct
instruct his his own carvers in that art of pietra dura
carvers in that art of pietra dura (i.e., of (i.e., of inlaying
inlaying
marble
marble with with a a mosaic
mosaic of of precious stones)
precious stones) which
which became
became one
one of
of the
the char-
char-
acteristic
acteristic elements
elements of of Indian
Indian adornment reign.
adornment during his reign. Jehan was not
during his Jehan was not
aa very religious
very religious soul,
soul, but
but two of
of the
the fairest
fairest mosques
mosques in
in India
India rose
rose under
under
his
his patronage: the
patronage: the Juma Juma Masjid-or
Masjid or FridayFriday Mosque-at-
Mosque at Delhi, Delhi, and and the
the
Mati
Mori Masjid-or
Masjid-or Pearl
Pearl Mosque-at
Mosque-at Agra. Agra.
Both at at D~Delhi and at at Agra Jehan
Agra Jehan built built "forts"-i.e.,
"forts"-i.e., groups of royal
groups of royal
edifices surrounded by
edifices surrounded
by a protective wall.
a protective wall. AtAt Delhi
Delhi he he tore down with
tore down with
superior
superior disdain
disdain the
the pink palaces
pink palaces of
of Akbar,
Akbar, and
and replaced
replaced
them
them with
with
structures
structures which which at at their
their worst
worst areare a a kind
kind of marble confectionery,
of marble
confectionery, and
and
at their
at best are
their best are the purest architectural
the purest architectural beauty on
beauty on the
the globe.
globe.
Here
Here is
is

the luxurious Hall of Public

the luxurious Hall of Public Audience,
Audience, with with panels
panels ofof Florentine
Florentine mosaic mosaic
on aa black
on marble ground,
black marble ground, and and with ceilings, columns
with ceilings, columns 'and arches carved
and arches carved
into stone
into lacery of
stone lacery frail but
of frail but incredible
incredible'beauty. Here, too, is
beauty. Here, too, is the Hall ofthe Hall of
Private Audience,
Private Audience, whose ceiling isis of
whose ceiling of silver
silver and
and gold,
gold, whose
whose columns
columns are are
of filigree
of nIigree marble,
marble, whosewhose arches arches are are aa pointed
pointed semicircle
semicircle composed
composed of of
smaller flowerlike
smaller semicircles, whose
flowerlike semicircles, whose Peacock
Peacock Throne
Throne becamebecame aa legend legend
for the
for world, and
the world, and whose
whose wall wall still
still bears
bears in pr~cious inlay
in precious inlay the the proud
proud
words of
words of the
the Moslem
Moslem poet: "If anywhere
poet: "If anywhere on on earth there isis aa Paradise,
earth there Paradise,
it isis here,
it here, itit isis here, here." We gather
here, itit isis here." again some
gather again faint conception
some faint conception of of
"the riches of the Indies" in Mogul
"the riches of the Indies" in Mogul days days when
when we find find the the greatest
greatest ofof
the historians
the historians of of architecture
architecture describing
describing the the royal
royal residence
residence at at Delhi
Delhi as
as
covering
covering twice
twice the
the area
area of
of the
the vast
vast Escorial
Escorial near
near Madrid,
Madrid, and
and fforming
orming at
at
that time,
that time, andand in in its ensemble, "the
its ensemble, mo~ magnificent
"the most magnificent palace
palace in in the East-
the East
perhaps
perhaps in
in the
the world."··
world."*
111

*
• The
The Delhi
Delhi Fort origina1ly contained
Fort originally contained fifty-two
fifty-two palaces,
palaces, but only twenty-seven
but only remain.
twenty-seven remain.
AA harassed
harassed British garrison took
British garrison took refuge
refuge there in the
there in Sepoy Mutiny,
the Sepoy Mutiny, and
and razed
razed several
several of
of
palaces
to
the palaces to
the room
make room
make for their
for their stores.
stores. Much looting
Much looting occurred.
occurred.
CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) INDIAN ART 609
609
The Fort
The Fott at Agra
at Agra is in ruins,*
is in ruins,· andand we can can onlyonly guess
guess at at its
its original
original
magnificence. Here,
magnificence. Here, amid many gardens,
amid many gardens, were were thethe Pearl
Pearl Mosque,
Mosque, the the Gem
Gem
Mosque,
Mosque, the
the halls
halls of
of Public
Public and
and Private
Private Audience,
Audience, the
the Throne
Throne Palace,
Palace,
the King's
the King's Baths,
Baths, the the Hall
Hall of of Mirrors,
Mirrors, the the palaces
palaces of of Jehangir
Jehangir and and of of
Shah Jehan,
Shah Jehan, the the Jasmine
Jasmine Palace
Palace of of Nur Jehan,Jehan, and and that
that Jasmine
Jasmine TowerTower
from which
from which the the captive
captive emperor,
emperor, Shah Shah Jehan,
Jehan, looked
looked over over thethe Jumna
Jumna
upon the
upon the tomb
tomb that that he had built
he had for his
built for beloved wife,
his beloved wife, Mumtaz
Mumtaz Mahal.Mahal.
All the
All the world
world knows knows that that tomb
tomb by by herher shortened
shortened name name as as thethe TajTaj
Mahal. Many
Mahal. Many an an architect
architect has rated it
has rated as the
it as the most
most perfect
perfect of of all buildings
all buildings
standing
standing on'the
on the earth
earth today.
today. Three
Three ~
artists designed
designed it:
it: a
a Persian, Ustad
Persian, Ustad
!sa;
Isa; an Italian, Gieronimo
an Italian, Gieronimo Veroneo;
Veroneo; and and aa Frenchman,
Frenchman, Austin Austin de de Bordeaux.
Bordeaux.
No Hindu see~ to
Hindu seems to have
have shared
shared in.in.its
its conception; it
conception; it is
is utterly
utterly un-Hindu,
un-Hindu,
completely Mohammedan;
completely Mohammedan; even even the
the skilled artisans were,
skilled artisans were, in part, brought
in part, brought
in from
in from Baghdad,
Baghdad, Constantinople,
Constantinople, and and other
other centers
centers of of the
the Moslem
Moslem faith.faith.w114

For twenty-two
For twenty-two years years twenty-two
twenty-two thousand thousand workmen
workmen were were forced
forced to to
labor upon
labor upon the the Taj;
Taj; and though the
and though the Maharaja
Maharaja of of Jaipur
Jaipur sentsent the
the marble
marble
as gift to
as aa gift to Shah Jehan, the
Shah Jehan, the building
building andand itsits surroundings
surroundings cost
cost 1130,000,000
(230,000,000
-then an enormous
then an enormous sum.:&IIt
sum. *!
1

Only
Only St. Peter's has
St. Peter's has soso fitting
fitting
an
an approach.
approach. Passing through aa high
Passing through high
battlemented
battlemented wall, wall, one
one comes
comes suddenly
suddenly upon upon the
the Taj-raised
Taj raised upon upon a a
marble platform,
marble platform, and and framed
framed on on either
either side
side byby handsome
handsome mosquesmosques and and
stately
stately
minarets.
minarets. In
In the
the foreground spacious
foreground spacious gardens gardens enclose
enclose a
a pool in
pool in
whose waters
whose waters the the inverted
inverted palace
palace becomes a quivering
becomes a quivering fascination. Every
fascination. Every
portion of the strUetur~
of the structure is is of
of white
white marble,
marble, precious
precious metals,
metals, or
or costly
costly
portion
stones. The building
stones. The building is
is a
a complex figure
complex figure of
of twelve
twelve sides,
sides, four
four of
of which
are
are portals; aa slender
slender minaret
minaret rises
rises at
at each
each comer,
corner, andand the roof is
the roof is aa massive
massive
portals;
spired
spired
dome.
dome. The
The main
main entrance,
entrance, once
once guarded
guarded with
with solid
solid silver
silver gates,
gates,
is
is aa maze
maze of of marble embroidery; inlaid in the wall in jeweled
marble embroidery; inlaid in the wall in jeweled script
script are
are
quotations from
from the the Koran,
Koran, one one ofof which invites
invites the
"pure in
the "pure in heart"
heart" to to
quotations
enter "the gardens
enter "the gardens of
of Paradise."
Paradise." The interior
interior is
is simple;
simple; and perhaps
perhaps it
it is
is

It was
• It was aa sad
sad error
error of
of Shah
Shah Jehan's
Jehan's to make a fortress these lovely
fortress of these
lovely palaces.
palaces. When
the
the British
British besieged Agra (1803) they inevitably turned
besieged Agra (1803) they inevitably
their guns
turned their guns upon
upon the Fort Seeing
the Fort. Seeing
the
the cannon-balls
cannon-balls strike
strike the
the Khass
Khass Mabal,
Mahal, or
or Hall
Hall of
of Private
Private Audience,
Audience, the
the Hindus
Hindus sur-sur-

rendered, thinking
rendered, beauty
thinking beauty
more precious
precious than
than victory.
victory. A little
little later
later W men
Warren Hastings
Hastings
bath of it to George
tore up
tore up the
the bath of the
the palace
palace to present
to present it George IV; IV; and
and other portions of
other portions of the
the
10
structure were
structure sold by
were sold by Lord
Lord William
William Bentinck
Bentinck to
to help
help the
the revenues
revenues of
of India.:III
India.
tfLord
Lord William
William Bentinck,
Bentinck, one
one of the kindliest
of the kindliest ofof the British governors
the British governors of India, once
of India, once
thought of selling the Taj for
thought of selling the Taj
for $150,000
$150,000 to
to aa Hindu contractor,
contractor, who believed
believed that
that better
better
1*
use
use comd made of
be made
could be of the
the materiaL-
material Since
Since Lord
Lord Curzon's
Curzon's administration
administration the British Gov-
the British Gov-
ernment
ernment of India has
of India has taken
taken excellent
excellent care
care of
of these
these Mogul
Mogul monuments.
 610
6lO THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XXI
(CHAP.

just as well that native and

just as well
that native and European
European thievesthieves cooperated
cooperated in in despoiling
despoiling thethe
tomb of
tomb its superabundant
of its superabundant jewels, je,vels, andand of of the the golden
golden railing,
railing, encrusted
encrusted
with precious stones,
with precious stones, that
that once
once enclosed
enclosed the the sarcophagi
sarcophagi of Jehan and
of Jehan his
and his
Queen. For Aurangzeb replaced
Queen. For Aurangzeb replaced the railing the railing with
with an
an octagonal
octagonal
1

screen
screen of
of
almost transparent
almost transparent marble,
marble, carved
carved intointo aa miracle
miracle of of alabaster
alabaster lace;
lace; and
and
it has
it has seemed
seemed to to some
some visitors
visitors that
that of all the
of all the minor
minor andand partial
partial products
products
of human art
of human nothing has
art nothing has ever
ever surpassed
surpassed the the beauty
beauty of this screen.
of this screen.
It is not
It is not the
the most
most sublime
sublime of all edifices,
of all edifices, it it isis only
only the
the most
most beautiful.
beautiful. At
any distance
any distance thatthat hides
hides its
its delicate
delicate details
details it it isis not
not imposing,
imposing, but but merely
merely
pleasing;
pleasing; only
only a
a nearer
nearer view
view reveals
reveals that
that its
its perfection
perfection has
has no
no proportion
proportion
to its
to size. When in
its size. our hurried
in our hurried timetime we see see enormous
enormous structures
structures of of aa
hundred stories
hundred stories raised in aa year
raised in year oror two,
two, and and then
then consider
consider how twenty-two
twenty-two
thousand men
thousand men toiled
toiled for
for twenty-two
twenty-two years years on this little
on this little tomb,
tomb, hardly
hardly aa
hundred feet
hundred feet high,
high, we begin
begin to to sense
sense the the difference
difference betweenbetween industry
industry andand
Perhaps the
art. Perhaps
art. the aet
act of will involved
of will involved in in conceiving
conceiving aa building
building like the Taj
like the Taj
Mahal was
Mahal was greater
greater and profounder
and prof ounder than than the the act aet of will of
of will of the
the greatest
greatest
conqueror. If
conqueror. Htime
time were
were intelligent
intelligent it it would
would destroy
destroy everything
everything else before
else before

the Taj,
the Taj, andand would
woU:1d leave this evidence
leave this evidence of of man's alloyed nobility
man's alloyed nobility as the
as the

last man's consolation.

last man's consolation.

4. Indian Architecture
4. Indian Architecture and
and Civilization
Civilization

Decay of I~Um
Decay of Indian art-Hindu
artHindu and Moslem
and Moslem architecture
architecture compared
compared
-General
General view
view of
of Indian
Indian civilization
civilization

Despite
Despite thethe screen,
screen, Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb was was a a misfortune
misfortune for for Mogul
Mogul andand Indian
Indian
art. Dedicated fanatically
art. Dedicated
fanatically to
to an
an exclusive
exclusive religion,
religion,
he
he saw
saw in
in art
art nothing
nothing
but idolatry md
but idolatry and vanity.
vanity. Already
Already Shah
Shah Jehan
Jehan had
had prohibited
prohibited thethe erection
erection
of Aurangzeb not
temples;" Aurangzeb
of Hindu temples;- not only
only continued
continued the the ban,
ban, but
but give
gave so
7
so
economical
economical a a support
support to
to Moslem building
building
that
that it, too, languished
it, too, languished under
under
his reign. Indian
his reign. Indian art followed him
art followed him toto the
the grave.
grave.
When we think think ofof Indian architecture in
Indian architecture in summary
summary and and retrospect we
retrospect
:find in it two themes,
find in it two themes, masculine
masculine andand feminine,
feminine, Hindu
Hindu and and Mohammedan,
Mohammedan,
about which the structural symphony revolves.
the structural
symphony revolves. As,
As, in
in the
the most
most famous
famous
of symphonies,
of the
the startling hammer-strokes
hammer-strokes of
of the
the opening bars are shortly
symphonies, startling opening bars are shortly
followed by a strain
by a strain of infinite delicacy, so
of infinite delicacy, so in
in Indian
Indian architecture
architecture thethe over-
over-
powering
powering monuments of
of the
the Hindu genius
genius at
at Bodh-Gaya, Bhuvaneshwara,
Bodh-Gaya, Bhuvaneshwara,
Madura and and Tanjore
Tanjore areare followed
followed by by the
the grace
grace and
and melody
melody of of the
the Mogul
Mogul
style
style at
at Fathpur-Sikri,
Fathpur-Sikri, Delhi
Delhi and
and Agra;
Agra; and
and the
the two
two themes
themes mingle in a
mingle in a
 6- TIlj Mahal, Agr"
FIG. &1--Tbe
FIG.
Ewing Galloway, N.
Ewing Galloway, N. Y.
Y.
 CHAP. XXI)
CHAP.XXl) INDIAN ART 611
6ll

confused elaboration
elaboration to to the
the end.
end. It It was
was said
said ofof the
the Moguls
Moguls that that they built
they built
like giants and finished
like finished likedliked jewelers; but this
giants jewelers; but this epigram might better
epigram might better have have
been applied
applied to
to Indian
Indian architecture
architecture in
in general:
general:
the
the Hindus
Hindus built built like
like giants,
giants,
and
and thethe Moguls
Moguk ended ended likelike jewelers. Hindu
jewelers. Hindu architecture
architecture impresses us in
impresses us in
its
its mass,
mass, Moorish architeturearchitcture in in its
its detail; the
the first had
had the sublimity of
detail; first the sublimity of
strength,
strength, the other had
the other had the
the perfection
perfection of of beauty; the Hindus had passion
beauty; the Hindus had passion
and fertility,
fertility, the
the Moors had
had taste
taste and
and self-restraint.
self-restraint. The
The Hindu
Hindu covered
covered
his
his buildings with
buildings with such
such exuberant
exuberant statuary
statuary that one hesitates whether to
that one hesitates whether to
class
class them as as building
building or
or as
as sculpture;
sculpture; the
the Mohammedan
Mohammedan abominated
abominated
images,
images, and confinedconfined himself himself to to floral
floral or or geometrical
geometrical decoration.
decoration. The The
Hindus were the the Gothic
Gothic sculptor-architects of India's Middle Ages; the
sculptor-architects of India's Middle Ages; the
Moslems were the the expatriated
expatriated artists
artists of
of the
the exotic
exotic Renaissance.
Renaissance. All All inin all,
all,

~e
the Hindu style
style reached greater
reached greater heights,
heights, in in proportion
proportion as as sublimity
sublimity excels
excels
loveliness;
loveliness; on second second thoughtthought we perceive perceive that that Delhi
Delhi Fort Fort and
and thethe Taj
Taj
Mahal,
Mahal, beside
beside Angkor
Angkor and
and Borobudur, are beautiful lyrics
Borobudur, are beautiful lyrics beside profound beside profound
dramas-Petrarch
dramas-Petrarch beside beside Dante,
Dante, KeatsKeats besid~
beside Shakespeare, Sappho beside
Shakespeare, Sappho beside
Sophocles.
Sophocles. One art is
is the
the graceful
graceful and
and partial expression
partial expression of
of fortunate
fortunate
individuals,
individuals, the other is
the other is the
the complete
complete and and powerful
powerful expression of a race.
expression of a race.
Hence thisthis little
little survey must
survey must conclude
conclude as
as it
it
began, by confessing that
began, by confessing that
none but a Hindu
none but a Hindu can can quite
quite appreciate
appreciate the the art art of
of India,
India, or or write
write about
about
it
it forgivably.
f
orgivably. To a
a European brought
European brought up up on
on Greek
Greek and
and aristocratic
aristocratic canons
canons
of moderation and simplicity, this
of moderation and simplicity, this popular art
popular art of profuse ornament
of profuse ornament and and
wild complexity will
wild complexity will seem
seem atat times
times almost primitive and
almost primitive barbarous. But
and barbarous. But that
that
last word
last word isis the
the very
very adjective
adjective with
with which
which the
the classically-minded
classically-minded Goethe
Goethe
rejected Strasbourg's
rejected Strasbourg's cathedral
cathedral and
and the
the Gothic
Gothic style; it is the
style; it is
the reaction
reaction of of
reason to
reason to feeling,
feeling, of rationalism to
of rationalism to religion.
religion. Only Only aa nativenative believer
believer can can
feel the
feel the majesty
majesty of the Hindu
of the Hindu temples,
temples, for these were
for these were builtbuilt to
to give
give notnot
merely aa form
merely form to to beauty
beauty but but aa stimulus
stimulus to to piety
piety and and aa pedestal
pedestal to faith.
to faith.
Only
Only our
our Middle
Middle Ages-only
Ages only our
our Giottos
Giottos and
and our
our Dantes-could
Dantes could under-
under-
~dfudia.
stand India. .
It is in
It is in these
these termsterms thatthat we must must viewview all all Indian
Indian civilization
civilization-as the ex-
as the ex-
pression of aa "medieval"
pression of
"medieval" people peop~e to to whom religion religion is profounder
is profounder than than
science,
science, if
if only
only because
because religion accepts
religion accepts at
at the
the outset
outset the eternity
the eternity of of
human ignorance
human ignorance and
and the
the vanity
vanity of
of human power.
power. In
In this
this piety
piety lie
lie the
the
weakness and
weakness and the the strength
strength of of the
the Hindu:
Hindu: his his superstition
superstition and his gentle-
and his gentle-
ness,
ness, his
his introversion
introversion and
and his
his insight,
insight,
his
his backwardness
backwardness and
and his
his depth,
depth, his his
weakness in
weakness in war
war and and hishis achievement
achievement in in art. Doubtless his
art. Doubtless his climate
climate affected
affected
his religion,
his religion, andand cooperated
cooperated with with itit to to enfeeble
enfeeble him; him; therefore
therefore he he yielded
yielded
612
6l2 THE STORY OIc\
O F CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXI

with fatalistic
with fatalistic resignation
resignation to the Aryans,
to the Aryans, the
the Huns,
Huns, the the Moslems
Moslems and
and the
the
Europeans. History punished
Europeans. History punished him
him for
for neglecting science;
neglecting science; and
and when Clive's
Clive's
superior
superior cannon
cannon slaughtered
slaughtered the native army
the native army atat Plassey (1757), their
Plassey (1757), their roar
roar
announced
announced the Revolution. In
Industrial Revolution.
the Industrial In our time that
our time Revolution will
that Revolution will
have its
have with
its way with
way India,
India, as
as it
it has
has written
written its
its will
will and
and character
character ·upon
upon
England, America, Germany,
England, America, Germany, Russia
Russia and
and Japan;
Japan; India, too, will
India, too, will have
have her
her
capitalism
capitalism and
and her
her socialism,
socialism, her
her millionaires
millionaires and her slums.
and her slums. The old old
civilization
civilization of India is
of India is finished.
finished. It It began to
began to die
die when
when the
the British
British came.
came.
 CHAPTER XXII
CHAPTER

A Christian
Christian Epilogue
Epilogue
I.
I. THE JOLLY BUCCANEERS

The arrival
arrival of
of the Europeans-The British
the EuropeansThe British Conquest-The
ConquestThe Sepoy
Sepoy
Mutiny-Advantages
MutinyAdvantages tmd
and disadvantages
disadvantages of British rule
of British rule

IINingsmany way-s that

N many ways that civilization
ings
Aurangzeb,
discovered
discovered
and
and the
the
the
the
civilization was
riches
riches
chaos
chaos and
and
of
of
was already
India.
India.
internal
internal
already dead
The
wars
wars
long
long
that
that
and
and
when Clive
dead when

followed
followed
Clive and
disruptive
it,
and Hast-
disruptive reign of
reign
left
left
Hast-
of
India
India
Aurangzeb, it,

ripe
ripe for
for reconquest;
reconquest; and
and the
the only question
only question open open to
to "manifest
"manifest destiny"
destiny" was
as to which
as to which of of the
the modernized
modernized powers powers of of Europe
Europe should
should become
become its its

instrument.
instrument. The French French tried,
tried, and
and failed; they
failed; they lost
lost India,
India, as
as well
well as
as Can-
Can-
ada,
ada, atat Rossbach
Rossbach and and Waterloo.
Waterloo. The English English tried,
tried, andand succeeded.
succeeded.
In
In 1498 Vasco da
1498 Vasco da Gama,
Gama, after
after a a voyage
voyage of
of eleven
eleven months
months from Lisbon,
Lisbon,
anchored
anchored off off Calicut.
Calicut. He was was well received by
well received by the
the Hindu Raja
Raja of
of Mala-
Mala-
bar,
bar, who gave
gave him
him a
a courteous letter to the
courteous letter to the King King of
of Portugal:
Portugal: "Vasco
"Vasco da
da
Gama,
Gama, a nobleman of
a nobleman of your household, has
your household, has visited
visited my kingdom, and
my kingdom, and hashas
given
given me great pleasure.
great pleasure. In
In my kingdom
my kingdom there
there is
is abundance
abundance of
of cinnamon,
cinnamon,
cloves, pepper, and
cloves, pepper, and precious
precious stones.
stones. What I I seek
seek from your country
from your country is is

gold, silver,
gold, silver, coral
coral and
and scarlet." His Christian
scarlet." His Christian majesty answered by
majesty answered by claim-
claim-
ing
ing India
India as
as a
a Portuguese
Portuguese colony,colony, for
for reasons
reasons which
which the
the Raja
Raja was too
too
backward to
backward understand. To make matters
to understand. matters clearer, Portugal
clearer, Portugal sent
sent a
a fleet
fleet

to India,
to with instructions
India, with instructions to to spread Christianity and
spread Christianity wage war.
and wage war. In In the
the
seventeenth
seventeenth century
century the arrived, and
the Dutch arrived, and drove
drove out the Portuguese;
out the Portuguese; in in
the eighteenth
the eighteenth the
the French
French ~d
and English
English came,
came, and.
and drove
drove out
out the
the Dutch.

Savage ordeals
Savage ordeals of battle qecided
of battle decided which
which of of them shouldshould civilize
civilize and tax

the Hindus.
the Hindus.
The East India Company
East India Company had been been founded
founded in London in"
in London, kf 1600 to to buy
buy
cheap
cheap in
in India,
India, and
and sell
sell dear
dear in
in Europe,
Europe, the
the products
products of
of India
India and the
the
East
East Indies.·
Indies.* As As early
early as
as 1686 it announced
it announced its intention
its intention "to
"to establish
establish a a
large, well-grounded, sure
large, well-grounded,
sure English dominion in
English dominion in Ipdia
India for
for all time
all time to to
come."1
come." It
1
set up
It set ~ding-posts
up trading-posts at
at Madras,
Madras, ~cutta
Calcutta and Bombay,
Bombay, fortified
fortified

$2,000,000 in
1
•* Goods bought for
Goods bought for $2,000,000 in India
India were sold
sold for in EngJand.:L
$10,000,000 in
for $10,000,00o England. The stock
1
of the Company
of the rose to $32,000
Company rose $32,000 a
a share.
share.*
 614
<5l4
THE STORY
THE OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION XXH
(CHAP.XXII
(CHAP.

them, imported
them, imported troops,
troops, fought
fought battles,
battles, gave
gave and
and took
took bribes,
bribes, and
and exercised
exercised
other functions
other functions ofof government.
government. Clive gayly accepted
Clive gayly accepted "presents"
"presents" amount-
amount-
ing to $170,000
ing to $170,000 from
from Hindu rulers dependent
Hindu rulers dependent upon upon his
his guns;
pocketed
guns; pocketed
from them,
from in addition,
them, in addition, an an annual
annual tribute
tribute of $140,000; appointed
of $140,000; Mir
appointed Mir
Jafar ruler of Bengal
Jaf ar ruler of Bengal
for
for $6,000,000; played
$6,000,000; played one
one native
native prince against an-
prince against an-
other, and
other, and gradually
gradually annexed
annexed their
their territories
territories as
as the property of the East
the property of the East
India Company;
India Company; tooktook toto opium,
opium, waswas investigated and exonerated
investigated and exonerated by Par-
by Par-
liament, and
liament, and killed
killed himself
himself (1774).* Warren Hastings,
(1774).' Warren Hastings, a a man of courage,
of courage,
learning and
learning
and ability, exacted
ability,
exacted contributions
contributions as as high
high asas aa quarter
quarter of
of aa mil-
mil-
lion dollars from
lion dollars from native
native princes
princes to to the
the coffers
coffers of of the
the Company;
Company; accepted accepted
bribes to
bribes to exact
exact no no more,
more, exacted
exacted more,
more, and
and annexed
annexed the the states
states that
that could
could
not pay;
not pay; he
he occupied
occupied
Oudh
Oudh with
with his
his army,
army, and
and sold
sold the
the province
province to to aa
prince for
prince
for $2,5oo,ooo
S2,Soo,oool-conquered
5
-conquered and and conqueror
conqueror rivaled each other in
rivaled each other in
venality.
venality.
Such
Such parts
parts
of
of India
India as
as were
were under
under the
the Company
Company were
were subjected
subjected
to aa land
to land tax
tax of fifty per
of fifty per cent
cent of of the
the piroduce,
produce, and and toto other
other requisitions
requisitions so so
numerous and
numerous and severe
severe thatthat two-thirds
two-thirds of of the
the population
population fled, :Bed, while
while others
others
sold their
sold their children
children to
to meet
meet the
the rising
rising
rates.'
rates.
6
"Enonnous
"Enormous fortunes,"
fortunes," sayssays
Macaulay, "were rapidly accumulated at
Macaulay, "were rapidly accumulated
at Calcutta,
Calcutta, while
while thirtythirty millions
millions
of
of human
human beings
beings
were
were reduced
reduced to
to the
the extremity
extremity of
of wretchedness.
wretchedness. They
They
had been
had been accustomed
accustomed to to live
live under tyranny, but never under tyranny
under tyranny, but never under tyranny
like this.''''
like 7
this."

By 1857 the
By 1857 the crimes
crimes of of the
the Company
Company had had so
so impoverished
impoverished nonheastem
northeastern
India
India that
that the
the natives
natives broke
broke out out in
in desperate
desperate revolt. The British Govern-
revolt. British

ment stepped in, suppressed

ment stepped in, suppressed the
the "mutiny,"
"mutiny," took
took over
over the
the captured
captured terri-
terri-

tories
tories asas aa colony the Company
colony of of thethe Crown,
Crown, paid paid the Company handsomely,
handsomely, and and
8
of India.
8
added
added the
the purchase price to the public debt
purchase price to the public
debt of India. It It was plain, blunt
plain,
blunt
conquest, not to be judged,
conquest, not to be judged, perhaps, by
perhaps, by Commandments recited
recited west of
Suez,
Suez, but
but to to be
be understood·in
understood -in terms terms ofof Darwin and and Nietzsche:
Nietzsche: a a people
people
that has lost the
that has lost the ability ability to
to govern itself,
govern itself, or
or to
to develop
develop its
its natural
natural re-
re-

sources, inevitably.
sources, falls a prey to nations suffering from
inevitably falls a prey to nations suffering
from strength
strength and
greed.
greed.
The
The conquest to India.
conquest brought
brought certain
certain advantages
advantages to India. Men like like Bentinck,
Bentinck,
Canning, Munro, Elphinstone
Canning, Munro, Elphinstone and
and Macaulay
Macaulay carried
carried into
into the
the administra-
administra-
tion of
tion of the
the British
British provinces
provinces something
something of of the
the generous
generous liberalism
liberalism that that con-
con-
trolled
trolled England
England in 1832. Lord
in 1832. Lord William
William Bentinck,
Bentinck, with
with thethe Sid aid and
and stimu-
stimu-
lus of
lus of native
native reformers
reformers like
like Ram
Ram Mohun
Mohun Roy,
Roy, putput an
an end
end to
to suttee
suttee and
and
thuggery. The English, after fighting I I I wars
thuggery. The English, after fighting
m wars in in India,
India, with with Indian
Indian
money
money and
and troops,O
troops,
to
to complete
complete the
die conquest
conquest of
of India,
India, established
established peace
peace
CHAP.xxn)
CHAP.XXH) CHRISTIAN EPILOGUE
AA CHRISTIAN EPILOGUE 61 5
615

throughout the
throughout the peninsula,
peninsula, built
built railways,
railways, factories
factories and
and schools,
schools, opened
opened
universities at
universities at Calcutta,
Calcutta, Madras,
Madras, Bombay,
Bombay, Lahore
Lahore and
and Allahabad,
Allahabad, brought
brought
the science
the science and
and technology
technology of
of England
England to
to India,
India, inspired
inspired the East with
the East with
the democratic ideals of the West, and played an important part in re-
the democratic ideals of the West, and
played an important part
in re-
vealing to the world the cultural wealth of India's past. The price of these
vealing to the world the cultural wealth of India's past. The price of these
was aa financial
benefactions was
benefactions financial despotism
despotism by which aa race
by which of transient
race of rulers
transient rulers
drained India's
drained India's wealth
wealth year by year
year by year as
as they
they returned
returned toto the
the reinvigorating
reinvigorating
north;
north; an
an economic
economic despotism
despotism
that
that ruined
ruined India's
India's industries, and threw
industries, and threw
her millions
her millions ofof artisans
artisans back
back upon
upon anan inadequate
inadequate soil;
soil; and
and aa political
political des-
des-
potism that, coming
potism that, coming so
so soon
soon after
after the
the narrow
narrow tyranny
tyranny of
of Aurangzeb,
Aurangzeb,
broke for
broke for aa century
century thethe spirit
spirit of
of the
the Indian
Indian people.
people.

u.
H. SAINTS
LATTER-DAY SAINTS
Christitmity in lnditl-The
Christianity in India The "Brahma-801naj"-Mohll'1Jt11Zedtmism-
"Brahma-Somaf '-Mohammedanism
Ramakrish1l1l- Vivekananda
Ramakrishna Vivekananda

It was
It was natural
natural andand characteristic
characteristic that that under
under these
these conditions
conditions IndiaIndia
should
should seek consolation in
seek consolation religion. For
in religion. For aa time
time she gave aa cordial welcome
she gave cordial welcome
to Christianity;
to she
she found
found in
in it many ethical
it ethical ideals
ideals that she
that she had
had honored
honored
Christianity; many
for thousands of
for thousands of years;
years;
and
and "before
"before the
the character
character and
and behavior
behavior of
of Euro-
peans," says
peans," says
the
the blunt
blunt Abbe
Abb6 Dubois,
Dubois, "became
"became wellwell known to to these
these people,
people,
it
it seemed
seemed possible
possible
that
that Christianity
Christianity might
might take
take root
root among
among them."·
them.""
Throughout
Throughout the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century
century harassed
harassed missionaries
missionaries tried
tried to to make the the
voice
voice of of Christ
Christ audible
audible above
above the the roar
roar ofof the
the conquering
conquering cannon;
cannon; they they
erected and equipped
erected and equipped schools schools and
and hospitals, dispensed
hospitals, dispensed
medicine
medicine and char-
char-
ity as well as theology, and and brought
brought to to the
the -pntouchables
Untouchables the the :first
first recog-
ity as well as theology, recog-
nition
nition of of their
their humanity.
humanity. But
But the
the contrast
contrast between
between Christian
Christian precept
precept and
the
the practice of Christians
Christians left left thethe Hindus
Hindus sceptical
sceptical and satirical. They
and satirical.
practice of They
pointed
pointed
out
out that
that the
the raising
raising
of
of Lazarus
Lazarus from the
die dead
dead was unworthy
unworthy of of
remark;
remark; theirtheir own religion
religion
had
had many
many more interesting
interesting and
and astonishing
astonishing
miracles
miracles thanthan this; and any
this; and any true
true Yogi
Yogi could
could perfonn
perform miracles
miracles today,
today, while
while
those of Christianity were apparently ~hed.n The Brahmans held their
31
those of Christianity were finished. held their
apparently
ground proudly, and offered against the
ground proudly, and offered against
the orthodoxies
orthodoxies of of the
the West a a sy$tem
system
of thought
of thought quitequite as
as subde, profound,
subtle, profound, and
and incredible.
incredible. "The progress
progress of of
Christianity in India,"
Christianity in India," says
says Sir Charles
Sir Charles Eliot,Eliot, "has
"has been
been insignificant.,nt
insignificant."
11

Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the
the fascinating
fascinating figurefigure of
of Christ
Christ has
has had far
far more influence
influence
in India than may be measUred
in India than may be measured by by the
the fact
fact that
that Christianity
Christianity has
has converted
converted
six in years. first signs of
six per
per
cent
cent of of the
the population
population
in three
three hundred
hundred years. The first signs of
616
6l6 STORY
THE STOlt. Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F el V ILl ZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXII

that influence appear in the Bbagav,d-Gita;U the

that influence
appear in the Bhagavad-Gitaf* the latest
latest are evident in are evident in
Gandhi and Tagore. The clearest instance is in the reform organization
Gandhi and Tagore. The clearest instance is in the reform organization
known as Brllbma-Somaj,· founded
the Bralma-Somajf
as the founded in 1828 by
in 1818 by Ram Mohun Roy. Roy. No
one could have approached
could have approached the the study
study of religion more
of religion more conscientiously.
conscientiously.
Roy
Roy learned
learned Sanskrit
Sanskrit to
to read
read the
the Vedas,
Vedas, Pall
Pali to
to read
read the
the Tripitllka
Tripitaka of of
Buddhism, Persian and Arabic to stUdy Mohammedanism
Buddhism, Persian and Arabic to study Mohammedanism and and the
the Koran,
Koran,
1*
Hebrew to to master
master the
the Old Testament and
Old Testament and Greek
Greek to to understand
understand the New.'"
the New.
Then he he took
took up English,
up English, and
and wrote
wrote it with
it with such
such ease
ease and grace that
grace that
Jeremy Bentham wished
Jeremy Bentham wished that James Mill
that James Mill might profit from
might profit from the
the example.
example.
In 1820 Roy
In 182.0 published
Roy published his
his Precepts
Precepts of
of Jesus:
Jesus: Il
a Guide
Guide to
to Peace
Peace and
and Happi-
Happi-
ness,
ness, and
and announced:
announced: "I
"I have
have found
found the
the doctrines
doctrines of
of Christ
Christ more con-
con-
ducive
ducive to to moral
moral: principles,
principles,
and better adapted
and better adapted for the use
for the use ofof rational
rational
"beings,
beings,
than
than any
any other
other which
which have
have come
come to
to my knowledge."·
my knowledge."* He pro-
pro-
posed
posed to
to his
his scandalized
scandalized countrymen
countrymen a
a new religion,
religion, which
which should
should
abandon polytheism, polygamy,
abandon polytheism, polygamy, caste,caste, child
child marriage,
marriage, suttee suttee and idolatry,
idolatry,
and
and should worship one
should worship god-Brahman. Like
one god-Brahman. Akbar he
Like Akbar he dreamed
dreamed that that all
all

India might be
India might united in
be united in so
so simple
simple a
a faith;
faith; and like
like Akbar he
he underesti-
underesti-
mated the
mated the popularity
popularity of of superstition. Brahma-Somllj, after
superstition. The Brahina-Somaj, after a a hun-
hun-
dred yeus of
dred years useful struggle,
of useful struggle, is now an
is an extinct
extinct force
force in
in Indian
Indian life.
life.ft
The MOslems are
The Moslems are the
the most powerful and
most powerful and interesting
interesting of the religious
of the religious minor-
minor-
ities
ities of
of India; but the
India; but the study of
of their
their reliaion belongs to
to a
a later
later volume.
volume. -It is
·It is
study religion belongs
not astonishing
not astonishing that
that Mohammedanism
Mohammedanism, t despite
despite the
the zealous
zealous aid
aid of
of Aurangzeb,
Aurangzeb,
failed
failed to win India
to win India to to Islam;
Islam; the miracle is
the miracle is that
that Mohammedanism in in India
India
did not succumb
did not succumb to to Hinduism.
Hinduism. The survivalsurvival ofof tpis
this simple and
simple and masculine
masculine
monotheism amid
monotheism amid a jungle of
a jungle polytheism attests
of polytheism the virility
attests the virility ofof the
the Moslem
mind;
mind; we need
need only
only recall
recall the
the absorption
absorption of
of Buddhism
Buddhism by
by Brahmanism
Brahmanism to
to
realize the
realize the vigor of this
vigor of this resistance,
resistance, and
and the
the measure
measure of
of this
this a.chievement.
achievement. Allah
Allah
now hashas some worshipers in
70,000,000 worshipers
some 70,000,000 in India.
India.

The Hindu has found

Hindu has found little
little comfort in any
comfort in any alien
alien faith;
faith; and
and the
the ligures
figures
hav~ most inspired
that have
that inspired his
his religious consciousness in
religious consciousness· the nineteenth
in the nineteenth cen-
cen-

•* Literally,
Literally, thethe "Brahma Society";
Society"; known more fully folly as
as "The Society
Society ofof the
the Be1ieTers
BeHerers
in Brahman, the
in Brahman, the Supreme
Supreme Spirit."
Spirit"
t It has
tic 5,500 adherents.'"'
today some 5,$00
has today adherents.
19
Another reform
reform organization,
organization, the A."a-Soma;
the Arya-Somaj
(Aryan Society), founded
(Aryan Society), founded byby Swami Dyananda,
Dyananda, and brilliantly carried
and brilliantly carried forward
forward byby the
die
late Lala
late Lajpat Rai,
Lab Lajpat Rai, denounced
denounced caste, polytheiml, superstition,
caste, polytheism, idolatry and Christianity,
superstition, idolatry and Christianity,
and 1.11pd
urged a a return to the
return to the simpler
simpler religion
religion of the VedtU.
of the Vedas. Its
Its followers number half
followers now number half a
a
million.:rt
million.
11
A reverse
reverse inBuence,
influence, of
of Hinduism uponupon Christianity, appears in Theosophy-.
Christianity, appears in Theosophy-a
mixture of Hindu mysticism
mixture mysticism and Christian
Christian morality,
developed in
morality, developed in India
India by
by two
two exGtic
exotic
women: Mme. Helena Helena Blavatsky
Blavatsky (1878) and .Mrs.
(1878) and Annie Besant
Mrs. Annie Besant (1893).
(1893).
CHAP. XXII)
CHAP.XXII) A CHRISTIAN EPILOGUE 617
617

were those
tury were
tuiy those thatthat rooted
rooted their
their doctrine
doctrine and practice in
and practice in the
the ancient
ancient
creeds
creeds of the people.
of the people. Ramakrishna,
Ramakrishna, aa poor
poor Brahman
Brahman of
of Bengal,
Bengal,
became
became
for
for a time aa Christian,
a time Christian, and and felt
felt the
the lure
lure of of Christ;-
Christ;* he he became
became at at another
another
time Moslem~ and
time a Moslem, joined in
and joined in the
the austere ritual of
austere ritual of Mohammedan prayer; prayer;
but soon his
but his pious heart
brought him
pious heart brought back to
him back to Hinduism,
Hinduism, even even to to the
the ter-
ter-
rible Kali whose
rible Kali whose priest he became, and
priest he became, and whom he transformed into a
he transfoI:IJled into a
Mother-Goddess
Mother-Goddess overflowing overflowing with
with tendemess
tenderness and
and affection.
affection. He rejected rejected
the ways of
the ways of thethe intellect,
intellect, and
and Bbakti-yoga-the
preached Bhakti-yogathe discipline
preached discipline
and
and
union of
union of love.
love. "The knowledge of
knowledge of God," God," he said, "may
he said, "may be be likened
likened to to a a
man, while
man, while lovelove of of God is is like
like a a woman.
woman. Knowledge has
has entry only to
to
Knowledge entry only
the outer
the rooms of
outer rooms of God,
God, and and no no oneone can
can enter
enter into inner mysteries
the inner
into the mysteries of of
God savesave a a lover."II Unlike Ram Mohun Roy,
lover."" Unlike
Roy, Ramakrishna
Ramakrishna took took no no
trouble to
trouble educate himself;
to educate himself; he
he learned
learned no
no Sanskrit
Sanskrit and
and no
no English;
English; he he
wrote nothing,
wrote nothing, and and shunned
shunned intellectual discourse.
intellectual discourse. When a pompous
a pompous
logician
logician askedasked him, him, "What are are knowledge,
knowledge, know~r,
knower, and
and the
the object
object
known?" he
known?" he answered,
answered, "Good man,
man, I
I do
do not
not know all
all these
these niceties
niceties of of
scholastic
scholastic learning.
learning. I
I know only my Mother Divine,
only my Mother Divine, and that I and that I am her
her
son."11
son."" All All religions
religions are are good,
good, he
he taught
taught his
his followers;
followers; each
each is
is aa way to
way to
God,
God, or
or a
a stage
stage on the
the way, adapted
way, adapted to
to the
the mind
mind and
and heart
heart of
of the
the seeker.
seeker.
To be be converted
converted from one one religion
religion to another is
to another is foolishness;
foolishness; one one need
need only
only
continue
continue on on hishis own way, way, and
and reach
reach to
to the
the essence
essence of
of his
his own faith.
faith. "All
"All
rivers flow
rivers flow to to the
the ocean.
ocean. Flow,Flow, and
and let
let others
others flow,
flow, too!"·
too!"" He tolerated
tolerated

sympathetically the
sympathetically the polytheism
polytheism of of the people, and
the people, accepted humbly
and accepted humbly the the
monism of
monism the philosophers;
of the philosophers; but
but in
in his
his own living faith
living faith God was
was a
a spirit
spirit
incarnated
incarnated in in all
all men,
men, andand thethe only true worship
only true worship of of God was was the the loving
loving
service
service of mankind.
of mankind.
Many
Many fine
fine souls,
souls, rich
rich and poor; Brahman and
and poor, and Pariah, chose him
Pariah, chose him as as
Guru, and
Guru, and formedformed an
an order
order and
and mission
mission in
in his
his name.
name. The most vivid
most vivid of of
these followers
these followers was was a a proud young
proud young Kshatriya,Kshatriya, Narendranath
Narendranath Dutt,
Dutt, who,
who,
full of
full of Spencer
Spencer and
and Darwin,
Darwin, :first
first presented
presented hims~lf
himself to
to Ramakrishna
Ramakrishna as
as an
an
atheist unhappy in
atheist unhappy in his
his atheism,
atheism, but scornful of the myths
but scornful of the myths and and supersti-·
supersti-
tions with which
tioDS with which he identified religion.
he identified Conquered
religion. Conquered by by Ramakrishna's
Ramakrishna's
patient kindliness, "Naren" "Naren" became became the the young
young Master's
Master's mostmost ardent
ardent dis- dis-
patient kindliness,
ciple; he redefined
he redefined God as as "the totality of all souls,"11
"the totality of all souls,"* and calledcalled upon his
ciple; upon his
fellow
fellow menmen to to practise religion
practise religion
not
not through
through vain
vain asceticism
asceticism and meditation,
meditation,
but through
but absolute devotion
through absolute devotion to to men.

•* To the
the end
end ofof his
his life
life he
he accepted
accepted the divinity of Christ,
the divinity but insisted
Christ, but that Buddha,
insisted that Buddha,
Krishna
Krishna and others were
and othen were also
also incarnations
incarnations of
of the one God.
the one himself, he assured
God. He himself, assured Viye-
Vire-
was aa reincarnation
bDanda, was reincarnation of and Krishna.
of Rama and
17*
kananda, Krishna.:L'a
 618
6l8 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXII
XXII

Leave
Leave toto the
the next
next life
life the
the reading
reading of the Vedanta,
of the Vedanta, and the practice
and the practice
of meditation. Let
of meditation. this body which
Let this body which is here
is here be
be put
put at the
at the service
service ofof
others!
others! . •
. . The highest
The highest
. . truth
truth is
is this:
this: God is
is present
present in
in all
all beings.
beings.
They
They are His multiple
are His multiple forms.
There is
forms. There no other
is no other God to to seek.
seek. He
alone serves God who serves
alone serves all other
serves all beings!·
other beings!"

Changing
Changing his his name
name toto Vivekananda,
Vivekananda, he he left
left India
India toto seek"
seek funds
funds abroad
abroad
for the Ramakrishna
for the Mission. In
Ramakrishna Mission. In 1893
1893 he
he found
found himself
himself lost
lost and
and penni-
penni-
less in
less in Chicago.
Chicago. A day
day later
later he
he appeared
appeared in
in the
the Parliament
Parliament of
of Religions
Religions
at
at the Warld's Fair,
the World's Fair, addressed
addressed thethe meeting
meeting as as a representative of
a representative of Hindu-
Hindu-
ism,
ism, and
and captured everyone
captured everyone by by his
his magnificent presence,
magnificent presence, his
his gospel
gospel ofof
the unity
the unity ofof all religions,
and his
all religions, and his simple ethics
simple ethics of human service
of human service as as the
the
best worship
best worship ofof God;
God; atheism
atheism became
became a
a noble
noble religion
religion
under
under the
the inspira-
inspira-
tion of
tion his eloquence,
of his eloquence, andand orthodox
orthodox clergymen
clergymen found themselves honor-
found themselves honor-
ing a
ing a "heathen"
"heathen" who said said that
that there
there was
was nono other
other God thanthan the
the souls
souls of
of
living things. Returning
living things. Returning to
to India,
India, he
he preached
preached to
to his
his countrymen
countrymen a
a more
more
virile creed
virile than any
creed than any Hindu had offered them
had offered them since Vedic days:
since Vedic days:

It is
It is a man-making religion
religion that
that we want
want. • . . GiveGive up
a man-making . . .
up these
these
weakening mysticisms,
weakening mysticisms, and
and be
be strong.•..
strong. .For
For. the
the
. next
next fifty years
fifty years
• . . let
. aU other,
let all
. .
other, vain
vain gods
gods disappear
disappear from
from our minds. This
our minds. This is is the
the

only God that

only that is
is awake,
awake, our
our own race,
race, everywhere
everywhere His
His hands,
hands, every-
every-
where His
where His feet,
feet, everywhere
everywhere HisHis ears;
ears; He covers
covers everything.
everything.
. . .
. . .

first of
The first all worship is
of all is the
the worship of
of those·all
those all around
around us.
us. •...
..
worship worship
These areare all
all our
our gods-men
gods-men and
and animals;
animals; and
and the
the first
first gods
gods we have
have
to worship are
to worship are our
our own countrymen.·
countrymen."

It was but
It was but aa step from this
step from this to
to Gandhi.
GandhL

m.
m. TAGORE
Science and
Science NIZ1t-A family of
artA family gmiuses-Youth of
of geniuses-Youth Rabindrtmath-
of Rabindranath
His poetry
His poetry-His politics-His
His politics scbool
His school

Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,' despite
despite oppression,
I
oppression, bitterness and poverty,
bitterness and India continued
poverty, India continued
create science,
to create
to science, literature
literature and Professor Jagadis
art. Professor
and art. Chandra Bose has
Jagadis Chandra Bose has
world-renown by
won world-renown by his
his researches
researches in
in electricity
electricity
and
and the physiology
the physiology of
of
plants; and the w~rk of
plants; and the work of Professor Chandrasekhara Raman
Professor Chandrasekhara Raman inin the
the physics
physics
of light has
of light been crowned with
has been with the
the Nobel prize. In
Nobel prize. In our
our own
own century a
century a
CHAP.XXD)
CHAP.XXIi; CHRISTIAN EPILOGUE
AA CHRISTIAN EPILOGUE 619
619
new school
new school of of painting has arisen in
painting has arisen in Bengal, which merges the richness of
Bengal, which merges the richness of
color in the Ajanta
color in the
Ajanta frescoes with
frescoes with thethe delicacy of line in the Rajput minia-
delicacy of line in the Rajput minia-
tures.
tures. TheThe paintings
paintings of
of Abanindranath
Abanindranath Tagore
Tagore share share modestly in the
modestly in the
voluptuous
voluptuous mysticism
mysticism and the delicate
and the delicate artistry that brought the poetry of
artistry that brought the poetry of
his
his uncle
uncle to to international
international fame.
fame.
The Tagores
The Tagores are one of
are one of the
the great
great families
families of of history. Davendranath
history. Davendranath
Tagore (Bengali Thllkur)
Tagore (Bengali Thakur) was was one
one of of the
the organizers, and later the head,
organizers, and later the head,
of the Brllbma-Somaj;
of the Brabma-Somaj\ aa man
man of
of wealth, culture
culture and
and sanctity, he
sanctity, he became
became
wealth,
in his old age
in his old age aa heretic
heretic patriarch
patriarch of of Bengal.
Bengal.
From
From him
him have
have descended
descended
the
the artists
artists Abanindranath
Abanindranath and and Gogonendranath,
Gogonendranath, the the philosopher Dwijen-
philosopher Dwijen-
dranath,
dranath, and the poet
and the poet Rabindranath,
Rabindranath, Tagore-the
Tagore the last last two
two being his sons.
being his sons.
Rabindranath was brought brought up up in
in an
an atmosphere
atmosphere of
of comfort
comfort and
and refine-
refine-
ment, in which music,
ment, in which music, poetry
poetry andand high
high discourse
discourse were were thethe very air that
air that he
he
very
breathed. He was a
breathed. a gentle spirit from
from birth, a
a Shelley who
who refused
refused to
to die
die
gentle spirit birth, Shelley
young
young or or toto grow
grow old;old; soso affectionate
affectionate that that squirrels climbed upon his
squirrels climbed upon his
birds perched upon his
knees,
knees, andand birds perched upon his hands..' hands. He was was observant
observant and and recep-
84

recep-
tive,
tive, and
and felt
felt the
the eddying overtones
eddying overtones of
of experience with a mystic
experience with a mystic sensitiv-
sensitiv-
ity.
ity. Sometimes he would stand stand for
for hours
hours on on a a balcony, noting with literary
balcony, noting with literary
instinct
instinct thethe figure
figure and features,
features, the
the mannerisms
mannerisms and
and gait of each passer-by
gait of each passer-by
in the
in the street; sometimes, on
street; sometimes, on a a sofa
sofa in in an
an inner
inner room,
room, he he would
would spend half
spend half
a day
a day silent
silent with
with hishis memories
memories and and hishis dreams.
dreams. He began began to to compose
compose
verses on
verses on aa slate, happy in
slate, happy in the
the thought
thought that that errors
errors could
could bebe so easily wiped
so easily wiped
away.- Soon
away.* Soon he he was writing
writing songs
songs fullfull of of tenderness
tenderness for for India-f
India-for the
or the
beauty
beauty of
of her
her scenery,
scenery, the
the loveliness
loveliness of
of her women,
her women, and the and the sufferings
sufferings of
of
her people;
her people; and and he he composed
composed the the music
music for for these
these songs
songs himself.
himseH. All India
All India
sang
sang them,
them, and
and the
the young
young poetpoet thrilled
thrilled to
to hear
hear them
them on the lips of
on the lips of roughrough
peasants as
peasants as he traveled, unknown,
he traveled, unknown, through through distantdistant villages*
villages.- HereHere isis one
one
of them,
of them, translated
translated fromfrom thethe Bengali
Bengali by by the the author himself; who
author himself; who else has
else has
ever expressed with ~ such sympathetic
ever expressed with *
such sympath~tic scepticism
scepticism the the divine
divine nonsense
nonsense of of
romantic love?
romantic love?
. . Tell
Tell me this be
me ifif this be all my lover,
true, my
all true, lover, tell me ifif this
tell me this be
be true.
true.
When these
When these eyes flash their
eyes flash their lightning
lightning the
the dark
dark clouds in your
clouds in your breast
breast
make stormy
make answer.
stonny answer.
Is itit true
Is true that
that my
my lips
lips are
are sweet
sweet.like the opening
like the opening budbud ofof the first
the first
conscious love?
conscious love?
Do the
Do the memories
memories of months of
vanished months
of vanished May linger
of May my limbs?
linger inin my limbs?
Does the
Does the earth,
earth, like harp, shiver
like aa harp, shiver into songs with
into songs the touch
with the touch of my
of my
feet?
feet?
 620 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION. (CHAP. XXII
(CHAP.

Is it then
Is it then true
true that
that the
the dewdrops faIl from
dewdrops fall from thethe eyes
eyes ofof night
night when II
am seen,
am seen, andand the morning light
the morning light is gIa.d when it
is glad wraps my
it wraps my body
body
round?
round?
Is it
Is true, isis it
it true, true, that
it true, that your
your love
love traveled
traveled alone
alone through
through ages
ages and
and
worlds in
worlds in search
search ofof me?
me?
That when
That when you you found
found me at at last, your age-long
last, your age-long desire
desire found utter
found utter
peace
peace
in
in my gentle speech
my gentle speech and
and my eyes
my eyes and
and lips
lips
and
and flowing
flowing hair?
hair?
Is itit then
Is then true
true that
that the
the mystery
mystery of of the
the Infinite
Infinite is written on
is written this
on this
forehead of
li~e forehead
little of mine?
r.nU1e?
Tell me,
Tell my lover,
me, my if all
lover, if this be
all this be true?
true?- 18

There are
There are many
many virtues
virtues in in these
these poems*
poems--an intense and
an intense and yet sober
yet sober
patriotism;
patriotism;
aa femininely
femininely ·subtle
subtle understanding
understanding of
of love
love and
and woman,
woman, nature
nature
and man;
and man; aa passionate
passionate penetration
penetration intointo the
the insight
insight ofof India's
India's philosophers;
philosophers;
and aa Tennysonian
Tennysonian delicacy
delicacy of of sentiment phrase. If
and phrase. is any fault
there is
and sentiment and If there any fault
in them it
in them that they
is that
it is they are too consistently
are too beautiful,
consistently beautiful, too
too monotonously
monotonously
idealistic and
idealistic and tender. Every woman in
tender. Every them is
in them is lovely, and
lovely, and every man in
every in
them is
them infatuated with
is infatuated woman, or
with woman, death, or
or death, or God;
God; nature,
nature, though
though some-
some-
times Iterrible, is
times terrible, is always sublime,
always sublime, never never bleak,
bleak, oror barren,
barren, or hideous. tt
or hideous,
Perhaps
Perhaps the story of
the story of Chitta
Chitra is Tagore's story: her lover
is Tagore's story: her Arjuna tires
lover Arjuna tires of
of her
her
in
in a year because
a year because she is completely and
she is completely and uninterruptedly beautiful;
uninterruptedly beautiful; only only
when she
when she loses
loses her
her beauty
beauty and,
and, becoming strong,
becoming takes up
strong, takes up the
the natural
natural
labors
labors of of life,
life, does
does the
the god
god love
love her
her again-a
again-a profound symbol of
profound symbol
I of the
the
contented
contented marriage,- Tagore ~onfesses
Tagore confesses hishis limitations
limitations with
with captivating
18

marriage. captivating
grace:
grace:

My
My love,
love, once
once upon
upon aa time
time your
your poet
poet launched
launched aa great epic in
great epic in his
his
mind,
mind.
Alas, I
Alas, I was
was not
not careful,
careful, and it strock
and it your ringing
struck your ringing anklets
anklets and
and came
came
to
to grief.
grief. . .
It broke
It broke up
up into
into scraps
scraps of
of so~,
songs, and
and lay
ky scattered
scattered at
at your
your feet.·
feet*

Therefore
Therefore he has sung
he has sung lyrics
lyrics to the end,
and an
to the end, and all the
the 'world
world except
except the
the
critics
critics has heard him
has heard him gladly.
gladly. India
India was a
a little
little surprised when her
surprised her poet
poet

•*The
The more important
important volumes
volumes areare Gn_jlli
Gitanjali (19 13), Chitra
(1913), (1914), The Post-Oflic~
Chitra (1914), Post-Office
(1914),
(1914), The Gardener
Gardener (19 14),
(1914), Fruit-Gathering
Fruit-Gathering (1916),
(1916), md
and Red Oletmtlers (1925). The
Oleanders (1925).
poet's
poet's
own My R.mzinilcmces (1917) is
Reminiscences (1917) is a better guide
a better guide to understanding him
to undeJ:Standing than E.
him than .

Thompson's
Thompson's R. JL Tagot"
Tagore, Port and Drtl11l4tist
Poet ad Dramatist (Oxford,
(Oxford, 1926).
1926).
tt ef. his magnificent
Of. his magnificent line:
line: "When I
go from hence
I go from let this
hence let be my
this be
my parting word, that
parting word, that
what II have
what have seen
seen is
is unsurpassable.'''''
7
unsurpassable.'**
E:HAP. XXII)
CHAP.XXn) A CHRISTIAN
A eRR 1ST I A N EEPILOGUE
PI LOG U E 62
6llI

received
received thethe Nobel prize (1913); the
prize (1913); the Bengal Bengal reviewers
reviewers had seen only
had seen his
only his
faults,
faults, and the
the Calcutta
Calcutta professors
professors had had used
used his
his poems
poems asas examples of
examples of bad
bad
Bengali.-
Bengali.* The young
young Nationalists
Nationalists disliked
disliked him
him because his condemnation
because his condemnation
of the ab~es
of the abuses inin India's
India's moral
moral life
life was
was stronger than his cry for political
stronger than his cry for political
freedom;
freedom; and when he he was
was knighted
knighted it seemed
it seemed to
to them
them aa betrayal
betrayal of
of
India.
India. He did not hold
did not hold the
the honor
honor long; for when, by a tragic misunder-
long; for when, by a tragic misunder-
standing,
standing, British
British soldiers
soldiers fired
fired into
into a
a religious gathering at Amritsar
religious gathering at Amritsar
(19 1 9), Tagore
(1919), Tagore returned
returned his
his decorations
decorations to the Viceroy with
to the Viceroy with a a stinging
stinging
letter of
letter renunciation. Today
of renunciation. he
he is
is aa solitary figure, perhaps the
the most
most im-
im-
Today solitary figure, perhaps
pressive
pressive of
of all
all men now on the the earth:
earth: a
a reformer
reformer who has
has had
had the
the cour-
cour-
age
age toto denounce
denounce the the most
most basic
basic ofof India's
India's institutions-the
institutions-the caste
caste system-
system
and the dearest of
the dearest of her
her beliefs-transmigration;11 a Nationalist who longs
81
beliefs
transmigration; a Nationalist who longs
for liberty, but has
for India's
India's liberty, but has dared
dared to to protest
protest against
against the
the chauvinism
chauvinism and and
self-seeking
self-seeking that
that playa a
play partpart in
in the
the Nationalist
Nationalist movement;
movement; an
an educator
educator who
has
has tired
tired of
of oratory
oratory and and politics,
politics,
and
and hashas retreated
retreated toto his
his asbrttm
ashram andand
hermitage
hermitage at
at Shantiniketan,
Shantiniketan, to
to teach
teach some
some of
of the
the new generation
generation his
his gospel
gospel
of
of moral
moral self-liberation;
self-liberation; a a poet
poet broken-hearted
broken-hearted by by the
the premature
premature death
death ofof
his
his wife,
wife, and
and byby the
the humiliation
humiliation of of his
his country;
country; a a philosopher
philosopher steeped
steeped in
in
the Vedtmtfl,1I
the Vedanta* a a mystic hesitating,
mystic hesitating, like
like Chandi
Chandi Das,
Das, between
between woman and
and
God,
God, and yet shorn
shorn ofof the
the ancestral faith by the
ancestral faith of his
and yet by the extent
extent of his learning;
learning;
a lover
a of Nature
lover of Nature facing
facing her
her messengers
messengers of
of death
death with
with no
no other
other consolation
consolation
than his
than unaging gift
his imaging gift of song.
of song.

"Ah, poet, the

"Ah, poet, the evening
evening draws
draws near;
near; your hair is
your hair turning grey.
is turning grey.
Do you in your
you in your lonely
lonely musing
musing hear
hear the
the message
message ofof the
the hereafter?"
hereafter?" .

"It is evening,"
"It is evening," the
the 'poet said, "and
poet said, "and II am listening
listening because
because some
some one
one
may call
may call from the village,
from the village, late though
late though it be.
it be.

I watch
I watch if if young str~ying hearts
young straying hearts meet
meet together,
together, and pairs of
and two pairs of
eager eyes
eager eyes beg
beg for
for music
music to
to break
break their
their silence
silence and
and speak
speak for
for them.
them.
Who isis there
there to
to weave
weave their
their passionate
passionate songs, if II sit
songs, if sit on the shore
on the shore
of life
life and
and contempkte
contemplate death
death and
and the
the beyond?
beyond? • • •
of
. . . .

my hair
It is a tri1Ie that my
It is a trifle that hair isis turning grey.
turning grey.
I am ever
I ever as
as young
young or
or as
as old as the
old as the youngest
youngest and the oldest
and the oldest of this
of this
village•.••
village.
. . .

They all have

They all have need
need for
for me,
me, and
and II have
have no
no time
time to
to brood
brood over
over the
the
after-life.
after-life.

I am
I am ofof an
an age
age with
with each;
each; what
what matter
matter if my hair
if my hair turns grey?'"
turns grey?""
 622 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXII.
XXH

IV.
IV. EAST IS
IS WEST

Changing India-Economic
Changing India Economic changes-Social-The
changes Social The decaying
decaying caste
caste
system
system - Castes
Castes tmd
and guilds
guilds - Untouchables
Untouchables - The
emergence
emergence of
of womll1J,
'woman

That
That a a man unfamiliar
unfamiliar with English till
with English till almost
almost fifty should write
fifty should
write
English
English so
so well
well is a
is a sign
sign of
of the
the ease
ease with
with which
which some
some of
of the
the gaps
gaps can
can be
be
bridged between
bridged between that that East
East andand that
that West whose mating
West whose mating another
another poetpoet
has banned.
has banned. For For since
since the the birth
birth ofof Tagore
Tagore the
the West has
has come
come to to the
the
in a hundred ways,
East in a hundred
East ways, and and isis changing every aspect of
changing every aspect of Oriental Oriental life.
life.

Thirty
Thirty thousand
thousand miles
miles of
of railways
railways have
have webbed
webbed the
the wastes
wastes and
and ghats
ghats ofof
India,
India, and
and carried
carried Western
Western faces
faces into
into every village; telegraph
every village; telegraph wires
wires and
and
the printing
the printing press press have
have brought
brought to
to every
every student
student the news of
the news of a a suggest-
suggest-
ively changing world;
ively changing world; English English schools
schools have
have taught
taught British
British history
history with
with
aa view
view to to making
making British
British citizens,
citizens, and
and have unwittingly inculcated
have unwittingly inculcated English
English
ideas
ideas ofof democracy
democracy and
and liberty.
liberty.
Even
Even the
the East
East now justifies
justifies
Heraclitus.
Heraclitus.
Reduced to poverty in
to poverty in the
the nineteenth century by
nineteenth century by the the superior
superior machin-
machin-
ery
ery of
of British
British looms
looms and
and the
the higher
higher calibre
calibre of
of British
British guns,
guns, India
India has
has
turned her
now turned her face
face reluctantly
reluctantly towards
towards industrialization.
industrialization. Handicrafts
Handicrafts
are dying,
are dying, factories
factories are
are growing. At Jamsetpur
growing. Jamsetpur the the Tata
Tata Iron
Iron andand Steel
Steel
Company employs
Company employs 45,000 men, 45,000 men, and
and threatens
threatens the
the leadership
leadership of
of American
American
:firms
firms in the production
in the production of of steel."
steel.
8*
The coal production of
coal production India is
of India is mount-
mount-
ing rapidly; within
ing rapidly; within aa generation
generation ChinaChina and and India
India may may overtake
overtake Europe
Europe
and America in
and America in lifting
lifting
out
out of
of the
the soil
soil the
the basic
basic fuels
fuels and
and materia:ls
materials of of
industry.
industry. Not Not only
only willwill these
these native
native resources
resources meet meet native needs, they
native needs, they
may compete
may compete with
with the
the West for
for the
the markets
markets of
of the
the world,
world, and
and thethe
conquerors
conquerors of of Asia
Asia may may suddenly
suddenly :find their markets gone,
find their markets gone, andand thethe
standards
standards of of living
living of
of their
their people
people at
at home severely
severely reduced,
reduced, by
by the
the com-
com-
petition of of low-wage
low-wage labor labor in in once
once docile
docile and backward (i.e.,
and backward (i.e., agricul-
agricul-
petition
tural) lands. In
tural) lands. In Bombay
Bombay there
there are
are factories
factories in
in mid-Victorian
mid- Victorian style, with
style, with
old-fashioned
old-fashioned wages wages that that bring
Jbring tears
tears of
of envy
envy to
to the
the eyes
eyes of
of Occidental
Occidental
Tories.* Hindu employers British in
Tories.· employers have have replaced
replaced the tie British in many of
many of thesethese
industries,
industries, andand exploit
exploit their
their fellow
fellow men with
with the
the rapacity
rapacity of
of Europeans
Europeans
bearing the
bearing the white
white man's
man's burden.
burden.

•* In
In 192.2 there were eighty-three
1922 there eighty-three cotton factories in
cotton factories in Bombay,
Bombay, with 180,000 employees,
with 180,000 employees,
and
and anan avenge wage-scale
average wage-scale of
of thirty-three
thirty-three cents
cents a
a day.
day. Of 33,000,000
33,000,000 Indians
Indians engaged in
engaged in
51% are
industry, 51%
industry, are women, 14% are
women, 140/0 are children under fourteen.- .
85
children tinder fourteen.
CHAP. XXII)
CHAP.XXn) AA CHRISTIAN
CHRISTIAN EPILOGUE
EPILOGUE 61 3
623

The economic
The economic basis
basis of
of Indian
Indian society
society has
has not
not changed
changed without
without affecting
affecting
the social
the social institutions
institutions and
and moral
moral customs
customs of
of the
the people.
people. The
The caste
caste system
system
was conceived
was conceived in
terms of
in terms of aa static
static and
and agricultural society; itit provided
agricultural society; provided
order, but
order, but gave
gave no no opening
opening to to unpedigreed
unpedigreed genius, genius, no no purchase
purchase to to ambi-
ambi-
tion and
tion and hope,
hope, no no stimulus
stimulus to to invention
invention and and enterprise;
enterprise; itit was was doomed
doomed
when the
when the Industrial
Industrial Revolution
Revolution reached reached India's
India's shores.
shores. The The machine
machine does does
not respect
not respect persons:
persons: in in most
most of of the
the factories
factories men work work side side by with-
side with-
by side
out discrimination
out discrimination of of caste, trains and
caste, trains and trams
trams givegive berth
berth or or standing-room
standing-room
to all who can
to all can pay,
pay, cooperative
cooperative societiessocieties and and political
political parties
parties bring
bring all all
grades together,
grades together, and
and in
in the
the congestion
congestion of
of the
the urban
urban theatre
theatre or
or street
street

Brahman and
Brahman and Pariah
Pariah rub rub elbows
elbows in in unexpected fellowship. A raja
unexpected fellowship. raja an- an-
nounces that every caste
nounces that every caste and creed and creed will
will find
find reception
reception at
at his
his court;
court; a a
Shudra becomes
Shudra becomes the the enlightened
enlightened ruler ruler of of Baroda;
Baroda; the B1abma-Somaj
the Brahma-Somaj
denounces caste,
denounces caste, andand the the Bengal
Bengal Provincial Congress of
Provincial Congress of thethe National
National
Congress
Congress advocates
advocates the
the abolition
abolition of
of all
all caste
caste distinctions
distinctions forthwith.·
forthwith.
88

Slowly the
Slowly the machine
machine liftslifts aa new
new classclass toto wealth
wealth and and power,
power, and and brings
brings the the
most ancient
most ancient of of living
living
aristocracies
aristocracies to to an
an end.
end. .
Already
Already the
the caste
caste terms
terms are losing significance.
are losing significance.
The word V /lisy a is
Vaisya is

used in
used books today,
in books today, butbut has has no no application
application
in
in actual
actual life.
life. Even the the term
Shud,a
Shudra has has disappeared
disappeared
from
from the
the north,
north, while
while in
in the
the south
south it
it is
is aa loose
loose
designation for all non-Brahmans." The lower lower castes
castes of older days
of older days have
7
have
designation for all non-Brahmans.*
in
in effect
effect been
been replaced
replaced by
'by over
over three
three thousand
thousand "castes"
"castes" that that are
are really
really
guilds:
guilds:
bankers,
bankers, merchants,
merchants, manufacturers,
manufacturers, farmers,
farmers, professors,
professors, engineers,
engineers,
ti-ackwalkers,
trackwalkers, college women, butchers, barbers, fishermen, actors, coal
college women, butchers, barbers, fishermen, actors,
coal
miners, washermen, cabmen,
miners, washermen, cabmen, shop-girls, shop-girls, bootblacks-these
bootblacks-these are
are or~d
organized
into
into occupational
occupational
castes
castes thatthat differ
differ from
from our our trade-unions
trade-unions chiefly chiefly in
in the
the
loose
loose expectation that sons will
expectation that sons
will follow
follow the the trades
trades of of their
their fathers.
fathers.

The
The great tragedy of of the
the caste system is
caste system is that
that it it has
has multiplied,
great tragedy multiplied, from
generation
generation
to generation,
to generation, those
those Untouchables
Untouchables whose growing
growing numbernumber and and
rebelliousness
rebelliousness undermine
undermine the the institution
institution that that created
created them.
them. The Outcastes
The Outcastes
have received
have received into
into their
their ranks
ranks all
all those
those who were enslaved
enslaved by war or
by or debt,
debt,
all
all the
the children
children of of marriages
marriages between
between Brahmans
Brahmans and Shudras,
and Shudras, and all those
and all those
unfortunates
unfortunates whose
whose work,
work, as
as scavengers,
scavengers, butchers,
butchers, acrobats,
acrobats, conjurors
conjurors or or
1
executioners was stamped
executioners was stamped as degrading by as degrading by Brahmanical
Brahmanical law;-
law;* and
and they
they
have swollen
have swollen their mass by
their mass by the
the improvident
improvident fertility
fertility of
of those
those who who have
have
nothing to
to lose.
lose. Their
Their bitter
bitter poverty has
has made
made cleanliness
cleanliness of of body,
body, cloth-cloth-
nothing poverty
ing or food an
ing or food
an impossible
impossible luxury
luxury for'them;
for them; and and their fellows shun them
their fellows shun them
 61
6244 TH STORY
THEE 51" OR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F C IVI L I ZA T I ON (CHAP. XXII
(CHAP.XXII

with every
with sense.· Therefore the laws
every sense.* Therefore the
laws of
of caste
caste forbid
forbid an Untouchable to
an Untouchable to

approach
approach nearer
nearer thanthan twenty-four
twenty-four feet feet toto a a Shudra,
Shudra, or or seventy-four
seventy-four feet feet

to Brahman;«t if
to aa Brahman; 40
if the
the shadow
shadow of of a Pariah falls
a Pariah falls upon a
upon a man of of caste,
caste, thethe
latter must remove the contamination
latter must remove the contamination by by a
a purifying
purifying ablution.
ablution. Whatever
the Outcaste
the touches is
Outcaste touches defiled, t
is thereby defiled. t In
In many partsparts of of India
India he he must
thereby many
· not
not draw water
draw water from
from the
the public wells,
public wells, or
or enter
enter temples
temples used
used by Brahmans,
by Brahmans,
4I
or send his
or send children to
his children to the
the Hindu schools. The British, whose policies
British, whose
41
schools. policies
have in
have in some
some degree
degree contributed
contributed to to the
the impoverishment
impoverishment of of the
the Outcastes,
Outcastes,
have brought
brought them them at at least
least equality before to all
equality before the the law,
law, andand equal
equal access
have access to all

British-controlled
British-controlled collegescolleges
and
and schools.
schools. The Nationalist
Nationalist movement,
movement, under
under
the inspiration
the of
of Gandhi,
Gandhi, has has done
done much to to lessen
lessen the disabilities of
the disabilities of the
the
inspiration
Untouchables. PClIhaps
Untouchables. Perhaps another
another generation
generation will will see them externally
see them externally and and
superficially
superficially
free.
free.

The coming
coming of of industry,
industry, and and ofof Western
Western ideas,ideas, is is disturbing the
disturbing the ancientancient
mastery
mastery of
of the
the Hindu male. Industrialization
Hindu male. Industrialization defers
defers the
the age
age of
of marriage,
marriage,
and requires the
and requires the "emancipation"
"emancipation" of
of woman;
woman; that
that is to
is to say,
say,
the
the woman can-
can-
not be
not be lured
lured into
into the
the factory
factory unless
unless she
she is
is persuaded that
persuaded that home
home is
is aa prison,
prison,
and is
and entitled by
is entitled law
law to
to keep her
her earnings for
for herself.
herself. Many real
real reforms
reforms
by keep earnings Many
have come
have come as as incidents
incidents to to this
this emancipation. Child
emancipation. Child marriage marriage has has been
been

formally ended
formally (1929) by
ended (1929) by raising
raising thethe legal
legal ageage of marriage to
of marriage fourteen for
to fourteen for
girls
girls
and
and to
to eighteen
eighteen for
for men;"
men;
48
suttee
suttee has
has disappeared,
disappeared,
and
and the
the remarriage
remarriage
of widows grows
of widows grows daily;t polygamy is
daily;J polygamy is allowed,
allowed, but but fewfew men practisepractise
it;-
it;
48
and
and tourists
tourists are
are disappointed
disappointed to
to find
find
I that
that the
the temple
temple dancers
dancers are
are
ahnost extinct. In
almost extinct. In no
no other
other country
country is moral:
is moral reform'
reform progressing
progressing so so
rapidly. Industrial city life
rapidly. Industrial city
life is
is drawing women out
drawing out of pu,d,lh; hardly
of purdah; hardly six six

per
per cent
cent of
of the
the women of
of India
India accept
accept such
such seclusion
seclusion today."
today.
41
A number
number
of lively
of periodicals for
lively periodicals
for women discuss discuss the up-to-date questions;
most up-to-date
the most questions;
even
even a birth-control league
a birth-control league has
has appeared,·
appeared,
4*
and
and has
has faced
faced bravely
bravely the the
gravest problem
gravest problem
of
of India-indiscriminate
Indk-indisoriminate fertility.
fertility. In
In many
many of
of the
the prov-
prov-
inces
inces women vote vote andand hold political office;
hold political office; twice
twice women have have been
been presi.
presi-
.

• "People who abstain entirely from animal food acquire such an acute smise of smell
*
"People who abstain entirely from animal food acquire such an acute sense of smell
that they
that they can perceive in
can perceive in a
a moment,
moment, from a person's
breath, or
a person's breath, or from the exudation
from the exudation 'of
of the the
skin, whether that
skin, whether person has
that person has eaten
eaten meat or not; and that
or not; after
that after aa lapse of twenty-four
lapse of twenty-four
hourS.'"
hours.""
tin
fin 1913 the child
1913 the child of
of a
a nch
rich Hindu of Kohat fell
of Kabat into a
fell into a fountain
fountain and
and was
was drowned.
drowned.
No one was at
one was hand but
at hand but its
its mother
mother and a passing Outeaste.
a passing Outcaste. The latter
latter offered
offered to
to plunge
plunge
into the water
into the water and
and rescue
rescue the
the child, but the
child, but the mother refused; she
mother refused; preferred the
she preferred the death
death of of
her child
her child to the de&ement
to the defilement ofof the
the fountain. 41
fountain.A
*
Jin the Year
In the year 19 15 there
1915 there were
were 1515 remarriages
remarriages of widows; in
of widows; in 1925 there were
1925 there were Zt263.M
2,263.**
CHAP. XXII)
CHAP.XXn) A CCHRISTIAN
A H :R 1ST I A N EEPILOGUE
P I LOG U E 61
625
5
the Indian
dent Congress. Many
dent of
of the Indian National
National Congress.
Many of of them
them have
have taken
taken degrees
degrees
at
at the
the universities,
universities, and have
have bocome
become doctors, lawyers,
doctors, lawyers, or
or professors.- Soon,
professors. Soon,
48

,no
no doubt,
doubt, the tables will
the tables will be
be turned,
turned, and women will rule. Must not some
and women will rule. Must not some
wild Western influence
wild influence bear the guilt
bear the of
of this
this flaming appeal issued by a
guilt flaming appeal issued by a
subaltern of Gandhi
subaltern of Gandhi toto the
the women of of India?-
India?

Away
Away with ancient purdah! Come out
ancient purdah/ out of
of the
the kitchens'
kitchens quick!
quick!
Fling
Fling the
the pots
pots and pans rattling
pans rattling into
into the
the comers!
corners! Tear
Tear the
the cloth
cloth
from your eyes,
from your eyes, and see
see the
the new world!
world! Let
Let your husbands and
your husbands and
brothers
brothers cook
cook for
for themselves.
themselves. There is much
There is much work
work toto be
be done
done to
to
make India a nation!"
make India a nation!
40

V. THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT

The westernized students -- The
'westernized students The secularization
secularization of heaven -- The
of heaven The
lndj,n National Congress
Indian National Congress

In
In 19 2 3 there
1923 there were over
over a
a thousand
thousand Hindus
Hindus studying in Engl~d,
studying in England, pre-
pre-
sumably
sumably an equalequal number in America, perhaps
in America,
perhaps an an equal number elsewhere.
equal number elsewhere.
They
They marveled at the privileges
marveled at the
privileges enjoyed
enjoyed by by the
die lowliest
lowliest citizens
citizens of
of western
western
Europe
Europe and America;
America; they
they studied
studied the
the French
French and
and American
American Revolutions,
Revolutions,
and read
read the
the literature
literature of of reform
reform and~d revolt;
revolt; they
they gloated
gloated over
over the
the Bill
Bill

of
of Rights, the Declaration
Rights, the Declaration of of the
the Rights
Rights of
of Man,
Man, the
die Declaration
Declaration of
of Inde-
Inde-
pendence, and
pendence, and the
the American
American Constitution;
Constitution; theythey went
went back
back to to their
their coun-
coun-
tries as centers
tries as centers of of infection
infection for for democratic
democratic ideasideas and
and the
the gospel
gospel of
of liberty.
liberty.
industrial and
The industrial and scientific
scientific advances
advances of of the
the West,
West, and and the
the victory
victory ofof the
the
Allies in
Allies in the
the War,
War, gave gave toto these
these ideas
ideas an an irresistible
irresistible prestige;
prestige; soon
soon every
every
student w
student was
as shouting the
;

shouting the battle-cry

battle-cry of of freedom.
freedom. In In the
the schools
schools ofof England
Englapd
and America
and America the the Hindus
Hindus learned
learned to to be
be free.
free. "
These Western-educated
These Westero-educated Orientals Orientals had had not
not only
only taken
taken on politi~
on political
ideals in
ideals in the
the course
course of of their
their education
education abroad,
abroad, they they hadhad shed religious
shed religious
ideas; the
ideas; the two
two processes
proceSses are usually associated,
are usually associated, in in biography
biography and and in history.
in history.
They came to
They to Europe
Europe as as pious youths, wedded
pious youths, wedded to Krishna, Shiva,
to Krishna, Shiva, Vishnu,
Vishnu,
Kali,
Kali, Rama •
. .. • .; they
they
; touched
touched science,
science, and
and their
their ancient
ancient faiths
faiths were
were
shattered as
shattered as by some sudden
by some sudden catalytic
catalytic shock.
shock. ShornShorn of of religious
religious belief,
belie(,
which isis the
which the very
very spirit
spirit ofof India,
India, the
the Westernized
Westemized Hindus Hindus returned
returned to the~
to their
country disillusioned
country disillusioned and and sad; thousand gods
sad; aa thousand gods had had dropped
dropped deaddead from
from
the skies*
the skies· Then, inevitably, Utopia
Then, inevitably, Utopia filled
filled the
the place
place of of Heaven,
Heaven, democracy
democracy
*
• This
This does
does not apply
not apply to
to all.
all. Some, in the
Some, in the significant phrase of Coomaraswamy,
significant phrase of Coomaraswamy, have
have
"returned from
"returned from Europe
Europe to India."
to India."
616
<$2<5 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXII
(CHAP. XXII

became aa substitute
became substitute for Nirvana, liberty
for Nirvana, replaced God. What had gone
liberty replaced gone
on in
on in Europe
Europe
in
in the
the second
second half
half of
of the
the eighteenth century
eighteenth century
now went on in
in

East.
the East.
the
Nevertheless the
Nevertheless the new
new ideas
ideas developed slowly. In
developed slowly. 1885 a
In 1885 a few Hmdu
Hindu
leaders met at
leaders met at Bombay
Bombay and
and founded
founded the
the "Indian
"Indian National
National Congress," but
Congress," but
they do not seem to have dreamed then even of Home Rule.
they do not seem to have dreamed then even of
Rule. The efforteffort

of
of Lord
Lord Curzon
Curzon to to partition Bengal
partition Bengal (that
(that is,
is, to
to destroy
destroy the
the unity and
unity
strength of the most
strength of the
most powerful
powerful and politically conscious
and politically community in
conscious community in
India) roused the
India) roused the Nationalists
Nationalists toto aa more
more rebel mood; and
rebel mood; and at
at the
the Congress
Congress
of 1905 the uncompromising
of 1905 the uncompromising Tilak
Tilak demanded
demanded Swaraj.
Swaraj* He had
had created
created thethe
word- outout ofof Sanskrit roots still
Sanskrit roots still visible
visible inin its
its English translation
English translation-"self-
80
word "self-

rule." In
rule." that same
In that same eventful
eventful year Japan
year Japan defeated
defeated Russia;
Russia; and
and the
the East,
East,
which for
which for aa century
century had
had been
been fearful
fearful ofof the
the West,
West, began
began to
to lay
lay plans for
plans for
the liberation
the liberation of of Asia.
Asia. China followed Sun
China followed Sun Yat
Yat Sen,
Sen, took
took up
up the
the sword,
sword,
and
and fell
fell into the arms
into the arms of
of Japan.
Japan. India,
India, weaponless, accepted
weaponless, accepted as
as her
her leader
leader
one
one of the strangest
of the figures
strangest figures in
in history,
history, and
and gave
gave to
to the
the world
world the
the unprece-
unprece-
dented phenomenon of
dented phenomenon of a
a revolution
revolution led led by
by aa saint,
saint, and waged without
and waged without
aa gun.
gun.

VI.
VI. MAHATMA GANDHI

Port:rait of asaint-Tbe
Portrait of a saintThe ascetic-The
asceticThe Ch,istirm-Tbe
Christian The education
education of
of
Gtmdhi-I'11, Africa-The Revolt
Gandhi-In Africa-The Revolt of 1921-"1
of i$2i-"I am the
the mtJ,n"-
man"-
Prison yeflTs-"Young India"-The
Prison years-"Young Jndia"-Tbe revolution
revolution of
of the
the
spi'1l'1J.ing-wheel-The
spinning-wheel The achievements
achievements of
of Gtmdhi
Gandhi

Picture
Picture the ugliest, slightest,
the ugliest, weakest man in
slightest, weakest
with face
Asia, with
in Asia, and flesh
face and flesh
of bronze, close-cropped
of bronze, gray head, high cheek-bones,
close-cropped gray head, high cheek-bones, kindly kindly little
little brown
brown
eyes,
eyes, a
a large
large and
and almost
almost toothless
toothless mouth,
mouth, larger
larger
ears,
ears, an
an enormous
enormous nose,
nose,
thin
thin arms
arms and legs,
legs, clad
clad in
in a
a loin
loin cloth, standing
cloth, standing before
before an
an English judge
English judge
in
in India,
India, on trial
trial for
for preaching "non-cooperation"
preaching "non-cooperation" to
to his
his
countrymen. Or
countrymen. Or
pictUre
picture him
him seated
seated on a
a small
small carpet
carpet in
in a
a bare
bare room
room at
at his
his Slltyagrabashram,
Satyagrahashram,
-School
School ofof Truth-Seekers-at
Truth-Seekers at Ahmedabad:
Ahmedabad: his his bony
bony legs crossed under
legs crossed under
·him
him in yogi fashion,
in yogi soles upward, his
fashion, soles upward, his hands
hands busy
busy at
at a
a spinning-whee~
spinning-wheel, his
his
face lined with responsibility, his mind active
face lined with responsibility, his mind with ready
active with ready answers
answers to to every
every
questioner
questioner of
of freedom.
freedom. From 1920
1920 to
to 1935
1935 this
this naked
naked weaver
weaver was
was both
both
the spiritual
die spiritual and the
the political
political leader
leader of
of 320,000,000 Indians.
320,000,000 Indians. When he
he ap-
ap-
peared in
peared public, crowds gathered
in public, gathered round
round himhim to touch his
to touch his clothing or to
clothing or to
kiss his
kiss his feet.81
feetS1
CHAP. xxn)
CHAP.XXn) CH R I BTl AN EPILOGUE
AA CHRISTIAN E PI L OG UE 627
627

Four hours
Four hours aa day day he he spun
spun the the coarse kbaddar, hoping
coarse khaddar, hoping by by hishis example
example
to persuade
to persuade his
his countrymen
countrymen to
to use this simple
use this simple homespun homespun instead
instead of
of buying
buying
the product of
the product of those British looms
those British looms that that had
had ruined
ruined the the textile
textile industry
industry
of India. His
of India. only possessions
His only possessions were were threethree rough
rough cloths
cloths-two two as his ward-
as his ward-
robe and
robe and one one as his bed.
as his bed. OnceOnce aa rich rich lawyer,
lawyer, he he hadhad given
given allall his
his prop-
prop-
erty
erty to
to the
the poor,
poor, and
and his
his wife,
wife, after
after some
some matronly hesitation,
matronly hesitation, had
had fol-
fol-

lowed his example.

lowed his example. He slept
slept
on the bare fioor,
on the bare floor, or on or on the
the earth.
earth. He lived
lived
nuts, plantains,
on nuts,
on plantains, lemons,
lemons, oranges,
oranges, dates,dates, rice,
rice, and
and goat's milk;GI often
goat's milk; ra
often for for
months together he
months together he took
took nothing
nothing but but milk
milk and and fruit; once in
fruit; once in his
his life
life hehe
tasted meat;
tasted meat; occasionally
occasionally he he ate
ate nothing
nothing for for weeks.
weeks. "I "I can
can asas well
well do with..
do with-
out my
out my eyes
eyes as as without
without fasts. What the
fasts. What the eyes
eyes are for the
are for the outer
outer world,
world, fasts fasts
are for
are for the inner."· As
the inner." 88
As the
the blood thins, he
blood thins, he felt,
felt, the
the mind
mind clears,
clears, irrelevan-
irrelevan-

cies fall away,

cies fall away, and and fundamental
fundamental things-sometimes
things-sometimes the very Soul
the very Soul of of thethe
World-rise out
World-rise out of Maya of Maylllike like Everest
Everest through
through the
the clouds.
clouds.

At the
At the same
same time
time thatthat he he fasted
fasted to to see
see divinity
divinity he he kept
kept one one toetoe on on thethe
earth, and
earth, and advised
advised his his followers
followers to to take
take an an enema
enema daily daily when they
they
fas~ed,
fasted, lest
lest they
they be
be poisoned
poisoned
with
with the
the acid
acid products
products of
of the
the body's
body's self- self-
consumption just as they might
consumption just as they might be finding
be finding God.1I.
God.
64
When the
the Moslems
Moslems and
the Hindus
the Hindus killed killed one another in
one another in theological
theological enthusiasm,
enthusiasm, and paid paid no
heed
heed toto his
his pleas
pleas
for
for peace,
peace,
he
he went
went without
without food
food for
for three
three weeks
weeks to
to move
them.
them. He became became so so weak
weak and and frailfrail through fasts
through fasts and privations privations that
that
when
when he he addressed
addressed the the great
great audiences
audiences that that gathered
gathered to hear him,
to hear him, he spoke spoke
to them from an uplifted
to them from an uplifted chair. chair. He carried
carried his
his asceticism
asceticism into
into the
the field
field ofof
sex,
sex, and
and wished,
wished, like like T oIsto~ to
Tolstoi, to limit
limit all all physical intercourse
physical intercourse to delib-
to delib-
erate ~eproduction.
erate reproduction. He ~oo,
too, in
in his
his youth,
youth, had indulged
indulged the
the :flesh
flesh too
too

much, and
much, and the the news
news of of his
his father's
father's death death had surprised him
had surprised him in an the arms
the
of
of love.
love. Now he he returned
returned with with passionate remorse
remorse to the B,ahmachllfia
to the Brahmacharia
passionate
that
that had
had been
been preached to
to him
him in h1s
in lus boyhood-absolute
boyhood-absolute abstention abstention from
preached
all live with him only
all sensual
sensual desire.
desire. He persuadedpersuaded his his wife
wife to only as
to live as sister
sister

with brother;
with brother; and
and "from
"from that
that time,"
time," he
he tells
tells us,
us, "all
"all dissension
dissension ceased."·
ceased.""

When he
When he realized
realized thatthat India's
India's basic
basic needneed was was birth-control,
birth-control, he he adopted
adopted not not
the
the methods
methods of of the
the West,
West, but but the
the theories
theories of of Malthus
Malthus and Tolstoi.Tolstoi.

Is
Is it for us,
it right for us, who
who know
know the
the situation,
situation, to
to bring
bring forth
forth children.?
children?
right
We only multiply slaves and
We only multiply slaves and weaklings weaklings if
if we
we continue
continue the
the process
process
of
of procreation
procreation
whilst we
whilst we feel
feel and
and remain
remain helpless....
helpless. Not
Not till
till
. India
India
. .

has
has become
become aa freefree nation
nation . . . have
have we
. . we the.
. right to
the .right to bring
bring forth
forth
progeny. . . • I
I have
have not
not aa shadow
shadow of of doubt
doubt that
that married people, if
married people, if
progeny. ...
628
628 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XXH
(CHAP.XXII

they wish well to the

they wish well to
the country
country and
and want
want to
to see
see India become aa nation
India become nation
of
of strong
strong
and
and handsome,
handsome, well-formed
weft-formed men and
and women,
women, would
would prac-
prac-
tice self-restraint and
tice self-restraint and cease
cease to procreate for
to procreate time being.-
the time
for the being.
88

Added to
Added to these elements in
these elements in his
his character
character were were qualities strangely like
qualities strangely
like

those that, we are

those that, are told, distinguished
told, distinguished the
the Founder
Founder of
of Christianity.
Christianity. He did
did
not mouth
not mouth the the namename of of Christ, but he
Christ, but he acted
acted as as if he accepted
if he
accepted every every word
of the Sermon
of the Sermon on on thethe Mount.
Mount. Not Not since
since St.St. Francis
Francis of Assisi has
of Assisi has any
any life
life

known to to history
history been so marked by gendeness,
been so marked by gentleness, disinterestedness, disinterestedness, sim-
sim-
plicity,
plicity,
and
and forgiveness
forgiveness of of enemies.
enemies. It It was
was to to the
the credit
credit of of his
his opponents,
opponents,
but still
but more to
still more to his
his own,
own, that
that his
his undiscourageable courtesy to
undiscourageable courtesy to them
item won
aa fine
fine courtesy them in sent him jail
courtesy from from them in return;
return; the the Government
Government sent him toto jail
with profuse
with profuse apologies.
apologies.
He never
never showed
showed rancor
rancor or
or resentment.
resentment. Thrice
Thrice
he was
he was attacked
attacked by by mobs,
mobs, and beaten almost
and beaten almost to to death;
death; not not once
once diddid hehe
retaliate; and
retaliate; when one
and when one ofof his
his assailants
assailants was was arrested
arrested he he refused
refused to to enter
enter
aa charge. Shortly
charge. Shortly after
after the
the worst
worst of
of all
all riots
riots between
between Moslems
Moslems and
and Hindus,
Hindus,
when the the Moplah
Moplah Mohammedans butchered butchered hundreds
hundreds of unanned Hindus
of unarmed Hindus
and
and offered
offered theirthoir prepuces
prepuces as as aa covenant
covenant to Allah, these
to Allah, these samesame Moslems
Moslems
were stricken
were stricken with with famine;
famine; Gandhi
Gandhi collected
collected funds
funds for
for them
them from all
from all

India,
India, and, with no
and, with no regard
regard forfor the best precedents,
the best precedents, forwarded
forwarded every every tm'1I4,
anna,
wi~out deduction
without deduction for for "overhead,"
"overhead," to to the
die starving enemy.-
starving enemy."
Mohandas
Mohandas KaramchandKaramchand Gandhi Gandhi was was bornborn in in 1869.
1869. His His family
family be- be-
longed
longed to
to the
the Vaisya
Vaisya caste,
caste, and
and to
to the
the Jain
Jain sect,
sect, and
and practised
practised the
the abimsa
ahmsa
principle of never injuring a living thing. His
principle of never injuring a living thing.
His father
father was was aa capable
capable admin-
admin-
istrator
istrator but but an an heretical
heretical financier;
financier; he he lost
lost place
place after place through
after place through hon-hon-
esty, gave nearly all IUs
all his wealth
wealth to
to charity, and
and left the
left the rest
rest to
to his
his family.-
esty, gave nearly charity, family."
While
While stillstill a boy Mohandas
a boy Mohandas became became an an atheist, being displeased
atheist, being displeased with with thethe
adulterous gallantries
adulterous gallantries of certain Hindu gods;
of certain gods; andand to to make
make clear dear his
his ever-
ever-
lasting
lasting scorn
scorn for
for religion,
religion, he
he ate
ate meat.
meat. The meat
meat disagreed
disagreed with
with him,
him, and
and
he returned to
he returned to religion.
religion.
At eight
eight he.
he was
was engaged, and
e:ogaged, and atat twelve
twelve he was married,
he was ~ed, to to Kasturb~
Kasttdbaj,
remained loyal
who remained loyal to to him
him through
through all all his
his adventures,
adventures, riches, riches, poverty,
poverty,
imprisonments,
imprisonments, and
and B,ahmachllria.
Brafonacharia. At eighteen
eighteen he
he passed
passed examinations
examinations for
for
tJae university,
the university, and and went
went to to London to to study
study law.
law. In
In his first year there
his first year there he
he
read eighty
read eighty books books on Christianity.
Christianity. The Sermon on the the Mount ''went "went
straight
straight to
to my
my heart
heart on
on the
the first
first reading."· He took
reading."* took the
the counsel
counsel to
to return
return
good
good for for evil,
evil, and
and to to love
love even
even one's
one's enemies,
enemies, as the highest
as the highest expression
expression of
of
all human idealism;
all human idealism; and and he he resolved
resolved rather
rather to to fail these than
with these
fail with than toto suc-
suc-
ceed without them.
ceed without them..
CHAP. XXII)
CHAP.XXn) A CCHRISTIAN
A EPILOGUE
H RI ST I AN EP ILO GUE 619
629
Returning
Returning to Indk in
to India 1891, he
in 1891, he practised
practised law kw for for a rime in
a time in Bombay,
Bombay, re- re-
fusing
fusing to
to prosecute
prosecute for
for debt,
debt, and
and always reserving the right
always reserving the right to abandon to abandon
aa case
case which he had come to to think
think unjust.
unjust.
One case case ledled him him to to South
South
Africa;
Africa; therethere he foundfound his his fellow-Hindus
fellow-Hindus so so maltreated
maltreated that that he he forgot to
forgot to
return
return to to India,
India, but
but gave
garve himself
himself completely, without remuneration,
completely, without remuneration, to to
the cause of
the cause of removing
removing the the disabilities
disabilities of of his
his countrymen in
countrymen in Africa.' Africa.' For For
twenty
twenty yearsyears he fought
fought this
this issue
issue out
out until
until the
the Government
Government yielded.
yielded. Only
Only
then
then did did hehe return
return home.
home.
Traveling through
Traveling through India Indk he he realized
realized forfor the the :first
first time
time the the complete
complete
destitution
destitution of of his
his people. He was horrified
people. horrified by
by the
the skeletons
skeletons whom he
he saw
saw
toiling
toiling in
in the
the fields,
fields, and
and the
the lowly
lowly Outcastes
Outcastes who did
did the
the menial
menial work
work
of
of the
the towns.
towns. It It seemed to to him
him that
that the
the discriminations
discriminations against against
his
his coun-
coun-
trymen abroad
trymen abroad were merely merely one one consequence
consequence of of their
their poverty and
poverty and sub- sub-
jection
jection at
at home. Nevertheless
Nevertheless he
he supported England
supported England loyally loyally in
in the
the War;
War;
he even advocated
he even advocated the the enlistment
enlistment of of Hindus
Hindus who did did ~otnot accept
accept the
the prin-
prin-
ciple
ciple of
of non-violence.
non-violence. He did
did not,
not, at
at that
that time,
time, agree
agree with
with those
those who
called for
called for independence;
independence; he
he believed
believed that
that British
British misgovernment
misgovernment in
in India
Indk
was an exception, and
an exception, that British
and that British government
government in general was
in general: was good;
good; that
that
British
British government
government in
in India
Indk was
was bad
bad just
just
because
because it
it violated
viokted an
all the
the prin-
prin-
ciples
ciples of of British government at
British government at home;
home; and and thatthat if the English
if the
English peoplepeople
could
could be be made to to understand
understand the the case
case ofof the Hindus, it
the Hindus, would soon
it would soon accept
accept
them in
them full brotherhood
in full brotherhood into into a commonwealth of
a commonwealth of free
free dominions.
dominions." He 89

trusted that
trusted that when the the War was was over,
over, and
and Britain
Britain counted
counted Indk's India's sacrifice
sacrifice
for the Empire
for the Empire in in men and wealth,
and wealth, it it would
would no no longer
longer hesitate
hesitate to to give
give her
her
liberty.
liberty.
But at
But at the
the close
close ofof the
the War the the agitation
agitation for for Home Rule Rule was was metmet byby
the Rowland
the Rowland Acts, Acts, which
which put put anan end
end toto freedom
freedom of of speech
speech and and press;
press;
by the
by the establishment
establishment of of the
the impotent
impotent legislature
legislature of of the
the Montagu-Chelms-
Montagu-Chelms-
reforms; and
ford reforms;
ford :6nally by
and finally by the slaughter at
the slaughter at Amritsar.
Amritsar. Gandhi Gandhi was was
shocked into
shocked into decisive
decisive action.
action. He returned
returned to to the Viceroy the
the Viceroy d~corations
the decorations
which he
which he hadhad received
received at at various
various times
times from
from British
British governments;
governments; and and hehe
issued to
issued to Indk call for
India aa call for active civil disobedience
active civil disobedience against against the the Government
Government
of India. The people
of Indk. responded not
people responded not with peaceful resistance,
with peaceful resistance, as as hehe had
had
aked, but
asked, but withwith bloodshed
bloodshed and violence; in
and violence; in Bombay,
Bombay, for example, they
for example, they
killed fifty-three
killed :fifty-three unsympathetic
UI1W1Dpathetic Parsees* Parsees.t1 Gandhi,
Gandhi, vowed vowed to ahimsa, sent
to ahmsa, sent
out aa second
out second message,
message, in in which
which he he called
called upon
upon the the people
people to to postpone
postpone the the
campaign
campaign of
of civil
civil disobedience,
disobedience, on
on the
the ground
ground that
that it
it was degenerating
degenerating
into mob rule.
into rule. Seldom
Seldom in history had
in history had aa man shown shown more more courage
courage in in
acting on principle,· ~ expediency and
acting on principle, scorning expediency
and popularity.
popularity. The nation nation waswas
63
6300 STORY
THE STOR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F C IV IL I ZA TI ON (CHAP. XXII
(CHAP-XXH

astonished
astonished atat his decision; it
his decision; it had
had supposed
supposed itself
itself near
near toto success,
success, and it did
and it did
not
not agree with Gandhi that
agree with Gandhi
that thethe means
means might
might be be as
as important as
important as the the end.
end.
The reputation
The reputation of
of the
the 111.llbat'J1za
Mahatma sank
sank to
to the
the lowest
lowest ebb.
ebb. ,
%

was just
It was
It just
at this
at this point (in
point (in March,
March, 19 2 2,) t:hat
1922) that the
the Government
Government deter-
deter-
mined upon
mined upon his
his arrest.
arrest. He made no
no resistance,
resistance, declined
declined to
to engage aa lawyer,
engage lawyer,
and
and offered
offered no
no defense.
defense. When the the Prosecutor
Prosecutor charged
charged him him with
with being
being
responsible, through
responsible, through
his
his publications,
publications, for
for the
the violence
violence that
that had
had marked
marked
the
the outbreak
outbreak of 1921, Gandhi replied
of 1921, replied inin terms
terms that lifted him
that lifted him at
at once
once to
to
nobility.
nobility.

II wish
wish to endorse all
to endorse all the
the blame that the
blame tha.t the learned
learned Advocate-General
Advocate-General
has
has thrown
thrown on on my
my shoulder
shoulder in
in connection
connection with
with the
the incidents
incidents in in Bom-
bay,
bay, Madras,
Madras, and
and Chauri
Chauri Chama.
Chaura. Thinking
Thinking over
over these
these deeply,
deeply, and and
sleeping over
over them
them night after
after night, it is
it is impossible for for me to
to
sleeping night night, impossible
dissociate
dissociate myself
myself from
from these
these diabolical crimes.
diabolical crimes. .• .• •
* The learned
learned
Advocate-General is
Advocate-General is quite right' when he
quite right he says
says
that
that as
as a
a man of
of
responsibility,
responsibility,
a
a man having
having received
received a
a fair
fair share
share of
of education,
education, .• •. • .

II should
should have
have known the the consequences
consequences of
of every
every one
one of
of my
my aets.
acts. I I
knew that that II was
was playing
playing with fire, I
with fire, I ran
ran thethe risk, and if
risk, and if II was
was setset
free
free I would still
I would still do
do the
the same.
same. I felt this
I felt this morning that that I would
I would have
have
morning
failed
failed in in my
duty if
my duty if I
I did
did notnot 'say
say what
what II say say here just now.
here just now.
wanted to
II wanted to avoid
avoid violence.
violence. I I want
want to to avoid violence. Non-
avoid violence. Non-·
violence is
violence is the first article
the first article of of my faith.
my faith. It is also the last article of
It is also the last article of
my
my creed.
creed. But
But II had
had to make my
to make my choice.
choice. I had
I had either
either to
to submit
submit to
to
a system which
a system which II considered
considered had had donedone an an irreparable
irreparable harm harm to to mymy
country, or
country, or incur
incur thethe risk
risk of the mad
of the mad furyfury of of my people bursting
my people bursting
forth when they
forth they understood
understood the the truth
truth fromfrom my my Hps. lips. II know that that
my people
my people have
have sometimes
sometimes gone gone mad. mad. II am deeply deeply sorrysorry forfor it,it,

and II am therefore
and therefore here here to to submit
submit not not toto aa light
light penalty
penalty but but to to the
the
highest penalty.
highest penalty. I
I do
do not
not ask
ask for
for mercy.
mercy. I
I do
do not
not plead any
plead any ex-
ex-
tenuating
tenuating aet.
act I
I am here, therefore,
here, therefore, to
to invite
invite and
and cheerfully submit
cheerfully submit
to the
to the highest
highest penalty
penalty thatthat cancan bebe inflicted
inflicted uponupon me for for what
what in in law
law
is aa deliberate
is dehberate crime
crime and what appears
and what appears to to me to to bebe the
the highest
highest dutyduty
of aa citizen.*
of citizen.· .
Judge expressed
The Judge expressed his profound
profound regret
hisregret that
that he
he had
had to
to send to .jail
send to jail
o~e whom millions
one ~ODS of his countrymen
of his countrymen considered
considered "a"a great
great patriot
patriot and
and aa
great leader";
great leader"; he
he admitted
admitted that
that even
even those
those who
who differed
differed from Gandhi
from Gandhi
loo~ed upon
looked him "as
upon him "as aa man ofof high
high ideals
ideals and
and of
of noble
noble and
and even
even saintly
saintly
life."· He sentenced
life."" him to
sentenced him to prison
prison for
for six yeam.
six years.
 CHAP. XXII)
CHAP.XXIl) A CHRISTIAN
A CHRISTIAN EPILOGUE
EPILOGUE 63
6311

^
Gandhi
Gandhi was was putput under
under solitary confinement, but he did not complain.
solitary confinement, but he did not complain.
"I
"I do
do not see any of
not see of the
the other
other prisoners," he wrote, "though I really do
any prisoners/' he wrote, "though I really do
not see how my
not see how my society
society could
could do them any
do them harm." But "I feel happy.
any harm." But "I feel happy.
My nature
nature likes loneliness. II love
likes loneliness. love quietness. And now I have opportunity
quietness. And now I have opportunity
to engage
to
engage in in studies that II had
studies that had to to neglect in the outside world."" He He in-
64

neglect in the outside world." in-

structed
structed himself
himself sedulously in
sedulously in the
the writings of Bacon, Carlyle,
writings of Bacon, Carlyle, Ruskin,
Ruskin,
Emerson,
Emerson, Thoreau and and Tolsto~
Tolstoi, and and solaced
solaced long hours with Ben Jonson
long hours with Ben Jonson
and
and Walter
Walter Scott.
Scott. He read read and and re-read Bhagavad-Gitll.
re-read the Bhagavad-Gita. He
the He studied
studied
Sanskrit,
Sanskrit, Tamil
Tamil and Urdu so so that
that he he might
might be
be able
able not
not only
only
to
to write
write for
for
scholars but to
scholars to speak to
to the
the multitude.
multitude. He drew up a detailed
drew up a detailed schedule schedule
speak
of
of studies
studies forfor the six years of
the six of his imprisonment, and pursued it faithfully
years his
imprisonment, and pursued it faithfully
till accident intervened. "I used
till accident intervened. "I used to to sit
sit down
down to to my
my books
books with
with the the delight
delight
of
of aa young
young man of
of twenty-four,
twenty-four, and
and forgetting
forgetting my
my four-and-fifty
f our-and-fif years
ty years
and my poor
my poor health."·
health."
68

Appendicitis
Appendicitis securedsecured his his release,
release, and and Occidental
Occidental medicine,
medicine, whichwhich he he
had often
often denounced,
denounced, secured
secured his
his recovery.
recovery.
A vast crowd
vast crowd gathered
gathered at
at
the
the prison
prison gates
gates to greet him
to greet him on on hishis exit, and many
exit, and kissed his
many kissed his coarse
coarse gar- gar-
ment as as hehe passed.
passed. But
But he
he shunned
shunned politics
politics
and
and the public eye, pled
the public eye, pled his
his
weakness and
weakness and illness,
illness, and
and retired
retired to to hishis school
school at Ahmedabad, where
at Ahmedabad, where he he
lived for many
lived for many yearsyears in quiet
in isolation with
quiet isolation with hishis students. From that
students. From that re-
re-
however, he
treat, however,
treat, he sent
sent forth
forth weekly, through his
weekly, through his mouthpiece Y Dung
mouthpiece Young
India, editorials
India, editorials expounding
expounding his his philosophy
philosophy of of revolution
revolution and and life.life. He
begged
begged his
his followers
followers to
to shun
shun violence,
violence, not
not only
only because
because it
it would
would be
be
suicidal, since India had no guns,
suicidal, since India had no guns, but but because
because it it would
would onlyonly replace
replace one one
despotism
despotism with
with another.
another. "History,"
"History," he
he told
told them,
them, "teaches
"teaches one
one that
that those
those
have, no
who have, no doubt
doubt withwith honest
honest motives,
motives, ousted
ousted the the greedy
greedy by using
by using
brute force
brute force against
against them,
them, havehave in in their
their turn become aa prey
turn become prey toto the
the disease
disease
of the
of the conquered.
conquered.•.. ... My interest in
My interest India's freedom
in India's freedom will cease if
will cease if she
she
adopts
adopts violent
violent means.
means. For
For their
their fruit
fruit will
will be
be not
not freedom,
freedom, but
but slavery."·
slavery."
6*

The second
The second element
element in his creed
in his creed was was the
the resolute
resolute rejection
rejection of of modern
modem .
industry,
industry, and
and a
a Rousseauian
Rousseauian call
call for
for a
a return
return to
to the
the simple
simple
life
life of
of agri-
agri-
culture and
culture and domestic
domestic industry
industry in in the
the village.
village. The The confinement
confinement of of menmen
and women
and women in factories, making
in factories, making with with machines
machines owned owned by by others
others fractions
fractions
of articles
of articles whose
whose finished
finished form fonn they they will never see,
will never see, seemed
seemed to to Gandhi
Gandhi
aa roundabout
roundabout way way' of of burying
burying' humanity
humanity under under aa pyramid
pyramid of of shoddy
shoddy
goods. Most
goods. Most machine
machine products,
products, he he thought,
thought, are are unnecessary;
unnecessary; the the labor
labor
saved in
saved using them
in using them isis consumed
consumed in in making
making and and repairing
repairing them;them; or or ifif
63%
632 THE
TH STORY
I: STOR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F CIVIL I ZATI ON (CHAP.
( CHAP. XXII

labor is
labor is really saved it is
really saved it is of
of nono benefit
benefit toto labor,
labor, butbut only
only to to capital; labor
capital; labor
is
is thrown
thrown by by its
its own productivity into
productivity into a a panic
panic of of "technological
"technological unem- unem-
ployment."13'
ployment."
87
So
So he
he renewed
renewed the
the Swadeshi
Swadeshi movement announced
announced in
in 1905
1905
by Tilak; self-production
by Tilak; self-production was
was to
to be
be added
added to
to Swaraj,
Swaraj, self-rule.
self-rule. Gandhi
Gandhi
made thethe use
use of the cbarka,
of the charka, or or spinning-wheel,
spinning-wheel, a a tes~
test of
of loyal
loyal adherence
adherence
to
to the
the Nationalist
Nationalist movement;
movement; he
he asked
asked that
that every
every Hindu,
Hindu, even
even the
the richest,
richest,
should
should wear
wear homespun,
homespun, and
and boycott
boycott the
the alien
alien and
and mechanical
mechanical textiles
textiles of
of
Britain,
Britain, soso that
that the
the homes
homes of of India
India might
might hum once
once more,
more, through
through the
the
dull
dull winter,
winter, with
with the sound of
the sound of the
the spinning-wheel.·
08

spinning-wheel.
The response it is
is difficult in its
response was was notnot universal;
universal; it difficult to to stop
stop history
history in its
course.
course. ButBut India
India tried.
tried. Hindu studentsstudents everywhere
everywhere dresseddressed in in kbaddar;
khaddar;
highborn
highborn ladies
ladies abandoned
abandoned their
their Japanese
Japanese silk stiris
silk saris for
for co~e
coarse cloths
cloths
woven by by themselves; prostitutes in
themselves; prostitutes brothels and
in brothels convicts in
and convicts in prison
prison began
began
to
to spin;
spin; and
and in
in many
many cities
cities great
great Feasts
Feasts of
of the
the Vmiries
Vanities were
were arranged,
arranged, as. as.

in Savonarola's day,
in Savonarola's day, at
at which
which wealthy
wealthy HIndus
Hindus and
and merchants
merchants broughtbrought
from their
their homes and and warehouses
warehouses all all their
their imponed cloth,
imported cloth, and and :Bung
flung it it

into
into the
the fire.
fire. In one day
In one day at
at Bombay.alone, 150,000
Bombay -alone, 150,000 pieces pieces were
were consumed
consumed
by the
by the flames.-
flames.*
The movement away away from industry it gav~ India
industry failed, but it
failed, but gavq India for for a a decade
decade
aa symbol
symbol of
of revolt,
revolt, and
and helped
helped to
to polarize
polarize her
her mute
mute millions
millions into
into aa new
unity of political
unity of political consciousness.
consciousness. India India doubted
doubted the the means,
means, but but honored
honored
the purpose;
the purpose; and though
though it questioned Gandhi
it questioned Gandhi the
the statesman,
statesman, it
it "took
took to
to its
its

heart Gandhi
heart Gandhi the the saint,
saint, and
and for
for a
a moment became
became one
one in
in reverencing
reverencing
him.
him.
It was
It was as
as Tagore
Tagore said
said of him:
of him:

stopped at
He stopped the thresholds
at the thresholds of
of the
the huts
huts ofof the
the thousands of dis-
thousands of dis-
possessed, dressed
possessed, dressed like
like one
one of their own.
of their own. He spoke them in
to them
spoke to their
in their
language. Here
own language. Here was
was living
living truth at last,
truth at and not
last, and only quotations
not only quotations
from books.
from books. For
For this
this reason
reason the Mahatma, the
the Mahatma, the name
name given
given toto him
him
by
by the
the people
people of
of India,
India, is
is his
his real
real name.
name. Who else
else has
has felt
felt like
like him
him
that all
that Indians are
all Indians his own flesh
are his and blood?
flesh and blood? • • • When love
. . love came
. came
to the
to door of
the door of India
India that door was
that door was opened
opened wide.
wide.. ,. . AtAt Gandhi's
Gandhi's
. ,. .

call India
call India blossomed
blossomed forth
forth to
to new greatness, just as
greatness, just as once
once before,
before, in
in
earlier times,
earlier Buddh~ proclaimed
times, when Buddha proclaimed the
the truth of fellow-feeling
truth of fellow-feeling
compassion among
and compassion all
among all living creatures.
living
creatures.-
10

It was
It was Gandhi's
Gandhi's task
task to
to unify India; and
unify India; and he
he accomplished
accomplished it. Other
Other it.

tasks await other men.

tasks await other men.
CHAP. XXn)
CHAP. XXII) A CHRISTIAN EPILOGUE 633

VUe
VII. FAREWELL
FARE\VELL TO INDIA

cannot conclude
One cannot conclude the the history
history of of India
India as as one
one can
can conclude
conclude the the
history
history of
of Egypt,
Egypt, or
or Babylonia,
Babylonia, or
or Assyria;
Assyria; for
for that
that history
history is
is still
still being
being
made, that
made, that civilization
civilization is is still
still creating. Culturally India
creating. Culturally India has
has been
been reinvig-
reinvig-
orated by
orated by mental
mental contact
contact with with thethe West,
West, and and herher literature
literature today
today is is as
as
fertile and
fertile noble as
and noble any. Spiritually
as any. Spiritually she she isis still struggling with
still struggling with superstition
superstition
and excess theological
and excess theological baggage,
baggage, but but there
there is is no
no telling
telling how quickly
quickly the the
acids of
acids of modern
modem science
science willwill dissolve
dissolve these
these supernumerary
supernumerary gods. Politically
gods. Politically
the last
the one hundred
last one hundred years years have
have brought
brought to to India
India such
such unity
unity as as sheshe has
has
seldom had
seldom had before: panly the
before: partly the unity
unity of of ·one alien .government,
one alien government, partly the panly the
unity of
unity of one
one alien
alien speech,
speech, but but above
above all the unity
all the unity of of one
one welding
welding aspiration
aspiration
to liberty.
to liberty. Economically
Economically Indk India is passing, for
is passing, for better
better. and
and for
for wbrse,
worse, out out
of medievalism
of medievalism into into modern
modern industry;
industry; her her wealth
wealth and and her
her trade will grow,
trade will grow,
and before
and before the the end
end of of the century she
the century doubtless be
will doubtless
she will be among
among the the powers
powers
of the earth.
of the earth.
We cannot
cannot claim
claim for this civilization
for this civilization such direct gifts
such direct gifts to
to our
our own as as
have traced
we have traced to to Egypt
Egypt and and thethe Near East; for
Near East; for these
these last were the
last were the im-
im-
media~e ancestors
mediate ancestors of of our
our own culture,
culture, while
while the the history
history ofof India,
India, China
and Japan
and Japan :Bowed
flowed in
in another
another stream,
stream, and
and is
is only
only now beginning to
beginning to touch
and
and infiuence
influence the the current
current of of Occidental
Occidental life. life. ItIt is true that even across
is true that even across
the Himalayan
the Himalayan barrierbarrier India
India has has sent
sent to to us us such qu~onable gifts
such questionable gifts as
as
grammar
grammar and
and logic, philosophy
logic, philosophy
and
and fables,
fables, hypnotism
hypnotism and chess,
chess, and above
~ our
all, numerals and
our numerals and ourour decimal
decimal system.
system. But these these are· not the
are- not the essence
essence
of her spirit;
of her spirit; they they are
are trifles
trifles compared
compared to
to what we may
may learn
learn from her
in
in the future. As invention,
the future. invention, industry
industry and and trade
trade bind
bind the
the continents together,
continents together,
or as
or as they fling
they fling us
us into
into conflict
conflict with
with .Asia,
Asia, we shall
shall stUdy
study its
its civilizations
civilizations

more
more closely, and shall absorb, even
closely, and shall absorb,
even in enmity, some of
in enmity, of its
its ways and
ways
thoughts. Perhaps,
thoughts. Perhaps,
in
in return
return for
for conquest, arrogance
conquest, arrogance and spoliation, India
spoliation, India
will teach us
will teach us the the tolerance
tolerance and
and gentleness
gentleness of
of ~e
the mature mind,
mind, the quiet
quiet
content
content of of the
the unacquisitive
unacquisitive soul,
the calm of the understanding spirit.
soul, the calm of the understanding spirit,
and
and a a unifying, pacifying love love for all living
for all living things.
things.
unifying, pacifying
 THREE
BOOK THREE
THE
THE FAR EAST
A. CHINA
CHINA
An eD1peror how to govern
knows ho"W
emperor knoW'S when poets
govern -when poets are free 1:0to
make verses,
verses, people plays, historians 'to
people to act plays, tell 'the
to tell the truth,
truth,
ministers 'to
to give
give advice,
advice, the poor
poor to gruD1.ble
grumble at 'taXes,
taxes, stu-
dents to learn lessons aloud,
aloud, worlanen
-workmen co praise their skill
to praise skill
and seek 'Work,
work, people
people to speak
speak of anything, men to
anything, and old Olen
:find
find fault: wi1:h everything.
fault \vith everything.
-Address
Address ofof ~be of Shao eo
the Duke of to King Li-lV 1I1JB,9
L,i-Wang
oa.
ca. 845 SeC.X
B.C.7..
845
 CIVaIZATION·
CHRONOLOGY OF CHINESE CIVILIZATION*
B.C.
B.C.
2852-2205: Legendar, Rulers:
2852-2205: Legendary
Rulers: FL 39b: Yang Chu, philosopher
FL 396: Yang Chu, philosopher
Hsi
285 2- 2 737: Fu Hsi
2852-2737: 37 2- 289:
372-289: Mencius, philosopher
Mencius, philosopher
2737-1697:
2737-2697:
Shen Nung
Shen Nung B.370:
B. 370: Chuang-me, philosopher
Chuang-tze, philosopher
269'-1597:
2697-2597: Huang Ti
Huang Ti D. 350:
D. 350: Ch'u P'ing,
Ch'u P'ing, poet
poet
Yao
2356-22 55: Yao B. 3°5:
6.305: philosopher
Hsiin-tze, philosopher
Hsiin-tze,
Shun
2255-2105: Shun
2255-2205: D.133:
0.233: Han Fei, essayist
Fei, essayist
2205-1766: Hna Dy'1UUt1
2205-1766: Hsia Dynasty
230-222:
230-222: Conquest and unification
Conquest unification of
Yii
22°5-21 97: Yii
2205-2107: China by
China by Shih
Shih Huang-ti
Huang-ti
Chieh Kuei
1818-1766: Chieh
1818-1766: Kuei Ch'in Dynasty
255-206: Ch'in
255-206: D:,!nasty
1766- 111 3: Shang
1766-1123:
Shang (and Yin) Dynasty
(tmd Yin) D,1JIlSt, Shih Huang-ti,
221-211: Shih
221-211: Huang-a, "First Emperor"
"First Emperor"
T'ang
1766--1753: Tang
1766-1753: 206 B.C.-111 A.D.: Han
2o6s.c.-22iAJ>.: Him Dy'1lllSt1
Dynasty
I 19S-I 194: Wu Yih,
1198-1194: Yih, the
the atheist
atheist emperor
emperor B.c.: Wen Ti
17C)-157 B.C.:
179-157
1154-1113: Chou-Hsin, model
1154-1123: Chou-Hsin, model of
of wicked-
wicked- B.145:
B. Ch'ien, historian
145: Szuma Ch'ien, historian
ness 140-87 B.C.: Wu Ti,
140-87 B.c.: Ti, reformer emperor
emperor
1122-255:
1122-255: Chou Dynasty
Chou Dynasty 5-2 5 AJ>.:
5-25 A.D.: Wang Mang,
Wang Mang, socialist
socialist emperor
emperor
1122-1115:
1122-1115: Wu-Wang
Wu-Wang 67 Coming of
A.D.: Coming
67 AJ>.: of Buddhism toto China
FL 1113: Wen Wang,
Wang, author of me
(?) of
author (?) the Cae 100: First
Csuioo: Fh:st known manufacturer
manufacturer of
of
Book of
Book of Chmgel
Changes . in China
paper in
paper China
'

1115-1078: Cheng
1115-1078: Cheng Wang
Wang 200-400: Tartar invasions of China
100-400:
1115-1079: K\lDg', author
1115-1079: Chou Kung, (?) of
author (?) of the
the 221-264: Period of the
211-164: the Three Kingdoms
Kingdoms
Chou-li, or Laws of
Chou-li, or of Chou 221-618: The Minor Dynasties
Dynasties
770-255: The Feudal
770-255: Feudal Age
Age 365-427: Tao Ch'ien,
365-427: Ch'ien, poet
poet
683-640: K~
683-640: Kuang Chung, prime minister
Chung, prime minister of
of Fl.364:
Fl, 364: Ku K'ai-chih,
K'ai-chih, painter
painter
Ts
TVi1 490-640:
490-640: Great Age
Age of· Buddhist Sculp-
of "Buddhist Sculp-
604-517: Lao-tze
604-517: Lao-tze (?)
(?) tare
ture
55 1-478: Confucius
55I-478: Confucius 618-905:
618-005: T'tmg
T>ang Dynasty
Dynasty
501: Confucius
SOl: Chief Magistrate
Confucius Chief Magistrate of
of 618-621:
618-627: Kao Tsu
Chung-tu
Chung-tu 617-650:
627-650: Tai Tsung
T'ai Tsung
498:
498: Confucius
Confucius Acting
Acting Supt.
Supt. of
of Pub- . 65 1-'716:
651-716: Li Ssu-hsfin, painter
Li Ssu-hsiin, painter
lic Works in
lie in Duell, of 699-'159:
Duchy of Lu 699-759: Wang·Wei,
Wang Wei, painter
painter
497:
4975 Confucius
Confucius Minister
Minister 0of Crime B. ca.
ca. 700:
700: Wu Tao-tze,
Wu Tao-tze, painter
painter
496:
406: Resignation
Resignation
of
of Confucius
Confucius 705-'762:
705-762: Li Po,
Po, poet
poet
406-483: Confucius'
496-483: Confucius' Wander-years
Wander-years 7712-770:
12-77°: Tu Fu,
Fu, poet
poet
Fl·45 0 : Mo Ti,
El. 450: Ti, philosopher
philosopher 713-'756:
713-756: Hsuan T~ Tsung (Ming
(Ming Huang)
Huang)
403- 221 : Period
403-221: Period of
of the
the Contending
Contending States
States 755:
755: Revolt ofof A1'1
An Lu-shan
•All
*AU dates before 551
dates before 551 B.C. are approximate; all
B.c. approximate; all before 1800 .A.D.
AJ>. are uncertain.
uncertain.
 CHRONOLOGY OF
OF CHINESE
CHINESE CIVILIZATION
CIVILIZATION

A.D.
AJ>. A.D.
AJD.
768
768-824: Han Yii,
-8 24: Han Yu, essayist
essayist 1573-1610:
1573-1620: Shen
Shen Tsung
Tsung (Wan
(Wan Li)
Li)
770: Oldest
770: Oldest extant
extant block
block prints
prints 1637:
1637: ~lish
English traders
traders at
at Canto!!.
Canton
Chii-i, poet
722-846: Po Chii-i,
722-846: poet 1644-1912:
1644-1912: Cb mg (Manchu) D,nast:y
Ching (Manchu) Dynasty
868: Oldest extant
extant printed
printed book 1662-1722: K'ang
1662-1722: K'ang Hsi
868: Hsi
907-960:
907-960: Five "Little
"Little Dynuties"
Dynasties" 1736-1796: Ch'ien
1736-1796: Ch'ien Lung
Lung
Block ~rinting
93 2 ~953 Block rinting of Chinese First prohibition
1795: Fiat of opium trade
932"'953: 1795: prohibition of opium trade
:

Classics 1800: Second

1800: prohibition of
Second prohibition or opium
opium trade
trade
950: First
950: First appearance
appearance of paper
paper money
money 1823-1901:
1823-1901: Li
Li Hung-ehang,
Hung-chang, statesman
statesman
960-1127: NonlJem
960-1127: Sung D,'llIUty
Northern Sung Dynasty 1834-1908:
1834-1908: Tzu Hsi,o
Hsi, "Dowager
"Dowager Empress'·
Empress"
960-976: Tai Tsu
960-976: T'ai 1839-1842:
1839-1842: First
First "9Pium
"Opium War"
970: First great
970: great Chinese encyclopedia
encyclopedia 1850-1864:
1850-1864: Tai-p'ing Rebellion
Tai-p'ing Rebellion
1069-1076: Administration
1069-10']6: Administration of Wang
Wang An- 1856-1860:
1856-1860: Second
Second "Opium
"Opium War"
shih,
shih, socialist
socialist prime
prime minister
minister 1858-1860:
1858-1860: Russia
Russia seizes Chinese territory
seizes Chinese territory
1040-1106: Lung-mien, painter
1040-1106: Li Lung-mien, painter north of
north of the
the Amur River
River
1041: Pi Shen~
1041: Sheng makes movable type
type 1860: France
1860: France seizes
seizes Indo-China
Indo-China
B. noo:
B.IIOO: Hsi, painter
Kuo HSl, painter 1866-1925: Sun Yat-sen
1866-1925: Yat-^sen
1101-1126: Hui Tsung,
1101-1116: artist emperor
Tsung, artist emperor 1875-1908: Kuang
1875-1908: Kuang Hsu
1126: Tatus
Tatars sack Hui Tsung's
1126: Tsung's capi-
capi- 1894: The Sino-Japanese
1S94: Sino-Japanese War
tal, Pien Lang
tal, Pien Lang (K'aifeng);
(K'aifcng); re-
re- 1898: Germany
1S98: Germany takes Kiaochow; U.
takes Kiaochow; S. takes
U. S. takes
moval of
of capital to Lin-an
capital to Lin-an the Philippines
the Philippines
(Hangchow)
(Hangchow) 1S98: refonn edicts
1808: The reform edicts of
of Kuang
Kuang HsuHsu
Southern
1127-1179: Southern
1127-1279: Sung Dynasty
S1mg Dynasty 1900:
1900: The Boxer Uprising
Boxer Uprising
Hs~ philosopher
Chu
1130-1200: Chu Hsi,
1130-1200: philosopher 1905: Abolition of
1905: Abolition of the
the examination
examination system
system
First known use
1161: First
1161: of gunpowder
use of gunpowder Chinese Revolution
1911: The Chinese
1911: Revolution
in
in war {Jan.-Mar.}: Sun
1912: (Jan.-Mar.):
1912: Sun Yat-sen Provisional
Yat-sen Provisional
~t.Us Khan
1162-1227: Genghis
1162-1227: ~ President of
President of the Chinese Re-
the Chinese Re-
Genghis Khan invades
1212: Genghis
1212: China
invades China public
public
1260-1368: YUim (Mongol)
1260-1368: Yuan Dynasty
(Mongol) Dynasty 1912-1916: Yuan Shi-k'ai,
1912-1916: Shi-k'ai, President
President
1269-1295: Kublai Khan
1269-1295: Kublai Khan 1914: Japan
1914: Japan takes
takes Kiaochow
Polo leaves
1269: Marco Polo
1269: leaves Venice
Venice for
for "Twenty-one Demands"
1915: The "Twenty-one
1915: Demands"
China
China Pei-Hua ("Phjn
1920: Pei-Hua
1920: ("Plain Speech")
Speech") adopted in in
1295:
1295: Marco Polo
Marco Polo returns
returns to
to Venice
Venice the Chinese
the schools;adopted
Chinese schools; height of
height of
Ming Dynasty
1368-1644: Ming
1368-1644: D'.Ynany the "New
the -'New Tide"
Tide"
1368-1399: Tai
1368-1399: Tsu
T'ai Tsu Chiang K'ai-shek
1926: Chiang
1926: K'ai-shek andand Borodin
Borodin subdue
subdue
1403-1425: Ch'eng Tsu
1403-1425: Ch'eng Tsu (Yung
(Yung Lo)
Lo) the north
the north .
Po~ese at
ISI7: Portugese
1517: at Canton
Canton The anti-communist
1917: The
1927: anti-communist reaction
reaction
157 Spanish
take the
1: Spanish take
1571: Philippines
the Philippines The Japanese
1931: The
1931: occupy Manchuria
Japanese occupy Manchuria
 CHAPTER XXIII

Age of
The Age of the
the Philosophers
Philosophers
I. THE BEGINNINGS
I.

1. Estimates
/. Estimates of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese
.THE
· the
intellectual discovery
intellectual
the Enlightenment.
discovery of
Enlightenment. "These
China was
of China
"These peoples,"
was one
peoples," Diderot
one ofof the
Diderot wrote
the achievements
achievements of
wrote of of the
the Chinese,
Chinese,
of

"are superior
"are superior to to all Asiatics in
other Asiatics
all other in antiquity,
antiquity, art, wisdom, pol-
intellect, wisdom,
art, intellect, pol-
icy, and in their taste
icy, and in their
taste for
for philosophy;
philosophy; nay, nay, inin the
the judgment
judgment of of certain
cenain
authors, they dispute
authors, they dispute the
the palm
palm in
in these
these matters
matters with
with the
the most
most enlightened
enlightened
peoples of Europe."ta* "The body
peoples of Europe."
1
body of of this
this empire,"
empire," saidsaid Voltaire,
Voltaire, "has ex-
"has ex-
isted four
isted four thousand years, without
thousand years, without having
having undergone
undergone any any sensible
sensible altera-
altera-
tion in
tion in its
its laws,
laws, customs, language, or
customs, language, or even
even inin its
its fashions
fashions ofof apparel.
apparel. . . .
. . .

The organization
The organization of this empire
of this empire is
is in
in truth
truth the
the best
best that
that the
the world
world has ever
has ever
seen. This respect
seen."* This respect
Ui of
of scholars
scholars has
has survived
survived closer
closer acquaintance,
acquaintance, and
and in
in
some
some contemporary
contemporary observers
observers it it has
has reached
reached the pitch of
the pitch humble admira-
of humble admira-
cion.
tion. Count
Count Keyserling,
Keyserling, in
in one
one of
of the
the most
most instructive
instructive and imaginative
imaginative
books
books of of our
our time,
time, concludes
concludes thatthat

altogether the most perfect type of

altogether the most perfect type
of humanity
humanity as as a
a normal
normal phenom-
phenom-
enon has been elaborated in
enon has been elaborated in ancientancient China
China .. . .
. China
China
. has
has created
created the
the
highest culture ~f
universal culture of being
being hitherto
hitherto known ... The greatness
highest universal
. . .
greatness
of China
of China takes
takes hold
hold of and impresses
of and impresses me more and more . . .
The . . .

great
great
men ofof this
this country
country stand
stand on a a higher
higher level
level of culture than
of culture than
ours e ••• stand
ours do;
do; ...
... these
these gendemen
gentlemen* . .stand on an
. an extraordinarily
extraordinarily high
high
level
level as
as types; especially their
types; especially
their ·superiority impresses me. . • . HQw.
superiority impresses
How . . .

perfect
perfect
the
the courtesy
courtesy of
of the
the cultured
cultured Chinaman!
Chinaman! . . .. China's
China's suprem-
. .
suprem-
acy form isis unquestionable in circumstances. . . . The China-
acy ofof fonn all circumstances.
all China-
unquestionable in
. . .

man isis perhaps the

perhaps the profoundest
prof oundest of
of all
all men.·
men.
8

The
The Chinese
Chinese do
do not
not trouble
trouble to
to deny
deny this;
this; and until
until the
the present
present century
century
(there- are nowoccasional exceptions) they
(there are now occasional exceptions) they were imaniirious
unanimous in regarding
in regarding
6
the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of Europe
Europe and
and America
America asas barbarians.
barbarians.* It
It was the
the gentle
gentle

The deposed at Tsing-tao.

•* The deposed Mandarins
Mandarins at Tsing-tao.

639
640
640 THE SSTORY CIVILIZATION
TORY OF elV IL I Z A TI ON (CHAP.
(CHAP. xxm
XXIH

custom
custom of of the Chinese, in
the Chinese, official documents
in official documents beforebefore 186o,
1860, to employ the
to employ the
character for "barbarian" in rendering the term "foreigner";
character for "barbarian" in rendering the term "foreigner"; and the bar- and the bar-
barians
barians had
had to to stipulate by treaty that this this translation should be
translation should be improved.··
5 *
stipulate by treaty that improved.
Like
Like most
most other
other peoples of the earth, "the Chinese consider themselves
peoples of the earth, "the Chinese consider themselves
the polished and
most polished
the most and civilized
civilized of of allall nations.""
Perhaps they
nations." Perhaps they are are right,
7

right,
despite
despite their
their political cormption
political corruption
and
and chaos,
chaos, their
their backward
backward science
science and
and
sweated
sweated industry,
industry, their
their odorous
odorous cities
cities and offal-strewn fields,
and offal-strewn their 1Ioods
fields, their floods
and
and famines,
famines, their
their apathy
apathy and
and cruelty,
cruelty, their
their poverty
poverty and
and superstition,
superstition,
their
their
recldess breeding and
reckless breeding and suicidal
suicidal wars,
wars, their slaughters and
their slaughters and ignominious
ignominious de- de-
feats.
feats. For behind
behind thisthis dark
dark surface
surface that that now appears
appears to
to the
the alien
alien eye is
eye is

one of
one of the
the oldest
oldest andand richest
richest ofof living
living
civilizations:
civilizations: a a tradition
tradition of
of poetry
poetry
reaching
reaching as
as far
far back
back as
as 1700
1700 B.C.;
B.C.; a
a long
long record
record of
of philosophy
philosophy idealistic
idealistic and
and
yet practical, profound
yet practical, profound and
and yet intelligi:ble;
yet intelligible; a
a mastery
mastery of
of ~eramics
ceramics and
and
painting unequaled in
painting unequaled in their
their kind;
kind; an an easy
easy perfection, rivaled only
perfection, rivaled only byby thethe
Japanese,
Japanese, in
in all
all the
the minor
minor arts;
arts; the
the most
most effective
effective morality
morality to
to b~
be found
found
among
among thethe peoples
peoples of of any
any time;
time; a social organization that
a social organization that has has held
held together
together
more human beings,beings, and
and has
has endured
endured through
through more
more centuries, ~an
centuries, than anyany
other
other known to to history;
history; a a form
form of of government
government which,which, until
until thethe Revolu-
Revolu-
tion destroyed
tion destroyed it, was
it, almost the
was almost the ideal
ideal of philosophers; a.a society
of philosophers; that was
society that was
civilized
civilized when GreeceGreece was inhabited
inhabited by by barbarians,
barbarians, that
that saw
saw thethe rise
rise and
and
fall
fall of Babylonia. and
of Babylonia and Assyria,
Assyria, Persia
Persia andand Judea, Athens and
Judea, Athens and Rome,
Rome, Venice
Venice
and
and Spain,
Spain, and
and maymay yet survive when those
yet survive those Balkans
Balkans called
called Europe have
Europe have
reverted to darkness and savagery.
reverted to darkness and savagery. What is is the
the secret
secret of of this
this durability
durability
·of government, this
of government, this artistry
artistry of
of hand,
hand, this
this poise
poise and
and depth
depth of
of soul?
soul?

2. The
2. Middle Flowery
The Middle Kingdom
Flowery Kingdom
Geogrllphy-Rflce-Prehisto,'J.
Geography Race Prehistory

If consider Russia
If we consider Russia as
as Asiatic
Asiatic-which
which it it was
was till Peter,
Peter, and
and may
till may be be
again-then
again Europe becomes
then Europe becomes only
only aa jagged
jagged promontory
promontory of of Asia,
Asia, thethe in-
in-
projection of
dustrial projection
dustrial of an
an agricultural
agricultural hinterland,
hinterland, the
the tentative
tentative fingers
fingers or or
pseudopodk of a giant continent. Dominating
pseudopodia of a giant continent. Dominating that continent isis China,
that continent China, as as
spacious
spacious as
as Europe,
Europe, and
and as
as populous.
populous. Hemmed in,
in, through
through most
most of
of its
its his-
his-

• The Chinese
*The Chinese scholar
sCholar who helped
helped Dr.
Dr. Giles translate some
GRes to translate some of the extracts
of the extracts in Qems
in Gmu
of Chinese Literature, sent him,
of Chinese Literature, sent him, as
as aa well-meant
well-meant farewell,
farewell, aa poem
poem in which
in which occurred
oceurred these
these
gracious lines:
gracious lines:
. of old,
From of old, literature
literature has
has illumined the nation
illumined the nation of
of nations;
natious;
And .now its influence
now its intluence has
has gone
gone forth
forth to
to regenerate
regenerate aa barbarian
barbarian official
official.'6
641
642 THEE STOR
TH STORY CIVILIZATION
Y OF CIVILI ZAT ION (CHAP. XXIII
(CHAP.XXIII

and
and perforations, the iron knives now used
perforations, the iron knives
used inin northem
northern China
China to to reap
reap the
the
sorghum
sorghum crop; and this circumstance, small though it
crop; and this circumstance, small though is, reveals
it is, reveals thethe prob-
prob-
ability
ability
that
that Chinese
Chinese culture
culture has
has an
an impressive continuity
impressive continuity
of
of seven
seven thousand
thousand
years.:IO
years.
10

We must must not,

not, through
through the the blur
blur of of distance,
distance, exaggerate
exaggerate the the homo-
geneity of this
geneity of this culture,culture, or
or of
of the
the Chinese people.
Chinese people. Some Some elements
elements of
of their
their
early
early art art and
and industry
industry appear
appear to have come from
to have from Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and and
Turkestan;
Turkestan; for
for example,
example, the
the neolithic
neolithic pottery
pottery of
of Honan is
is almost
almost identical
identical
n
a highly
ll
with that
with that ofof Anau and and Susa.
Susa. The present
present "Mongolian"
"Mongolian" type type isis a
highly
complex
complex mixture
mixture in
in which
which the
the primitive
primitive stock
stock has
has been
been crossed
crossed and
and re-
re-
crossed
crossed by by a a hundred
hundred invading
invading or. or immigrating
immigrating stocks
stocks from from Mongolia,
Mongolia,
like India,
lI
southern
southern Russia Russia (the Scythians?),
(the Scythians?), and
and central
central Asia.
Asia.
18
China,
China, like India,
isis to be compared
to be compared with with Europe
Europe as as a
a whole rather than
whole rather than with
with anyone
any one nation
nation
of
of Europe; it is
is not
not the
the united
united home of one people,
of one but a medley of human
Europe; it people, but a medley of
varieties different in
varieties different in origin, distinct
distinct in
in language, diverse
diverse in
in character
character and and
origin, language,
art, and
art, and often
often hostile
hostile toto one another in
one another in customs,
customs, morals
morals and and government.
government.

3.
3. The Unknown Centuries
Centuries

The Creation
Creation according
according to
to China-The
China The coming
coming of
of culture-Wine
cultureWine
and chopsticks-The
tmd chopsticks-The virtuous
virtuous emperors-A
emperors A royal atheist
royal atheist

China has been

China has been called
called "the paradise of
"the paradise historians." For
of historians." For centuries
centuries and
and
millenniums
millenniums it has
it has had
had official
official historiographers who recorded
recorded everything
historiographers everything
that happened,
that happened, and besides. We cannot
and much besides. We
cannot trust them further
trust them back.
further back,
than 77 6 B.C.;
than 776 but if
B.C.; but if we lend them aa ready
lend them ear ttey
ready ear ey will
will expWn
explain in
in detail
detail
the history of
the history China from
of China from 3000 the more
and the
B.C., and
3000 B.C., more pious
pious among them, like,
among them, like

our own seers,

our will describe
seers, will the creation
describe the of the
creation of the world.
world. P'an
P'an Ku,
Ku, the first
the first
(they tell
man (they tell us),
us), after
after laboring
laboring on
on the
the task
task for
for eighteen
eighteen thousand years,
thousand years,
the universe
hammered the universe into
into shape
shape about
about 2,229,000
2,229,000 B.C.
B.C. As he worked
As he worked·
his breath became
his breath became the
the wind
wind andand die
the clouds,
clouds, his
his voice
voice became
became the
the thunder,
thunder,
his veins
his veins the
the rivers,
rivers, his flesh the
his flesh the earth,
earth, his
his hair grass and
the grass
hair the and trees,
trees, his
his
bones the
bones the metals,
metals, his
his sweat
sweat the
the rain; and the
rain; and the insects
insects that clung to
that clung to his
his body
body
became the
became race.II We have
the human race. 18
have no
nQ evidence
evidence toto disprove this ingenious
disprove this ingenious
cosmology.
The earliest says Chinese
kings, says
earliest kings, Chinese legend,
legend, reigned eigh~en thousand
reigned eighteen thousand
years
years each,
each, and
and struggled
struggled hard
hard to
to turn
turn P'an
P'an Ku's
Ku's lice
lice into
into civilized
civilized men.
men.
Before the
Before ~val of
the arrival of these
these "Celestial
"Celestial Emperors,"
Emperors," we are are told,
toiCi, "the
"the people
people
were like
were beasts, clothing,
like beasts, clothing: themselves
themselves ki in skins, feediDg on
slQns, feeding raw flesh,
OR raw flesh, and
and
CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXHl) THE AGE
THE AGE OF THE P·HILOSO·PH·ERS
OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 643
643
knowing
knowing theirtheir mothers
mothers but but not
not their
their fathers"-a
fathers"-a limitation
limitation which
whichStrindberg
Strindberg
did not consider
did not consider exclusively ancient
exclusively ancient or
or Chinese.
Chinese. Then
Then came
came the
the emperor
emperor
Fu
Fu Hsi,
Hsi, in
in precisely 1851
precisely 2852 B.C.;B.C.; with
with thethe help of his enlightened Queen he
help of his enlightened Queen he
taught his
taught his people marriage, music, writing, painting, fishing with
people marriage, music, writing, painting, fishing with nets, the
nets, the
domestication
domestication of of animals,
animals, and
and the
the feeding of of silkworms
silkworms for
for the secretion of
the secretion of
feeding
silk. Dying,
silk.
Dying, he appointed
he appointed as as his
his successor
successor Shen
Shen Nung, who
who introduced
introduced agri-
Nung, agri-
~ulture,
culture, invented
invented the tjie wooden
wooden plough,
plough, established
established markets
markets andand trade,
trade, andand
developed
developed the
the science
science of
of medicine
medicine from
from the curative values
the curative values of of plants.
plants. So
So
legend,
legend, which loves
which loves personalities more
personalities more than than ideas,
ideas, attributes
attributes toto a a few
few in-in-
dividuals
dividuals the the laborious
laborious advances
advances of of many generations.
many generations. Then
Then a vigorous
a vigorous
soIdier-emperor, Huang-ti, in
soldier-emperor, Huang-ti, in aa reign of
reign of a a mere
mere century, gave China the
century, gave China the
magn~t
magnet and the the wheel,
wheel, appointed
appointed official
official historians,
historians, built
built the
the first
first brick
brick
structures in
structures in China, erected an observatory for the study
an study of the stars, cor-
of the stars,
China, erected observatory for the cor-
rected the
rected the calendar,
calendar, and redistributed
redistributed the the land.
land. Yao
Yao ruled
ruled through
through
another
another
century,
century, and so so well
well that Confucius, writing
that Confucius,
writing of of him
him eighteen hundred years
eighteen hundred years
later in what must have seemed
later in what must have seemed a a hectically "modem" age, mourned the
hectically "modern" age, mourned the
degeneration
degeneration of
of China.
China. The old
old sage,
sage, who was
was not
not above
above the
the pious fraud of
pious fraud of
Cldorning
adorning a
a tale
tale to
to point a
a moral,
point moral, informs
informs us
us that
that the
the Chinese people became
Chinese people became
virtuous by
tortuous merely looking
by merely looking at at Yao.
Yao. As first first aid reformers, Y
to. reformers,
aid to 10 placed
Yao placed
outside his palace
outside his palace door
door a a drum by which they
by which ~ght summon
they might summon him him to to hear
hear
their grievances,
thfcir grievances, and a tablet upon
and a tablet upon which
which they might write
they might write their
their advice
advice to to
gov.ernment. "Now,"
the government.
the "Now," sayssays the f~ous Book
the famous Book of History,
of History,

concerning the
concerning the good
good Yao said that
it is said
it is that he.
he. ruled Chtmg-kuo for
ruled Chmg-kuo for one
one
hundred
hundred years, die
years, years of
the years of his life being
his life being one
one hundred,
hundred, ten
ten and
and six.
six.
He- was
He was.kind and benevolent
kind and benevolent as as Heaven,
Heaven, wise
wise and and discerning
discenUng as as the
the
. gods.
gods. From afar
afar his
his radiance
radiance was
was like
like a
a shining cloud,
shining cloud, and
and approach-
approach-
ing near
ing him he
near him he was
was asas brilliant
brilliant as the sun.
as the sun. Rich
Rich was
was he he without
without
ostentation, and regal
ostentation, and regal without luxuriousness. He
without luxuriousness. He wore yellow cap
wore aa yellow cap
and aa dark
and dark tunic
tunic and
and rode
rode inin aa red
red chariot
chariot drawn
drawn by by white
white horses.
horses.
The eaves
The eaves of his thatch
of his thatch were
were notnot trimmed,
trimmed, and and the
the rafters
rafters were
were un-
un-
. planed, while
_ planed, while the
the beams
beams of his house
of his house hadhad no
no ornamental
ornamental ends.ends.. His
His
principal food
principal food was
was soup,
soup, indifferently
indifferently compounded,
compounded, nor nor was
was hehe
choice in
choice in selecting his. grain.
selecting his. grain. He He drank his broth
drank- his broth of. lentils from
of .lentils from aa
dish that
dish that was
was made
made of of clay,
clay, using
using aa wooden
wooden spoon.
spoon. HisHis person
person was
was
not adorned
not adomed with jewels, and
with jewels, his clothes
and his clothes were
were without
without embroidery,
embroidery,
simple and
simple and without
without variety.
variety. He He gave
gave nono attention
attention to to uncommon
uncommon
things
things and
and strange happenings,
strange happenings, nor
nor did
did he
he value
value those
those things that
things that
,vere rare
were rare and
and peculiar.
peculiar. He He diddid not
not listen
listen to
to songs
songs ofof dalliance,
dalliance, his
his
644 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.:xxm
(CHAP. XXIU

chariot of state was

chariot of state was not
not emblazoned.
emblazoned. .... • • In
In summer
summer hehe wore
wore his
his
simple garb
simple garb
of
of cotton,
cotton, and
and in
in winter
winter he
he covered
covered himself
himself with
with skins
skins
of the
of the deer.
deer. Yet
Yet was
was he
he the
the richest,
richest, the
the wisest, the longest-lived
wisest, the longest-lived
and most beloved of all that ever ruled Cbung-kuo. u
and most beloved of all that ever ruled Chung-kuo?

The last of
The last of these
these "Five
"Five Rulers"
Rulers" was
was Shun,
Shun, the
the model
model of filially devoted
of filially devoted
sons, the
sons, the patient
patient hero
hero who
who fought
fought the Hoods of
the floods of the
the Hoang-ho,
Hoang-ho, improved
improved
the calendar,
the calendar, standardized
standardized weights
weights and
and measures,
measures, and
and endeared
endeared himself
himself
to scholastic
to by reducing
scholastic posterity by
posterity
reducing the
the size
size of
of the
the whip with which Chinese
whip with which Chinese
children were educated. In his old age Shun (Chinese tradition tells us)
children were educated. In his old age Shun (Chinese tradition tells us)
raised to a place beside himself on the throne the ablest of his aides, the
raised to a place beside himself on the throne the ablest of his aides, the
great engineer Yii, who had controlled th*
great engineer Yii, who had controlled
the floods
Hoods ofof nine
nine rivers
rivers by cutting
by cutting
through nine mountains
through nine mountains and
and fonning
forming nine
nine lakes;
lakes; "but
"but for
for Yii," say the
Yii," say the
Chinese, "we
Chinese, "we should
should allall have
have been fishes."11 In
been fishes." 18
In his
his reign,
reign, according
according to to
sacred legend,
sacred legend, rice
rice wine
wine was
was ~iscovered,
discovered, and
and was
was presented
presented to
to the
the Emperor;
Emperor;
but Yii
but Yii dashed
dashed it it to
to the
the ground,
ground, predicting:
predicting: "The "The dayday will
will come when
this thing will
this thing will cost
cost some
some oneone aa kingdom."
kingdom." He banished banished the the discoverer
discoverer
and prohibited
and prohibited the the new
new beverage;
beverage; whereupon
whereupon the Chinese,
the Chinese, for the
for the in-
in-

sauetion
struction of of posterity,
posterity, made
made wine
wine the
the national
national beverage. ~ejecting the
beverage. Rejecting the
principle
principle
of succession by royal appointment,
of succession by royal appointment, Yii
Yii established
established the
the Hsia
Hsia
(i.e.,
(Le., "civilized")
"civilized") Dynasty by
Dynasty by mak41g
making the the throne hereditary in
throne hereditary his family,
in his
family,
so that
so that idiots
idiots alternated
alternated with
with mediocrities
mediocrities and
and geniuses
geniuses in
in the
the government
government
of
of China.
China. The dynasty to al?- end by the whimsical
dynasty was
was brought
brought to an end by the whimsical Emperor
Emperor
Chieh,
Chieh, who amused
amused himself
himself and
and his
his wife
wife by
by compelling three
compelling three thousand
thousand
Chinese
Chinese to jump to
to jump to their euthanasy in a lake of
their euthanasy in a lake of wine.
wine.

have no way
We have way ofof checking
checking the
the accounts
accounts transmitted
transmitted to us us of
of the
the Hsia
Hsia
Dynasty
Dynasty by by ,the
the early
early
Chinese
Chinese historians.
historians. Astronomers
Astronomers claim
daim to
to have
have verified
verified
the
the solar
solar eclipse
eclipse
mentioned
mentioned by by the
the record!
records as occurring in
as occurring in the
the years
years 216 5
2165
u
B.C., but
B.C., but competent
competent critics
critics have
have challenged
challenged these calculations. Bones
Bones found
found
these calculations."

in Honan
in Honan bear
bear the
the names
names ofof mlers
rulers traditionally
traditionally ascribed
ascribed to
to the
the second
second or
or
Shang Dynasty;
Shang Dynasty; and
and some
some bronze
bronze vessels
vessels of
of grekt antiquity
great antiquity are
are tentatively
tentatively
attributed
attributed toto this
this period. For
period.
For the
the rest
rest we must
must rely
rely on
on stories
stories whose
whose truth
truth
may
may not
not be
be proportioned
proportioned to
to their
their charm.
charm. According
According to
to ancient
ancient tradition
tradition
one
one ofof the
the Shang
Shang emperors,
emperors, Wu Yi, Yi, was anan atheist;
atheist; he
he defied
defied the
the gods,
gods, and
and
blasphemed
blasphemed the
the Spirit
Spirit
of
of Heaven;
Heaven; he
he played
played chess
chess with
with it, ordered
ordered
it, a
a court-
court-
ier to make
ier to make its moves, and
its moves, and derided it when it
derided it it lost;
lost; having
having dedicated
dedicated to it a
to it a
leathern
leathern bag,
bag,
he
he :filled
filled the
the bag
bag with
with blood,
blood, and
and amused
amused himself
himself by making
by making it
it

aa target
target for
his arrows.
for his arrows. The historians,
historians, more
more virtuous
virtuous than
than history, assure
history, assure
us
us that
that Wu Yi Yi was
was struck
struck dead with lightning.
dead with lightning.
CHAP.XXIn)
CHAP.XXin) THE AGE OF
OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
PHILOSOPHERS 645
645
Qiou Hsin, royal
Chou Hsin, royal inventor
inventor ofof chopsticks,
chopsticks, brought
brought the dynasty to
the dynasty to an
an end
end
by
by his
his incredible
incredible wickedness.
wickedness. "I
"I have
have heard," he said, "that a
heard," he said, "that a man's heart man's heart
has seven
has seven openings;
openings; II would fain make
would fain make the the experiment
experiment upon upon Pi Kan"-his
Pi Kan"-his
minister. Chou's wife Ta-ki
minister. Chou's wife Ta-ki was
was aa model
model of of licentiousness
licentiousness and and cruelty:
cmeIty: at at her
her
court voluptuous
court dances were
voluptuous dances were performed,
perfonned, and and menmen and and women
women gamboled
gamboled
naked in
naked in her
her gardens.
gardens. When publicpublic criticism
criticism rose rose she
she sought
sought toto still it with
still it with
novelties of
novelties of torture:
torture: rebels
rebels were
were mademade to to hold :fiery metals
hold fiery metals in
in their
their· hands,
hands,
or to
or walk greased
to walk greased poles
poles over
over aa pitpit of
of live
live charcoal;
charcoal; when when· victims
victims fell fell into
into
the pit
the pit the Queen was
the Queen was much amusedamused to to seesee them
them roast,
roast.1'l Chou
Chou Hsin
17
Hsin was
was
overthrown by
overthrown conspiracy of
by aa conspiracy of rebels
rebels at at home and and 'invaders
Iinvaders from from thethe
western state of Chou,
western state of Chou, who setset up up the
the Chou
Chou Dynasty,
Dynasty, the the most
most enduring
enduring of of
all the
all royal' houses
the royal houses of of China.
China. The victorious
victorious leaders
leaders rewarded
rewarded theirtheir aides
aides
by making
by making them almost
almost independent
independent rulers
rulers of of the
the many
many provinces
provinces into
into which
which
the realm was
the new realm was divided;
divided; inin this way began
this way began thatthat feudalism
feudalism which
which proved
proved
so dangerous
so dangerous, to government and
to government and yetyet so
so stimulating
stim1}lating to to Chinese
Chinese letters
letters andand
philosophy.
philosophy. The newcomers
newcomers mingled
mingled their
their blood
blood in
in marriage
marriage with
with the
the older
older
stocks, and
stocks, and the
the mixture
mixture provided
provided aa slowslow biological
biological prelude
prelude to the :first
to the his-
first his-

toric civilization of
toric civilization the Far
of the East.
Far East.

4.
4. The First Chinese
The First Chinese Civilization
Civilization

The feudal Age in

Feudal Age m China-An
ChinaAn able
able minister-The struggle be-
minister The struggle be-
tween
tween custom
custom and
and law
law - Culture
Culture and
and tmIl1chy
anarchy - Love
LO'lJe
lyrics trom
lyrics from the
the "Book
"Book of
of D.des"
Odes"

The feudal
feudal states
states that
that now provided
provided for almost a.
for almost thousand years
a thousand years what-
what-
ever political order China was
ever political order China was to enjoy, to enjoy, were
were not
not the
the creation
creation of
of the
the con-
con-
querors; they had grown out of the
querors; they had grown out of
the agricultural
agricultural communities of primitive
communities of primitive
days through
days through
the
the absorption
absorption of
of the
the weaker
weaker by
by the
the stronger,
stronger, or the merger
or the merger
of
of groups
groups under
under a
a common chief
chief for
for the
the defense
defense of of their
their fields
fields against the
against the
encompassing barbarians.
barbarians. At one one time
time there
there were over over seventeen
seventeen hundred
encompassing
of
of thesethese principalities, or~y consisting of
principalities, ordinarily consisting
of a walled town surrounded by
a walled by
cultivated land,
cultivated land, with
with smaller
smaller wall~d
walled suburbs
suburbs constituting
constituting a a protective
protective circum-
1I
ference. Slowly
Slowly these
these provinces coalesced intointo fifty-five, covering what is
fifty-five, covering
18
provinces coalesced
ference. is

nnw the district

now the district of of Honan with neighbqring
with neighboring portions portions of
of Shan-si,
Shan-si, Shen-si
Shen-si
and
and Shantung.
Shantung. Of these
these fifty-five
fifty-five
the
the most
most important
important were Ts'i,
Ts'i, which laid
laid

the bases
the bases ofof Chinese
Chinese government,
government, ~d
and Chin
Chin (or
(or Tsin),
Tsin), which conquered
conquered all
all

the
the rest,rest, established
established a a unified
unified empire,
empire,
and
and gave
gave to
to China
China the
the name by
by which
itit isis known
known to to nearly all the world but
nearly all the world
but itself.
itself.

The
The organizing genius of
organizing genius
of Ts'i
Ts'i was Kuan Chung, Chung, adviser
adviser to to the
the Duke
Huan.
Huan. Kuan began began his
his career
career in
in history by supporting
history by supporting Huan's
Kuan's brother
646
646 THEE STOR
TH STORY CIVILIZATION
Y OF C IV IL I ZA TI ON (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXIII
XXECt

against him in their competition for

against him in their competition
for thethe control
control of Ts'~ and
of Ts'i, and almost
almost killed
killed

Huan in battle. Huan won,

in battle. captured
won, captured Kuan, Kuan, and
and appointed
appointed him chief
chief min-
min-
ister of the state.
ister of the state. Kuan Kuan made
made his
his master
master powerful by
powerful by replacingreplacing bronze
bronze with
with
iron weapons and
iron weapons tools, and
and tools, and by by establishing governmental monopoly or
establishing governmental monopoly
or
control
control of of iron
iron and and salt.
salt. He taxedtaxed money,
money, fish
fish and
and salt,
salt, "in
"in order'
order to
to help
help
his long ministry Ts'i
poor' and
the poor
the reward wise
and reward wise and able men.'nD
and able men."" During During his long ministry Ts'i
became aa well-ordered
became well-ordered state, with a
state, with a stabilized
stabilized currency,
currency, an an efficient
efficient admin-
admin-
istration,
istration, and
and a
a flourishing
flourishing
culture.
culture. Confucius,
Confucius, who praised politicians only
praised politicians only
by epitaph,
by epitaph, said
said ofof Kuan:
Kuan: "Down to
to the present
the present day
day the
the people
people enjoy
enjoy the
the
gifts
gifts
which
which he
he conferred.
conferred. But
But for
for Kuan Chung Chung we should
should now be
be wear-
wear-
ing our hair disheveled, and the lappets of our coats buttoning on the
ing our hair disheveled, and the lappets of our coats buttoning the left
left

side.""
side,"**
In the feudal
In the feudal courts
courts was was developed
developed the the characteristic
characteristic courtesy of
courtesy of the the
Chinese gentleman.
Chinese gentleman. Gradually Gradually a
a code
code of
of manners, ceremonies
manners, ceremonies and honor was and honor was
established,
established, which which became
became so strict that
so strict that itit served
served as as a a substitute
substitute for for religion
religion
among
among the
the upper
upper classes
classes ofof society.
society.
The foundations
foundations of
of law
law were
were laid,
laid, and
and a a
great struggle set in
set in between
between the
the rule'
rule- ofof custom
custom as
as developed among the
the
great struggle developed among
people and
people and the the rule
rule ofof law
law asas formulated
formulated by by thethe state.
state. Codes
Codes of of law
kw werewere
issued by
issued the duchies
duchies of of Cheng
by the Cheng and and ChinChin (535, (535, 512 B.C.), much to
512 B.C.), to the
the
horror of
horror of thethe peasantry,
peasantry, who predicted
predicted divine
divine punishment
punishment for
for such
such out-
out-
rages; and
rages; and indeed
indeed the the capital of Cheng was soon "afterward destroyed by
capital of Cheng was soon afterward destroyed by
:fire.
fire. The codes codes were were partial
partial
to
to the
the aristocracy,
aristocracy,
were exempted
who were exempted fz:om fipm thethe
regulations
regulations on
on condition
condition that
that they
they should
should discipline themselves;
discipline themselves; gentlemen
gendemen
murderers were
murderers allowed to
were allowed to commit
commit suicide,
suicide, and most of
and most did, in
them did,
of them in the
the
fashion
fashion laterkter so so popular in stmz1J,rai Japan.
popular in samurai Japan. The people people protested
protested thatthat they,
they,
too, could
too, could discipline themselves, and
discipline themselves,
and called
called for for some
some Harmoditis
Harmodius or or Aristo-
Aristo-
giton liberate them from this
to liberate this new tyranny of
giton to tyranny of law. law. In the end
In the end thethe two
two
hostile forces,
hostile forces, custom
custom and
and law,
law, arrived
arrived at
at a
a wholesome
wholesome compromise:.
compromise:, the the
reach of
reach of law
law was was narrowed
narrowed to to major
major or
or national
national issues,
issues, while
while the
the force
force of
of
custom continued in
custom continued in all minor
all minor matters;
matters; and and since human affairs
since human affairs are
are mostly
mostly
minor matters,
minor matters, custom
custom remained
remained king. king.
the organization states proceeded, it
As the organization of of states proceeded, it found found formulation
formulation it}. the
in "the
Cbou-Ii,
Choifi-li, or
or Law of
of Chou,
Chou, a
a volume
volume traditionally
traditionally
but
but incredibly
incredibly
ascribed
ascribed to
to
Chou-kung,
Chou-kung, uncle
uncle and
and prime
prime minister
minister of
of the
the second
second Duke of
of Chou.
Chou. This
This
legislation,
legisktion, suspiciously infused ~th
suspiciously infused with the the spirit of
of Confucius
Confucius and and Mencius,
Mencius,
spirit
therefore in
and therefore all likelihood
in all likelihood a product of
a product of thethe end rather than
end rather than ofof the
the be-
be-
ginning
ginning of
of the
the Chou Dynasty,
Dynasty, set
set for
for two
two thousand
thousand years
years the
the Chinese
Chinese con-
con-
ception
ception of of government:
government: an an emperor
emperor rulingruling as as the vicar and
the vicar and "Son
"Son of of Heaven,"
Heaven,"

•* This is Confucius' gloomy

is Confucius'
way of
gloomy way of indicating ~t but
indicating that but for Kuan the
for Kuan the punese
Chinese people
people
would still be
would still barbarians; for
be barbarians; for the
the barbarians
barbarians habitually buttoned their
habitually buttoned coats on
their coats the l~
on the left
s
side."i d e . - " · .
CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 647
647
and holding
holding power power through
through the possession of
the possession of virtue
virtue and piety; an
and piety; an aristocracy,
aristocracy,
partly
partly of
of birth
birth and partly
partly of
of training, administering
training, administering
the
the offices
offices of
of the
the state;
state;
aa people
people dutifully tilling
dutifully tilling the
the soil, living
soil, living in
in patriarchal families, enjoying
patriarchal families, enjoying civil
civil
rights
rights but
but having
having no voice
voice in
in public affairs; and a cabinet
public affairs; and a cabinet of six ministries of six ministries
controlling respectively the
controlling respectively the lifelife and
and activities
activities of of thethe emperor, the welfare
emperor, the welfare
and early marriage
early marriage of
of the
the people,
people, the
the ceremonies
ceremonies and
and divinations
divinations of
of religion,
religion,
the preparation
the preparation and and prosecution
prosecution of
of war,
war, the
the administration
administration of
of justice,
justice,
and
and
1I
the organization
the organization of
of public
public works.
works.* It
It is an
is an almost
almost ideal
ideal code,
code, more
more probably
probably
sprung
sprung from the the mind of of some
some anonymous
anonymous and and irresponsible
irresponsible
Plato than
Plato than fromfrom
the practice
the practice of of leaders
leaders sullied
sullied withwith actual power and
actual power d~aling with
and dealing with actual
actual men.men.
Since
Since much deviltry deviltry can
can find
find room even
even in
in perfect
perfect
constitutions,
constitutions, the
the polit-
polit-
ical history of China
ical history of China during
during the the Feudal
Feudal Age Age ,vaswas the the usual
usual mixture
mixture of of perse-
perse-
vering rascality with
vering rascality with periodic reforms. As wealth
periodic reforms. increased, luxury
wealth increased, luxury and and ex- ex-
travagance corrupted
travagance corrupted the
the aristocracy,
aristocracy,
while
while musicians
musicians and
and assassins,
assassins, courte-
courte-
sans
sans and philosophers mingled later in at Lo-
and philosophers mingled at at the
the courts,
courts, and and later in thethe capital
capital
at Lo-
yang. Hardly
yang. Hardly a a decade
decade passed
passed without
without some some assault
assault upon the
upon the new states states by
by
the hungry barbarians
the hungry barbarians ever pressing upon
ever pressing upon the the frontiers.
frontiers.
881I
War became
became a a
necessity
necessity of
of defense,
defense, and
and soon
soon aa method
method of
of offense;
offense; it
it graduated from
graduated from a
a
game
game of
of the
the aristocracy
aristocracy to
to competitive slaughter
competitive slaughter among among the
the people;
people; heads
heads
were cut cut off off by tens
were by tens of of thousands.
thousands. Within Within a a little more than
little more than two cen- cen-
turies, regicides
turies, regicides disposed
disposed of of thirty-six kings'" Anarchy grew, and
4
thirty-six kings.* Anarchy grew,
and thethe sages
sages
despaired.
despaired.
Over these ancient
ancient obstacles
obstacles life life made its its plodding way.
Over these plodding way. The peasant peasant
sowed
sowed and reaped, occasionally
and reaped, occasionally for
for himself,
himself, usually
usually for for hishis feudal
feudal lord,
lord, to to
whom both both he he and
and the
the land
land belonged;
belonged; not
not until
until the
the end
end of
of the
the dynasty
dynasty did
did
peasant proprietorship raise its
peasant proprietorship raise
its head.
head. The state-i.e.,state i.e., a a loose
loose association
association of of
feudal barons faintly
feudal barons acknowledging one
faintly acknowledging
one ducal
ducal sovereign-conscripted
sovereignconscripted labor labor
for public works,
for public works, and and irrigated the
the fields
fields with
with extensive
extensive canals;
canals; officials in-
officials in-
irrigated
structed
structed the people in
the people in agriculture
agriculture and
and arboriculture,
arboriculture, and supervised
supervised the
the silk
silk

industry in all its details. Fishing and the

industry in all its details. Fishing and
mining of
the mining salt were in
of salt in many
many
provinces monopolized
provinces monopolized by
by the
the government.-
government.* Domestic
Domestic trade
trade flourished
flourished in in
the towns, and begot a small
the towns, and begot a small bourgeoisie possessed bourgeoisie possessed of
of almost
almost modem
modern com-
forts: they wore
forts: they wore leather
leather shoes,
shoes, and and dresses
dresses of homespun or
of homespun or silk;
silk; they
they rode rode
in
in carts
carts or or ch¢ots,
chariots, or or traveled
traveled on the rivers by
the rivers boat; they lived in
they lived in well-
well-
by boat;
built houses,
built houses, used used tables
tables and and chairs,'
chairs, and and ate ate their
their food
food from plates plates and dishesdishes

of
of ornamented
ornamented pottery;- their
their standard
standard of of living
living was probably
was probably higher higher than
8
than
pottery;"
that
that of
of their
their contemporaries
contemporaries in
in Solon's
Solon's Greece,
Greece, or
or Numa's
Numa's Rome.

Amid conditions
Amid of disunity
conditions of disunity and
and apparent
apparent chaos the mental
chaos the mental life
life of
of China
China
showed
showed a vitality disturbing
disturbing to
to the generalizations of historians. For in
the generalizations
a vitality of historians. in
this disorderly
this age
disorderly age
were
were laid
laid the bases
the bases of China's
of China's language,
language, literature,
literature,
648
648 THE
THE STORY 0 P' CIVILIZATION
S TOR Y OF C I V I LIZ A T ION (CHAP. XXIII
(CHAP. XXIII

philosophy and art; the combination

philosophy and art; the
combination of
of aa life
life made
made newly
newly secure
secure by eco-
by eco-
nomic organization
nomic organization and
and provision,
provision, and
and aa culture
culture not
not yet
yet forged
forged into con-
into con-
formity by the tyranny of inescapable tradition and
formity by the tyranny of inescapable tradition
and anan imperial
imperial govern-
govem-
ment, served
ment, served as
as the
the social
social framework
framework for
for the
the most
most creative period
creative in the
period in the
history
history
of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese mind.
mind. At
At every
every court,
court, and
and in
in aa thousand
thousand to~
towns and
and
villages, poets sang, potters turned
villages, poets sang, potters
turned their
their wheels,
wheels, founders
founders castcast stately
stately
vessels, leisurely
vessels, leisurely scribes
scribes formed
fonned intointo beauty
beauty thethe characters
characters ofof the
the written
written
language, sophists
language, sophists taught
taught to
to eager
eager students
students the
the tricks
tricks of
of the
the intellect, and
intellect, and
philosophers pined over the
philosophers pined over
the imperfections
imperfections of of men and and the
the decadence
decadence of of
states.
states.
We shall
shall study
study the
the art and language
art and language later, in their
later, in their more
more complete
complete and and
characteristic development;
characteristic development; but but die
the poetry
poetry and and the
the philosophy
philosophy belong
belong
specifically
specifically
to
to this
this age,
age,
and
and constitute
constitute the
the classic
classic period
period of
of Chinese
Chinese thought.
thought.
Most of
Most of the
the verse
verse written
written before
before Confucius
Confucius has has disappeared;
disappeared; what
what remains
remains
of is chiefly
it is
of it chiefly his
his own stern
stem selection
selection ofof the
the more
more respectable
respectable samples,
samples,
gathered together in
gathered together
in the
the Shi-Cbing,
Shi-Ching, or or "Book
"Book of of Odes,"
Odes," ranging
ranging over
over aa
thousand years from
thousand years from ancient
ancient compositions
compositions of of the
the Shang
Shang Dynasty
Dynasty to highly
to highly
modem
modern poemspoems as
as recent
recent as
as Pythagoras.
Pythagoras. Its
Its three
three hundred
hundred and
and :five
five odes
odes
celebrate
celebrate withwith untranslatable brevity and
untranslatable brevity and suggestive
suggestive imagery
imagery the the piety
piety
of religion, the
of religion, the hardships
hardships of
of war,
war, and
and the
the solicitude
solicitude of
of love.
love. Hear thethe
timeless
timeless lament
lament of of soldiers
soldiers tom
torn from
from their
their homes
homes andand dedicated
dedicated to to un-
un-
intelligible
intelligible
death:
death:

How free
free are
are the
the wild
wild geese their wings,
geese on their wings,
And the
And the rest
rest they
they find
find on the
the bushy
bushy Yu trees!
trees!

But we, ceaseless"

But we, ceaseless toilers
toilers in
in the
the Icing's services,
king's services,
Cannot
Cannot even
even plant
plant
our
our millet
millet and
and rice.
rice.

What will
will our
our parents
parents
have
have toto rely
rely on?
on?
oO thou
thou distant
distant and
and azure
azure Heaven!
Heaven!
When shall
shall all
all this
this end?
end? • • .
. . .

What leaves
leaves have
have not
not turned
turned purple?
purple?
What man isis not
not tom from his
torn from his wife?
wife?
Mercy
Mercy be
be on
on us
us soldiers:-
soldiers:

Are we not
Are not also
also men?"
men?"

Though this
:Though this age
age appears, to our
appears, to
our ignorance,
ignorance, to
to have been almost
have been almost the
the
barbaric infancy
barbaric infancy of
of China,
China, love
love poetry abounds in
poetry abounds the Odes,
in the and plays
Odes, and plays
aa ~ut
gamut of
of many
many moods.
moods. In
In one
one of
of these poems,
these whispering
poems, whispering to
to us
us across
across
CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE
THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 649
649
those
those buried
buried centuries
centuries that
that seemed
seemed so
so model
model to to Confucius,
Confucius, wewe hear
hear the
the
voice of eternally
voice of eternally rebellious
rebellious youth,
youth, as
as if
if to
to say
say
that
that nothing
nothing
is
is so
so old-
old-
fashioned as revolt:
fashioned as revolt:

II pray
pray you,
you, dear,
dear,
My
My little hamlet
itde hamlet leave,
leave,
Nor break my
Nor break my willow-boughs;
willow-boughs;
Tis not
'Tis not that
that II should
should grieve,
grieve,
But fear my sire
But II fear to rouse.
my sire to rouse.
Love
Love pleads
pleads with
with passion
passion disarrayed,-
disarrayed,
sire's commands must be
"A sire's
"A be obeyed."
obeyed."

II pray
pray you,
you, dear,
dear,
Leap
Leap not across
across my
my wall,
wall,
Nor break my
Nor break mulberry-boughs;
my mulberry-boughs;
Not that
that II fear their fall,
fear their fall,

But lest my
But lest
my brother's
brother's wrath should rouse,
wrath should rouse,
Love pleads with passion disarrayed,-
Love pleads passion disarrayed,
"A brother's
brother's words must
must be be obeyed."
obeyed."

II pray
pray you,
you, dear,
dear,
Steal not the
Steal not the garden
garden down,
down,
break my
Nor break my sandal trees;
sandal trees;
that II care
Not that for these,
care for these,
But oh,
But dread the
oh, II dread talk of
the talk of town.
town.
Should lovers
Should lovers have
have their
their wilful way,
wilful way,
Whatever would the
Whatever the neighbors say?-
neighbors say?*

another-the
And another most nearly
the most nearly perfect,
perfect, or
or the
the most
most excellently
excellently translated,
translated,
of all
of all-reveals to us
reveals to us the
the ageless antiquity of
ageless antiquity of sentiment:
sentiment:
The morning
The morning glory
climbs above
glory climbs my
above my head,
head,
Pale flowers
Pale llowers of
of white
white and
and purple,
purple, blue
blue and red.
and red.
I am
I disquieted.
am disquieted.
Down in
Down in the
the withered
withered grasses
grasses something
something stirred;
stirred;
I.1 thought it was his
thought it was his footfall
footfall that heard; .
that II heard; .

Then aa grasshopper
Then chirred.
gras$opper chirred
I climbed the hill just as the new moon showed,
I climbed the hill
just
as the new moon showed,
I sa:w. him coming on the
I saw. him so~them road,
coming on the southern road,
My heart
My heart lays
layS down
down its load.·
its load"
650 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XXIII
(CHAP.XXHI

5. The
5. Pre-Confucitr1z Philosophers
The Pre-Confucian Pl,:losophers
The "Book
The "Book of
of Changes"-The
Cbanges"-The "yang" tmd the
"yang" and the "ym"-The Chinese
"yin"-The Chinese
Enlightenment-Teng Shih,
Enlightenment-Teng Shih, the
the Socrates
Socrates of China
of China
The characteristic
The characteristic production
production of
of this epoch isis
this epoch philosophy. It philosophy.
no It isis no
discredit to
discredit to our
our species
species that
that in all ages
in all ages its curiosity its has
curiosity has outrun its wisdom,
outrun its wisdom,
and its
and its ideals
ideals have
have set
set an
an impossible
impossible pace for its
pace for its behavior.
behavior. As far back
far back
as IZSO B.C.
as 1250 B.C. we find find
Yu Tze sounding the keynote
Tze sounding the keynote in
in a
a fragment
pithy fragment pithy
then already stale,
then already stale, and
and now now stillstill fresh
fresh in in counsel
counsel to to laborious
laborious word-word-
mongers
mongers who
who do
do not
not know
know that
that all
all glory
glory ends
ends in
in bittemess:
bitterness: "He who
renounces fame
renounces fame has has nono sorrow"
sorrow"ao-happy
80

happy the the man who has has nono history!

history!
From that
From time until
that time until our
our own,own, China
China has has produced
produced philosophers.
philosophers.
As India
As India is par excellence
is par excellence the the land
land of of metaphysics
metaphysics and and religion,
religion, China
China
is like
is by like
by preeDJ.inence
preeminence the
the home
home of
of humanistic,
humanistic, or
or non-theological, phi-
non-theological, phi-
losophy.
losophy.
Almost
Almost the
the only
only important
important work
work of
of metaphysics
metaphysics in
in its
its literature
literature

is
is the strange document
the strange document with with whichwhich the recorded history
the recorded history of of Chinese
Chinese
thought begins-the
thought begins the I-Ching, I-Ching, or
or "Book
"Book of
of Changes."
Changes." Tradition
Tradition insists
insists

that it
that it was written in
was written in prison by
prison by one of
one of the the founders
founders of the Chou Dynasty,
of the Dynasty,
Wen Wang, and
and that
that its simplest origin went
its went back
back as far as
as far Hsi: this
as Fu Hsi: this
Wang, simplest origin
legendary emperor,
legendary emperor, we are told, invented
are told, invented the eight kua,
the eight kua, or mystic tri-
or mystic tri-

grams,
grams, which
which Chinese
Chinese metaphysics·
metaphysics identifies
identifies withwith the
the laws
laws and
and elements
elements
of nature. Each
of nature. Each trigram
trigram consisted
consisted of of three
three lines-some continuous and
lines some continuous and
representing
representing the
the male
male principle
principle or
or yang,
yang, some
some broken
broken and
and representing
representing
the female principle
the female or yin. In
principle or ym.
In this
this mystic
mystic dualism
dualism the yang represented
the yang represented
also the positive,
also the positive,
active,
active, productive
productive and
and celestial
celestial principle of
principle
of light,
light,
heat
heat
and
and life,
life, while
while the
the ym represented
ym represented the
the negative, passive
negative, passive and
and earthly prin-
earthly prin-
ciple
ciple
of
of darkness,
darkness, cold
cold and
and death.
death. Wen Wang Wang immortalized
immortalized himself,
himself, and and
racked
racked the head of
the head of aa billion
billion Chinese, by
Chinese, by doubling doubling the
the number of
of strokes,
strokes,
and thereby
and raising
thereby raising to
to sixty-four
sixty-four the
the number of
of possible
possible combinations
combinations of
of
continuous
continuous and and broken
broken lines.
lines. To each each of these arrangements
of these arrangements some
some law
law
of nature
of nature corresponded.
corresponded. All All science
science and and history
history were contained in
were contained in the
the
changeful interplay
changeful interplay of
of the
the combinations;
combinations; all.
all wisdom
wisdom lay
lay hidden
hidden in
in the
the
sixty-four hsiangs, or
sixty-four hsitmgs, or ideas
ideas symbolically
symbolically represented
represented by by thethe trigrams;
trigrams;
ultimately
ultimately all
all reality could
reality could be
be reduced
reduced to
to the
the opposition
opposition and
and union
union of
of the
the
two basic
basic factors
factors in in the universe the male
the universe-the male andand thethe female
female principles,
principles,
the
the

yang and
yang and the yin. The Chinese
the yin. Chinese used used the the Book
Book of of Changes
Changes as
as a
a manual
manual
of divination,
of divination, and and considered
considered it it the
the greatest of their classics; he who should
greatest of their classics; he who should
CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXm) THE AGE
THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 65
6511

understand
understand the the combinations,
combinations, we we areare told,
told, would
would grasp all the laws of
grasp all the laws of
nature. Confucius,
nature. Confucius, who edited the
who edited the volume
volume and and adorned
adorned it with commen-
it with commen-
taries, ranked it
taries, ranked above all
it above all other
other writings, and wished that he might be
writings, and wished that he might be
free to spend
spend fifty ty years
years in its study.fA
in its
81
free to fif
study.
This
This strange
strange volume, though congenial
volume, though congenial to to the
the subtle
subtle occultism
occultism of of the
the
Chinese soul, is alien
Chinese soul, is alien to to the
the positive
positive and
and practical spirit of
of Chinese
Chinese phi-
practical spirit phi-
losophy. As far
losophy. far back back as as we we can can pry
pry into into thethe past of China we find
past of China we find
philosophers;
philosophers; but but of those who preceded Lao-tze
of those
preceded Lao-tze time time hashas preserved
preserved only
only
an
an occasional
occasional fragment or
fragment or an
an empty
empty name.
name. As
As in
in India, Persia,
India, Persia, Judea and
Judea and
Greece,
Greece, the
the sixth
sixth and fifth
fifth centuries
centuries saw, in China, a brilliant
saw, in Qhina, a brilliant outburst outburst
of
of philosophical
philosophical and literary genius; and
and as in
as in Greece,
Greece, it it began with an
literary genius; began with an
epoch
epoch of
of rationalist
rationalist "enlightenment."
"enlightenment." An age
age of
of war
war and chaos
and chaos opened opened
new roads
roads toto thethe advancement
advancement of of unpedigreed
unpedigreed talent,
talent, and
and established
established a a
demand,
demand, amongamong the
the people
people of
of the
the towns,
towns, for
for instructors
instructors skilled
skilled in
in impart-
impart-
ing
ing the arts ofof the the mind.
mind. These These popular
popular teachers
teachers soon soon discovered
discovered the
the arts the
uncertainty
uncertainty of
of theology,
theology, the
the relativity
relativity
of
of moraIs
morals and
and the
the impedeetions
imperfections
of
of governments,
governments, and began began to to lp.y
]$y about
about them them withwith Utopias; several of
Utopias; several of
them were put put to to death
death by by authorities
authorities who found found it it more
more difficult
difficult toto
answer
answer thanthan to kill. According to
to kill. According to one
one Chinese
Chinese tradition
tradition Confucius
Confucius him- him-
self, during his
self, during his tenure
tenure of of office
office as as Minister
Minister of Crime in
of Crime the Duchy
in the Duchy of Lu,
of Lu,
condemned to
condemned to death
death a a seditious
seditious officer
officer onon thethe ground
ground that that "he "he waswas capable
capable
of gathering
of about him
gathering about large crowds
him large crowds of of men;
men; thatthat hishis arguments
arguments could could
easily appeal
easily appeal to
to the
the mob and
and make
make perversity respectable;
perversity respectable; and
and that
that his
his
sophistry
sophistry was
was sufficiently
sufficiently recalcitrant
recalcitrant to
to take
take a stand against
a stand against the the accepted
accepted
judgments of
judgments of right."*
right."· Szuma-Ch'ien
Szuma-Ch'ien accepts accepts the the story;
story; somesome other Chinese
other Chinese
historians reject
historians reject it;* it;- let us hope
let us that itit isis not
hope that not true.
true.
The mostmost famous
famous of of these
these intellectual
intellectual rebelsrebels waswas Teng
Teng Shih, Shih, whowho was
was
executed by
executed the Duke
by the Duke of of Cheng
Cheng during
during the the youth
youth of of Confucius.
Confucius. Teng, Teng,
says the
says Book of
the Book of Lieh-tze,
Lieh-tze, "taught
"taught the the doctrines
doctrines of of the
the relativity
relativity of of right
right
and wrong,
and wrong, and and employed
employed inexhaustible
inexhaustible arguments."
arguments."u His 84
His enemies
enemies charged
charged
him with
him being willing
with being willing to to prove
prove oneone thing
thing one one dayday andand its its opposite
opposite thethe
next, ifif proper
next, proper remuneration
remuneration were were forthcoming;
forthcoming; he he offered
offered hxs Ius services
services
those who
to those
to who were trying their
were trying their· cases
cases inin court,
court, andand allowed
allowed no no prejudice
prejudice
to interfere
to interfere with serviceability. A
with serviceability. A hostile
hostile Chinese
Chinese historian
historian tells pretty
tells aa pretty
story of him:
Story of him:

AA wealthy man of
wealthy man of Teng's
Teng's native
native state
state was
was drowned
drowned in
in the
the Wei
Wei
River, andhis body
River, and his wastak~n
body was taken up by
up by aa man
man who
who demanded
demanded of
of the
the
652,
652 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XXIII
(CHAP.XXin

bereaved family
bereaved family aa large sum of money for its redemption. The
large sum of money for its redemptioa
The dead
dead
man's family
man's sought Teng's
family sought Teng's counsel.
counsel. ''Wait,''
'Wait," said
said the
the Sophist;
Sophist;
"no other family
"no other will pay for
family will pay for the
the body."
body." The
The advice
advice was
was followed,
followed,
and
and the
the man
man who held the
who held the corpse became anxious and also came to
corpse became anxious and also came
to
Teng
Teng Shih
Shih for
for advice.
advice. The
The Sophist gave the same·
Sophist gave the same
counsel:
counsel: ''Wait;
'Wait;
nowhere
nowhere else can they
else can
they obtain the body.'"
obtain the
body."*

Teng Shih
Teng Shih composed
composed aa code
code ofof penology
penology that
that proved
proved too
too idealistic
idealistic for
for the
the
government
government of Cheng.
of Cheng. Annoyed
Annoyed by pamphlets in
by pamphlets in which Teng criticized
which Teng criticized

his
his policies, the
policies, the prime
prime ~ter
minister prohibited
prohibited the
the posting
posting
of
of pamphlets in
pamphlets i

public Teng his pamphlets

public places. Teng thereupon delivered his pamphlets in person. The
places. thereupon delivered in person. The
forbade the
minister forbade
minister the delivery
delivery of
of pamphlets. Teng smuggled
pamphlets. Teng smuggled them
them to
to his
his
readers
readers by concealing
by concealing them in
in other
other articles.
articles. The
The government ended
government ended the the
argument by
argUment by cutting off his
cutting off his head.-
88
head.

6.
6. The
The Old
Old Master
Master

Lao-tze-The "TflO"-On
Lao-tze-The intellectuals in
"Tao"-On intellectuals government-The foolish-
m government-The foolish-
ness
ness of
of lflrws-A Rousseauim Utopia
tews-A Rousseauian and a
Utopia and a Christian
Christian ethic-
ethic-
Portrait of
Portrait of a 'Wise
a wise 'ffJIln-Tbe of Lao-tze
meeting of
man-The meeting Lao-tze and
and
Confucius
Confucius

Lao-tze, greatest of the pre-Confucian

Latf-tze, greatest of the pre-Confucian philosophers,
philosophers, was was wiser
wiser than
than
Teng Shih; he
Teng Shih; he knew the the wisdom
wisdom of of silence,
silence, and
and lived,
lived, wewe maymay bebe sure,
sure,
to ripe old
to aa ripe old age-though
age-though we are are not
not sure
sure that
that he
he lived
lived at all. The
at all. The Chinese
Chinese
historian, Szuma
historian, Ch'ien, tells
Szuma Ch'ien, tells how Lao-tze,
Lao-tze, disgusted with the
disgusted with the knavery
knavery of of
politicians and
politicians and tired of his
tired of his work
work as as curator
curator of of the
the Royal
Royal Library
Library of of
Chou, determined
Chou, determined to to leave
leave China
China andand seekseek some
some distant
distant and and secluded
secluded
countryside. "On
countryside. ccOn reaching
reaching thethe frontier
frontier the the warden,
warden, Yin Hs~ said
Yin Hsi, said to him:
to him:
'50 you
'So you are
are going
going into retirement. II beg
into retirement. beg youyou toto write
write aa book
book forfor me.'
me.'
Thereupon Lao-tze wrote a book,
Thereupon Lao-tze wrote a book, inin two
two parts,
parts, on Tao and
on Tao and Te,Te, extending
extending
to over
to over five
five thousand
thousand words.
words. He then went
He then ~way, and
went away, and nono one
one knows
knows
where he
where he died.""
died."'" Tradition, whi~ knows
Tradition, which knows everydhiing,
everything, credits him with
credits him with
living eighty-seve~ years.
living eighty-seven years. All
All that
that remains
remains of himisis his
of him his name
name and his book,
and his book,
neither of
neither of which
which maymay have
have belonged
belonged to to him. Lao-tze isis aa description,
him. Lao-tze description,
meaning "The
meaning "The OldOld Master";
Master"; hishis real
real name,
namet we we areare told,
told, was Li-that isis
was Li-that
to say, aa plum.
to say, plum. The The book which isis ascribed
book which ascribed to him isis of
to him of such
such doubtful
doubtful
 cHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXO) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
THE 653
653

authenticity
authenticity that that scholars
scholars quarrel
quarrel learnedly about its origin.· But all are
learnedly about its origin.* But all are
agreed
agreed that
that the
the Tllo.. Te-Ching-i.e.,
Tao-Te-Ching-i.e., the
the "Book
"Book of the Way
of the Way and and ofof Vir-
Vir-
tue"-is the most important
tue" is the most important text text of
of that Taok philosophy
that Taoist which, in the
philosophy which, in the
opinion
opinion of
of Chinese
Chinese students,
students, existed
existed long
long
before
before Lao-tze,
Lao-tze, found
found many first-
many first-

rate defenders after

rate defenders after him,
him, andand became
became the the religion of a considerable minority
religion of a considerable minority
of
of the Chinese from his
the Chinese his time
time to
to our
our own.
own. TheThe authorship of the Tllo-Te-
authorship of the Tao-Te-
Ching
Chmg is a secondary
is a
secondary matter;
matter; butbut its
its ideas
ideas are
are among the
among the most
most fascinating
fascinating in
in
the history
the history of
of thought.
thought.
Tao
Tao means
means the the Way:
Way: sometimes
sometimes the the Way
Way of of Nature,
Nature, sometimes
sometimes the the
Taoist Way
Taoist of wise living; literally, a road. Basically, it is a way
Way of wise living; literally, a road. Basically, it is a way of of
thinking,
thinking, or of refusing
or of refusing to to think; for in
think; for in the
the view
view ofof the
the Taoists thought is
Taoists thought is

aa superficial
superficial affair,
affair, good
good onlyonly for
for argument,
argument, and
and more
more hannful
harmful than
than bene-
bene-
ficial
ficial to
to life; the Way
life; the Way is is to
to be found by
be found the intellect and all its
by rejecting
rejecting the intellect and all its
wares,
wares, and and leading
leading a
a modest
modest life
life of
of retirement,
retirement, rusticity, and
rosticity, and quiet con-
quiet con-
templation
templation of nature. Knowledge is
of Dature. Knowledge is not
not virtue;
virtue; on
on the
the contrary, rascals
contrary, rascals
have increased since"
have increased since* education
education spread. Knowledge
spread. Knowledge is
is not
not wisdom,
wisdom, for for
n~thing
nothing is is so
so far from
far from a a sage
sage as
as an
an "intellectual."
"intellectual." The worst worst conceivable
conceivable
government
government would
would be
be by philosophers;
by philosophers; they they botch
botch every
every natural
natural process
process
with theory;
with theory; their their ability
ability to to ~emake speeches
speeches and ideas is
multiply ideas
and multiply is pre-
pre-
cisely
cisely
the
the sign
sign of
of their
their incapacity
incapacity for
for action.
action.

Those
Those who are are skilled
skilled dodo notnot dispute; the disputatious are not
dispute; the disputatious are not
skilled.
skilled, • • • When we renounce
. . . renounce learning
learning we have no
have no troubles.
troubles. . . •
. . .

sage constantly
The sage constantly keeps
keeps men without without knowledge
knowledge and and without
without
desire, and
desire, and where
where there
there are those who have
are those have knowledge,
knowledge, keeps
keeps them
them
from presuming
from presuming to to aet.
act ....• • The
The ancients
ancients who showed their skill
showed their skill

in
in practising the Tao
practising the Tao did
did so
so not
not to
to enlighten the people, but to
enlighten the people, but to make make
them simple
them simple and
and ignorant.
ignorant. •
. . .• The
. difficulty in
difficulty
governing the
in governing the peo-
peo-
ple
ple arises
arises from
from their
their having
having too
too much
much knowledge.
knowledge. He who tries
tries to
to
govern
govern a
a state
state by
by his
his wisdom
wisdom is
is a
a scourge
scourge to
to it,
it, while
while he
he who does
does
not do
not do so is aa blessing.
so is blessing.40
40

intellectual man isis aa danger

The intellectual danger to
to the
the state
state because he
because thinks in
he thinks in terms
terms
of regulations and
of regulations and laws;
laws; he
he wishes
wishes to
to construct
construct aa society
society like
like geometry,
geometry,
and does
and does not
not realize that
realize that such
such regulation
regulation destroys
destroys the
the living
living freedom
freedom and
and
*
• Professor Giles considers it a forgery composed after fiee pilfering from
by free pilfering from
I.e. by
Professor Giles considers it a forgery composed after 200 B.C.
the worb of the essayist and critic, Han Fei;- Dr. Legge holds that the frequent refer-
the works of the essayist and critic, Han Fei;* Dr.
Legge holds that the frequent refer-
to Lao (as "Lao Tan") in
ences to in Chuang-tze and in
in Szuma Ch'ien warrant
ences Lao (as "Lao Tan") Chuang-tze and Szuma Ch'ien continued belief
warrant continued belief
In the-
in the" authenticity of die
authenticity of Tao-Te-Cbmg.-
the Tao-Te-Chmg? . .
654
654 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.xxm
(CHAP. XXIH

vigor of the parts.

The simpler man, knows from
vigor of the parts. The simpler man, who knows
his own experi-
from his experi-
ence the
ence the pleasure
pleasure and
and efficacy
efficacy of
of work
work conceived
conceived and
and carried
carried out in lib-
out in lib-
erty, isis less
erty,
less of
of aa peril
peril when
when hehe is in power,
is in power, for for he
he does
does notnot have
have toto be
be told
told
that a law is a dangerous thing, and may
that a law is a dangerous thing, and may injure more than injure more than it
it may help.u
may help.
41

Such aa ruler
Such ruler regulates
regulates men men asas little
little as
as possible;
possible; if if he
he guides
guides thethe nation
nation it it
is
is away from all
away from all artifice artifice and
and complexity
complexity towards
towards a
a normal
normal and
and artless
artless

simplicity,
simplicity,
in
in which
which life
life would
would follow the
follow the wisely
wisely thoughtless
thoughtless routine
routine of of
nature,
nature, and
and even
even writing
writing would
would be
be put
put aside
aside as
as an
an unnatural
unnatural instrument
instrument
of befuddlement
of befuddlement and and deviltry.
deviltry. Unhampered
Unhampered by by regulations
regulations from from thethe gov-
gov-
ernment,
ernment, the
the spontaneous
spontaneous economic
economic impulses
impulses of
of the
the people-their
people their own
lust for
lust for bread
bread and and love
love-would
would movemove the the wheels
wheels of of life in aa simple
life in simple andand
wholesome round.
wholesome round. ThereThere would
would be be few
few inventions,
inventions, for for these only add
these only add
to the
to the wealth
wealth of of the
the rich
rich and
and thethe power
power of of the
the strong;
strong; there
there would
would be be
no books,
no books, no no lawyers,
lawyers, no no industries,
industries, and only village
and only village trade.
trade.

In the
In the kingdom
kingdom thethe multiplication
multiplication of
of prohibitions
prohibitions increases
increases the
the
poverty of
poverty the people.
of the people. The more
more implements
implements to add to their
to add to their profit
pront
the people have,
the people have, the
the greater
greater disorder
disorder is there
is there in the
in the state
state and
and clan;
clan;
the more
the more acts
acts of
of crafty
crafty dexterity
dexterity
possess, the
men possess, more do
the more do strange
strange
contrivances
contrivances appear;
appear;
the
the more
more display display
there
there is of
is of legislation,
legislation,
the
the
more
more thieves and robbers there are. Therefore
thieves and robbers there are. Therefore a a sage
sage hashas said:
said:

"I will do
"I will do nothing,
nothing, and
and the people
the people willwill bebe transformed
transformed of of them-
them-
selves;
selves; I will be
I will be fond
fond ofof keeping
keeping still,
still, and
and the
the people
people will
will of
of them-
them-
selves
selves be correct II will
be correct will take
take no
no trouble
trouble about
about it, and
it, and the people will
the people will
of
of themselves
themselves become
become rich;
rich; I
I will
will manifest
manifest no
no ambition,
ambition, and
and the
the
people
people will
will of
of themselves
themselves attain
attain to
to the
the primitive simplicity.•••
primitive simplicity. . . .

In
In aa little
little state with a
state with a small population II would
small population would so so order
order itit that
that
though
though there
there would
would be
be individuals
individuals in
in it
it with
with the
the abilities
abilities of
of ten
ten or
or
aa hundred
hundred men, men, there
there should
should bebe no
no employment
employment for
for them;
them; I
I would
would
make thethe people,
people, while
while looking upon de~th
looking upon death as as a
grievous thing,
a grievous
thing, yet
yet
not
not remove
remove elsewhere
elsewhere (to
(to avoid
avoid it). Though
it). Though they they had
had boats
boats and
and
carriages,
carriages, theythey should
should have
have nono occasion
occasion to ride in
to ride in them;
them; though
though
they
they hadhad buffbuff coats
coats and
and sharp weapons,
sharp weapons, they they should
should have
have no no oc-oc-
casion
casion to to don or or use
use them.
them. II would make the the people
people
return
return to
to the
the
use
use of knotted cords.·
of knotted cords.* They should
They should think
think their
their (coarse)
(coarse) food
food
sweet, their (plain) clothes
sweet, their (plain) clothes beautiful,
beautiful, .their
.their (poor) dwellings places
(poor) dwellings places
of
of rest,
rest, and their common ways sources
and their
ways sources of of enjoyment.
enjoyment There There should
should

•*A
A fonn
form of
of communication
communication that
that precede
precededa writing.
writing. The word make is
word make is rather
rather un-
un-
Laotzian.
Laotzian.
CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
THE 655
655
be aa
be state within
neighboring state within sight, and
and the voices of
the voices the fowls
of the fowls and
and
neighboring sight,
dogs
dogs should
should be heard all
all the
the way
way from
from it to us; but I would make
it to us; but I would make

the people
the people to old age,
age, even
even to
to death, have any
not have
death, not any intercourse
intercourse
with it.-
with it" .

But what is
But what is this
this nature
nature which
which Lao-tze wishes to
Lao-tze wishes to accept as his guide?
accept as his guide?
The
The Old Master Master draws
draws as as sharp a
sharp a distinction
distinction between nature and
between nature and civiliza-
civiliza-
tion as Rousseau
tion as Rousseau was to to dodo in that gallery of
in that of echoes
echoes called
called "modem
"modern
gallery
thought." Nature
thought." Nature is natural activity, the
is natural silent flow of traditional events,
activity, the silent flow of traditional events,
the majestic
the majestic order of
order of the seasons and
the seasons and the
the sky; it is the Tao, or Way, exem-
sky; it is the Tao, or Way, exem-
plified
plified and embodied in
in every
every brook
brook and
and rock
rock and
and star; it is
star; it that impartial,
is that
impartial,
imperso~ and yet
impersonal and yet rational law
rational law ofof things to which the law of conduct
things to which the kw of conduct
must conform if
must if men desiredesire to to live
live inin wisdom
wisdom and peace. This
and peace. This lawkw of of
things
things is the
is the Tao or
or way
way of
of the
the universe,
universe, justjust as
as the
the law
law of
of conduct
conduct is the
is the

Tao or or wayw~y of life; in

of life; truth, thinks
in truth, thinks Lao-tze,
Lao-tze, both both Taos
Taos are are one,
one, and and
hunian 'life,
human life, in
in its essential and
its essential and wholesome
wholesome rhythm, rhythm, is is part of
part of the
the rhythm
rhythm
of
of the world. In
the world. In that cosmic Tao
that cosmic Tao allall the
the laws
laws of nature are
of nature are united
united and and
form together
together the the Spinozistic
Spinozistic substance
substance of
of all reality; in
all reality;
in it all
it all natural
natural forms
forms
and varieties find
and varieties find a a proper place, and
proper place, all apparent diversities
and all apparent diversities and and contra-
contra-
dictions meet; it
dictions meet; it is the Absolute
is the Absolute in which all
in which all particulars are
particulars are resolved
resolved into
into
one
one Hegelian
Hegelian unity.unity.· 48

In
In the ancient days,
the ancient says Lao,
days, says Lao, nature
nature made
made men and and life
life simple and
simple and peace-
peace-
ful,
ful, and
and all the world was happy.
all the
happy. But
But then
then men attained
attained "lmowledge,"
"knowledge,"
they complicated life with
with inventions,
inventions, they lost all
they complicated life they lost mental and
all mental and moral
moral inno-
inno-
cence, they moved
cence, they moved from the the fields
fields toto the
the cities,
cities, and began to
and began to write
write books;
books;
hence all
hence all the misery of
the misery of men,
men, and
and the
the tears
tears of
of the
the philosophers.
philosophers. The wise
wise
will shun this cormp~g and
man will
man shun this
this urban
complexity, this
urban complexity, corrupting and enervating
enervating maze maze
of
of law
kw and civilization, and
and civilization, and will
will hide himself in
hide himself the lap
in the lap of
of nature,
nature, far
far from
from
any town, or
any town, books, or
or books, or venal
venal officials,
officials, oror vain reformers. The secret
vain reformers. secret of of
wisdom and
wisdom and of of that
that quiet
quiet content
content whichwhich is is the
the only
only lasting happiness that
lasting happiness that
man can
man find, is
can find, is a Stoic obedience
a Stoic obedience to to nature,
nature, an
an abandonment of
of all
all artifice
artifice

and
and intellect,
intellect, a a trustful:
trustful acceptance
acceptance of
of nature's imperatives in
nature's imperatives in instinct
instinct and

feeling, aa modest
modest imitation
imitation of nature's silent
of nature's ways.
silent ways. Perhaps
Perhaps there there is is no
feeling,
wiser passage in
wiser passage in literature
literature thanthan this:
this:

All things
All things in
in nature
nature work silently. They come into
silently. They
into being
being and
and
possess nothing. They fulfil
possess nothing. They
fulfil their
their function
function and make no
and make no claim.
claim. All
All
things
things
.alike
alike do
do their work,
their work, and
and then
then we see
see them subside.
subside. When

they have reached .their bloom each

they have reached .their bloom
each returns to its origin. Return-
to its origin.
Return-
656
656 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXIII
(CHAP. XXHI

ing to
ing to their
their origin
origin means
means rest, or
rest, or fulfilment
fuIfilment ofof destiny. This re-
destiny. This re-
version is
version an eternal
is an eternal law. know that
law. To know that law wisdom!'
is wisdom.
law is 44

Quiescence, aa kind
Quiescence, kind ofof philosophical
philosophical inaction,
inaction, aa refusal
refusal toto interfere with
interfere with
the natural courses of things,
the natural courses of things, is the is the mark
mark of
of the
the wise
wise man in
in every
every field.
field.

H the
If the state is in
state is in disorder,
disorder, thethe proper thing to
proper thing to do is not
do is not toto reform
reform it, it, but
but toto
make one's
make one's life life an
an orderly performance
orderly performance of
of duty;
duty; if
if resistance
resistance ~
is encoun-
encoun-
tered, the
tered, the wiser
wiser course
course isis not
not to quarre~ fight,
to quarrel, fight, or
or make
make war,war, but
but toto retire
retire
silently,
silently,
and
and to
to win,
win, if
if at
at all, through yielding
all, through yielding and
and patience; passivity
patience; passivity has has
its victories
its victories more
more often
often than
than action. Here Lao-tze talks almost with the
action. Here Lao-tze talks almost with the
accents of
accents Christ:
of Christ:
If you do
If you do not
not quarrel,
quarrel, nono one
one on
on earth
earth will be able
will be able to
to quarrel
quarrel with
with
you.•.•
you. . Recompense injury
Recompense injury
. . with
with kindness.•••
kindness. ... To th~e
those who
are good
are good I
I am good,
good, and
and to
to those
those who are
are n9t
not good
good I
I am also
also

good; thus (all) get to be good. To those

good; thus (all) get to be good.
those who are are sincere
sincere I I am sin-
sin-

cere, and
cere, and to
to those
those who are not sincere
are not sincere I also sincere;
I am also sincere; and thus
and thus
(all) get
(all) get to
to be
be sincere.•••
sincere. . .The
The. softest
softest thing
thing in
in the
the world
world dashes
dashes
against and overcomes the
against and overcomes
the hardest.
hardest. • • • There
. There is
. . is nothing in
nothing in thethe
world softer
world softer oror weaker
weaker thanthan water,
water, and
and yet
yet for
for attacking things
attacking things
that are
that firm and
are firm and strong there is nothing that
strong there is nothing
that can take precedence
can take precedence
of
of it."
it.*
18

All these
All these doctrines culminate in
doctrines culminate in Lao's
Lao's conception
conception of the sage.
of the sage. ItIt is
is char-
char-
acteristic
acteristic of
of Chinese
Chinese thought
thought that
that it
it speaks not
speaks not of
of saints
saints but
but of
of sages,
sages, not
not
so
so much of of goodness ideal is
goodness as as of
of wisdom;
wisdom; to to the
the Chinese
Chinese the
the ideal is not
not the
the pious
pious
devotee
devotee but
but thethe mature
mature andand quiet
quiet
mind,
mind, the
the man who,
who, though
though fit
fit to
to hold
hold
high place
high place in
in the
the world,
world, retires
retires to simplicity
to simplicity and
and silence.
silence. Silence
Silence is
is the
the

beginning of
beginning of wisdom.
wisdom. Even Even of the Tao
of the Tao and
and wisdom
wisdom the the wise
wise man does does
not
not speak,
speak, for
for wisdom
wisdom can
can be
be transmitted
transmitted never
never by only
by words, only by ex-
words, by ex-
ample
ample andand experience.
experience, "He who knows (the (the Way)
Way) doesdoes not speak about
not speak about
it;
it; he
he who speaks
speaks about
about it
it does
does not
not know it. He
it. (who
(who knows it)
it) will
will keep
keep
his mouth
his mouth shutshut and
and close
dose the
the portals
portals of
of his
his nostrils.''''
nostrils." The
47
wise
wise man isis
modest,
modest, for at :6ftyt
for at fif
ty f one
one should
should have
have discovered
discovered .the
.the relativity of
relativity of knowl-
knowl-
edge
edge and
and the
the frailty
frailty
of
of wisdom;
wisdom; if
if the
the wise
wise man knows more than
than other
other
men he he tries
tries toto conceal "he will
it; "he
conceal it; temper his
will temper his brightness,
brightness, and bring him-
and bring him-

•* He adds, with reckless

adds, with gallantry: "Th.e
reckless gallantry: female always
"The female always overcomes
overcomes the
the male
male by
by her
her

stillness."- .
tfThe Chinese think
The Chinese think of the sage
of the sage as
as reaching
reaching the maturity of
the maturity his powers
of his powezs about the age
about the age
of fifty,
of and living,
and through quietude andand wisdom, to a
wisdom, to a century."
41
fifty, living, through quietude century.
CRAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 657
657

self
self into
into agreement
agreement with
with the
the obscurity
obscurity (of
(of others);fIJ
others) he agrees
he with the
agrees with the
;*

simple
simple rather than with the learned, and does not suffer from the novice's
rather than with the learned, and does not suffer from the novice's
instinct
instinct of
of contradiction.
contradiction. He attaches
attaches no
no importance
importance to
to riches
riches or
or power,
power,
but reduces
but his desires
reduces his desires to
to an
an almost
almost Buddhist minimum:
Buddhist minimum:

that my heart
II have
have nothing
nothing that
that I I value;
value; II desire
desire that
my heart be be completely
completely
subdued, emptied
subdued, emptied to
to emptiness.
emptiness.
• • . The . state
state of
. . of emptiness should
emptiness should
• be
.be brought
brought to
to the
the utmost
utmost degree,
degree, and
and that
that of
of stillness
stillness guarded with
guarded with
unwearying vigor.
unwearying vigor. . • . Such
Such
. . a
a.man canno~
cannot be
be treated
treated familiarly
familiarly
or
or
, distandy;
distantly; he
he is
is beyond all
beyond all considerations
considerations of
of profit
profit
or
or injury,
injury,
of
of
nobility
nobility or
or meanness;
meanness; he
he is
is the
the noblest
noblest man
man under
under heaven.1I)
heaven."

It is
It is unnecessary to
unnecessary to point point outout the
the detailed
detailed correspondence of
correspondence of these these ideas
ideas
with those
with those of Jean-Jacques Rousseau;
of Jean-Jacques Rousseau; the the twotwo men were were coins
coins of the same
of the same
mould and
mould mint, however
and mint, different in
however different date. It
in date. It is
is a philosophy that
a philosophy that period-
period-
ically reappears, for
ically reappears, for inin every generation many
every generation many men weary weary of of the
the struggle,
struggle, . .

cruelty,
cruelty, complexity
complexity and and speed
speed of of city life, and write with more idealism
city life, and write with more idealism
than knowledge
than knowledge about about the joys of
the joys rustic routine: one
of rustic routine: must have
one must have a a long
long
urban background in
urban background in order
order to to write
write rural
rural poetry. "Nature"
poetry. "Nature" is
is aa tenn
term
that
that maymay lend
lend itself
itself to to any
any ethic and any
ethic and any theology;
theology; it it fits
fits thethe science
science of of
Darwin
Darwin and and thethe unmorality
immorality of Nietzsche more
of Nietzsche more snugly than the
snugly than the sweet
sweet rea-rea-
sonableness
sonableness of of Lao:'tze
Lao-tze and and Christ.
Christ. H If one
one follows nature and
follows nature and acts acts naturally
naturally
he is
he is much more more likely
likely toto murder
murder and and eat his enemies
eat his enemies than than to to practise
practise
philosophy; there
there is
is smaIl
small chance
chance of
of his being
his being humble,
humble, and
and less of his
less of his being
being
philosophy;
silent.
silent. Even
Even the the painful
painful tillage
tillage
of
of the
the soil
soil goes against the
goes against the grain grain of of aa
species primordially wont to hunt and kill; agriculture is as
species primordially wont to hunt and kill; agriculture is
as "unnatural"
"unnatural" as as

industry.-And
industry. And yet
yet there
there is
is something medicinal
something medicinal in
in this philosophy;
this philosophy; we
suspect that we, too, when our fires
fires begin to burn low, shall see
low, shall see wisdom
suspect that we, too, our begin to burn
in
in it, and
it, and shall
shall want
want the the healing peace
healing peace of
of uncrowded
uncrowded mountains
mountains and spa-
spa-
cious fields.
cious Life oscillates
fields. Life oscillates between
between Voltaire
Voltaire and and Rousseau,
Rousseau, Confucius
Confucius and and
Lao-tte, and Christ. has had
had its its day with
Lao-tze, Socrates
Socrates and Christ. Mter
After everyevery ideaidea has day with us us
and
tod we have fought for it
have fought for it not wisely not wisely or
or too
too well,
well, we in
in our
our tum
turn shall
shall

tire of
tire the battle,
of the battle, andand pass
pass
on
on to
to the
the young
young our
our thinning fascicle
thinning fascicle of of ideals.
ideals.

Then we shall
Then we shall take to take to the
the woods
woods with
with Jacques, Jean-Jacques
Jacques, Jean-Jacques and Lao-tze;
Lao-tze;
we shall
we make friendS
shall make friends of the animals,
of the animals, andand discourse more contentedly
discourse more contentedly than than
Machiavelli
Machiavelli with
with simple peasant
simple peasant minds;
minds; we shall
shall leave
leave the
the world
world to
to stew in
in
its
its own
own deviltry,
deviltry,
and shall
and shall take
take no
no further
further thought
thought of its reform. Perhaps
of its reform. Perhaps
we shall
we burn every
shall burn book
book but
but one
one behind
behind us,
us, and find a summary
:find summary of of
every
wisdom in
wisdom the Tao-Te-Cbing.
in the Tao-Te-Chmg.
658
658 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.xxm:
(CHAP. XXHI

We maymay imagine
imagine how irritating this philosophy must
irritating this philosophy
must have
have been
been to
to Con-
Con-
fucius,
fucius, who,
who, at
at the
the immature
immature age age of
of thirty-four, came up to Lo-yang,
thirty-four, came up to Lo-yang,
capital
capital
of
of Chou,
Chou, and
and sought
sought the
the Old
Old Master's
Master's advice
advice on
on some
some minutiz
minutiae of
of
history.· Lao-tze,
history.* Lao-tze, we are
are told, replied
told, replied with
with harsh
harsh and
and cryptic brevity:
cryptic brevity:

Those
Those about
about whom you you inquire
inquire have
have moulded with their
moulded with their bones
bones
into
into dust.
dust. Nothing but
Nothing but their
their words
words remain.
remain. When the
the hour
hour of
of
the
the great
great man has
has struck
struck he
he rises
rises to
to leadership;
leadership;
but
but before
before his
his time
time • .

has come he
has he isis hampered. inin all
all that
that he
he attempts. I have
I have heard
heard that
that
hampered attempts.
the successful
the successful merchant
merchant carefully conceals his wealth, and acts as
carefully conceals his wealth, and acts as
abounding in
though
though hehe had nothing that the
had nothing-that the great man, though
great man, though abounding in
achievements,
achievements, is is simple in
simple in his
his manners
manners and
and appearanc~.
appearance.
Get
Get rid
rid of
of
. your
.

your pride your many

pride and your many ambitions,
ambitions, your
your affectation
affectation and
and your
your ex-
ex-
travagant
travagant aims.
aims. Your character
character gains nothing
gains nothing
for
for all
all these.
these. This
This
is my advice
is my advice to to you.-
you.*

. rhe
The Chinese historian relates
Chinese historian relates that
that Confucius
Confucius sensed
sensed atat once the wisdom
once the wisdom
of
of these
these words,
words, andand took
took nono offense
offense from
from them;
them; that
that on
on the
the contrary
contrary he he
said
said toto his
his pupils, on hishis return
return from
from the
the dying sage: "I
"I know how birds
birds
pupils, dying sage:
can :By,
fly, :fishes
fishes swim, and animals
swim, and run. Bu~
animals run. But the
the runner
runner may be
be snared, the
the
may snared,
swimmer hooked,
hooked, and the fiyer
and the flyer shot
shot by
by the
the arrow.
arrow. But
But there
there is
is the
the dragon
dragon
-1
-I cannot tell how he
cannot tell he mounts
mounts on on the
the wind
wind through
through ~e
the clouds,
clouds, and
and rises
rises

to heaven.
to heaven. Today
Today II have
have seen Lao-tze, and
seen Lao-tze, and can
can compare
compare him him only
only to
to the
the
fulfil his.
to fulfil his own mission,,
niission,.
01
dragon."·
dragon." Then the new master
the master went
went forth
forth to
and to
and to become
become thethe most
most influential
influential philosopher
philosopher in history.
in history.

D.
n. CONFUCIUS
1. The
1. The Sage
Sage in
in Search of aaStllte
Search. of State

Birth and youth - Marriage

Birth and youth Marriage and divorce -
and divorce Pupils and
- Pupils methods-
tmd methods -
Appell1trf1ce
Appearance and
and character-The
characterThe llldy and the tiger-A
lady and the tiger A defi-defi-
nition oj
nition of good
good government
government - Confucius in office
CO'Ilfucius in office-
Wander-years-Tbe
Wander-years The consolations
consolations of
of old
old age
age

K'ung-fu-tze-K'ung the
K'ung-fu-tze-K'ung the Master,
Master, as his pupils
as his call~d K'ung
pupils called K'ung Ch'iu-was
Ch'iu-was
born at
born at Ch'ufu, in the
Ch'ufu, in the then
then kingdom
kingdom ofof Lu and
and the
the present province of
present province
of
Shantung, in the
Shantung, in the year
year 551
551 B.C. Chinese legend,
B.C. Chinese legend, not
not to
to be
be outdone
outdone by
by any any
*
• The
The story
story isis told by the
told by the greatest
greatest of
of Chinese
Chinese historians,
historians, Szuma Ch'ien,Bl but
Szuma Ch'ien,"1
may be
but itit may be
fiction. We are
fiction. shocked to
are shocked to find
find Lao-tze in the
Lao-tze in the busiest
busiest city of China
city of in his
China in his eighty-seventh
eighty-seventh
year.
year.
CHAP.XXIU)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
THE 659
659
rival lore, tells how apparitions
rival lore, tells announced his illegitimate birth- to his
apparitions announced his illegitimate birth* to his
young mother,
young mother, how dragons dragons kept kept watch,
watch, and and spirit-ladies
spirit-ladies perfumed
perfumed the the
air,
air, as
as she
she waswas delivered
delivered of of him
him in in aa cave.
cave. He had, had, we we are are informed,
informed, the the
back of
back of a a dragon,
dragon, the
the lips
lips
of
of an
an ox,
ox, and
and a
a mouth
mouth like
like the
the sea.
sea.
4Y
6*
He came
came of
of
the oldest
the family now in
oldest family in existence,
existence, for for (the
(the Chinese
Chinese genealogists
genealogists assure
assure
us)
us) he
he was
was derived
derived in
in direct
direct line
line from
from the
the great
great emperor Huang-ti, and
emperor Huang-ti, and
was destined
was destined to to be the father
be the father of of aa long
long succession
succession of of K'ungs,
K'ungs, unbroken
unbroken to to
this day.
this day. His
His descendants
descendants numbered
numbered eleven
eleven thousand
thousand males
males aa century
century ago; ago;
the town
town of birth is
his birth is still
still populated almost of his
the of his populated almost entirely entirely by by thethe fruit
fruit of his
loins-or
loins or thosethose of of his
his only
only son;
son; and
and one
one of
of his
his progeny is
progeny Finance
is Finance Minister
Minister
of the present
of the present Chinese
Chinese Government
Government at a~ Nanking."
Nanking.·
His
His father
father waswas seventy
seventy yearsyears oldold when K'ung K'ung was was born,
born," and
68
and died
died when
the boy
the boy was was three.
three. Confucius
Confucius worked worked after after school
school to to help support his
help support his

mother, and
mother, took on
and took on inin childhood, perhaps, that
childhood, perhaps, that aged
aged gravity
gravity whichwhich was was
to mark
to mark nearly
nearly every
every stepstep of
of his
his history.
history.
Nevertheless
Nevertheless he
he had
had time
time to
to be-
be-
come skilled in
come skilled in archery music; to to the
archery and and music; the latter
latter hehe became
became so so addicted
addicted
that once,
that hearing
once, hearing an
an especially
especially
delectable
delectable performance,
performance, he
he was
was moved
1T
to the
to the point
point of of vegetarianism:
vegetarianism: for for three
three months
months he he did
did notnot eat eat meat.
meat. He
61

did not immediately

did not immediately agree agree with Nietzsche about
with Nietzsche about a a certain
certain incompatibility
incompatibility
between philosophy
between philosophy and
and marriage.
marriage. He married
married at
at divorced his
nineteen, divorced
nineteen, his

wife at
wife twenty-tIu;ee, and
at twenty-three, and doesdoes not
not seem
seem to have married
to have married again.again.
At twenty-two
At twenty-two he
he began
began
his
his career
career as
as aa teacher,
teacher, using
using his
his home as as aa
schoolhouse,
schoolhouse, and and charging
charging whatever
whatever modest modest fee fee his pupils could
his pupils could pay. pay.
Three
Three subjects
subjects foimed
formed the
the substance
substance of
of his
his curriculum:
curriculum: history,
history, poetry,
poetry,
and the rules
and the rules of of propriety.
propriety.
"A man's
man's character,"
character," he said, "is
he said, "is formed
formed by by
the Odes,
the developed
Odes, developed by by the
the Rites"
Rites" (the
(the roles
rules of
of ceremony
ceremony and
and courtesy),
courtesy),
"and perfected by
"and perfected music." Like
by music."·
68
Like Socrates
Socrates he he taught
taught by by word of of mouth
rather than by
rather than by writing,
writing, and and we know his views chie1ly
his views through the
chiefly through the unre-
unre-
liable
liable reports
reports
of
of his
his disciples.
disciples.
He gave
gave to
to philosophers
philosophers an
an example
example seldom
seldom
heeded-to
heeded to attack
attack no no other
other thinker,
thinker, and and waste
waste no time in
no time refutations. He
in refutations.
taught no strict logical method, but
taught no strict logical method,
but he he sharpened
sharpened the the wits
wits of of his
his students
students
by gendy exposing their
by gently exposing their fallacies, fallacies, and
and making
making stem
stern demands upon their
upon their

alertness
alertness of of mind.
mind. ''When'When a a man is is not
not (in(in the habit of)
die habit saying, 'What
of) saying, "What
shall
shall II think
i-hinTr of this?
of this? What shall
shall I
I think
think of
of this?'
this?' I
I can
can indeed
indeeid do nothing
nothing
with him.'" "I
with him."* "I dodo not
not open
open up up the
the truth
truth to
to one
one who is not
is not eager,
eager, nor
nor help
help
out anyone
out any one who
who is
is not
not anxious
anxious to
to explain
explain himself.
himself. When I
I have presented
presented
one
one comer
corner of of a a subject
subject
to
to anyone,
any one, and
and he
he cannot
cannot from
from it learn
it learn thethe other
other
three, I do not repeat mylesson.'" He was oonfideD.t confident that that om)'"
oaly thethe wast
wisest
thi^IdonotiepeatmylessoiL'
660
660 . TH
THEE SSTORY
TOR Y OF CIVILIZATION
OF elVI L I ZAT ION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXIII
XXHI

and the
the stupidest were beyond benefiting from instruction, and that no
stupidest were beyond benefiting from instruction, and that no
could sincerely
one could sincerely study humanistic philosophy
study humanistic philosophy without
without being being improved
improved
in
in character
character as as well
well as as inin mind.
mind. "It "It isis not
not easy
easy to
to :find
find aa man who has has
learned
learned forfor three
three years
years without
without coming
coming to
to be
be good."'ll
good."
11

He hadhad atat fust

first only a
only a few
few pupils, but
but soon
soon the
the news
news wentwent about
about thatthat
pupils,
behind
behind thethe lips of of an
an ox
ox and
and the
the mouth like a sea there
like a sea there was a was a kindly heart
lips kindly heart
and
and a a well-furnished
well-furnished mind, mind, and and in in the
the end
end he could boast
he could boast that
that three
three thou-
thou-
sand young
sand young men had
had studied
studied under
under him,
him, and
and had
had passed from
from his
his home to
home to
passed
important positions
important positions in
in the
the world.
world. Some
Some of
of the
the students-once
students once as
as many
many as as
seventy-lived
seventy-lived with
with him
him like
like Hindu
Hindu novices
novices with
with their
their guru;
guru; and
and they
they de-
de-
veloped
veloped an an a1fection
affection that that often
often spoke
spoke out out inin their
their remonstrances
remonstrances against against
his
his exposure
exposure of of his
his person to
person to danger,danger, or or ofof his
his good name
good name to to calumny.
calumny.
Though always
Though always strict with them,
strict with them, he he loved
loved some
some of of them
them more more than than hishis
own son,
son, and
and wept
wept without
without measure
measure when Hwuy
Hwuy died.
died. "There
"There was
was Yen
Yen
Hwuy,"
Hwuy," he he replied
replied to to Duke Gae, Gae, who had had asked
asked which
which of of his
his pupils
pupils
learned best; "he
learned best; "he loved
loved to to learn....
learn. ... I I have
have notnot yet
yet heard
heard of
of anyone
any one who
loves
loves toto learn
learn (as (as he
he did).
did). .. . . Hwuy
Hwuy gave
. . gave me no
no assistance;
assistance; there
there was
was
nothing that I said which did
nothing that I said which did not give him
not give turn delight. ....
delight.
. . He did did notnot trans-
trans-
fer his
fer his anger; he did not repeat a fault. Unfortunately, his appointed
anger; he did not repeat a fault.
Unfortunately, his appointed time time
was short,
was short, and
and he
he died;
died; and
and now there
there is
is not (such another)."'"
not (such another)."" Lazy Lazy
students avoided him,
students avoided him, or received short
or received short shrift
shrift from him; for
from him; fo~ hehe waswas not
not
gbove:instructing
above instructing a
a sluggard
sluggard with
with a'blow
a blow of
of his
his staff,
staff, and
and sending
sending him
him off
off
with merciless
with merciless verity.
verity. "Hard is is the
the case
case of him who will
of him will stuff himself
stuff himself
food the
with food
with the whole
whole day, day, without
without applying
applying his his mind
mind to to anything.
anything. .... . . In'
In
youth not humble as
youth not humble as befits
be:6ts aa junior;
junior; in in manhood
manhood doing doing nothing
nothing worthy
worthy of. of.
being
being handed
handed down;
down; and
and living
living
on
on to
to an
an old
old age-this
age-this is
is to
to be
be a
a pest.'''''.
pest.'"
8

must have
He must have made made aa queer
queer picture
picture as as he
he stood
stood in in his
his rooms,
rooms, or, with-
or, with
nearly equal
nearly equal readiness,
readiness, in
in the
the road,
road, and
and taught.
taught,
his
his dJsciples history
disciples history
and
and
poetry, manners and philosophy.
poetry, manners and philosophy. The p~rtraits that
portraits that Chinese
Chinese painters
painters
begot
begot of
of him
him show
show him
him in
in his
his later
later years,
years, with
with an
an almost
almost hairless
hairless head
head
gnarled
gnarled and
and knotted
knotted with
with experience,
experience, and
and a
a face
face whose
whose terrttying serious-
terrifying serious-
n~ gave
ness gave no inkling of
no inkling of the
the occasional
occasional humorh~or and and tenderness,
tenderness, and and thethe keen
keen
esthetic senSitivity, that
esthetic sensitivity, made him
that made bim··human
human ..despite- his' otherwise
despite- his otherwise unbear-
unbear-
a~le perfection*
able pmecti~n 'One of his music-teachers-described
m.usio-~eis-deScribid hintaS he
..:One"et'hiS ~e was
~ .m~.early
in-early
"hiIti.:as
riiitidle" age:
age:- , ~' , .:' ,
'
'

middle : r" " .... • , . ". '

II have
have observed
observed about
about Chung-ni many marks
Chung-ni many marks of
of aa sage. ~
sage. He has
. ' river eyes' and
river eyes and 'aa dragon
dragon forehead
forehead-the very characteristics
the very charactoristics of Huang-
of Huang-
CHAP.XXIU)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE OF
OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
PHILOSOPHERS 6611
66

ti. His
ti. His arms
arms are long, his
are long, his back
back isis like
like aa tortoise,
tortoise, and he isis nine
and he nine
(Chinese)
(Chinese) feet
feet six
six inches
inches in
in height.
height • . .
. When
. . he
he speaks
speaks he
he
praises
praises the
the ancient
ancient kings.
kings. He moves
moves along
along
the
the path
path of
of humility
humility and
and
courtesy. He has
courtesy. has heard
heard of of every
every subject,
subject, and
and retains
retains with
with aa strong
strong
memory.
memory. His
His knowledge
knowledge of
of things
things
seems
seems inexhaustible.
inexhaustible. Have
Have we
not him the
in him
not in rising of
the rising of aa sage?
sage?'" 7*

Legend
Legend assigns to his figure ccforty-nine remarkable peculiarities." Once,
assigns to his figure "forty-nine remarkable peculiarities." Once,
when accident had separated him from his disciples during his wanderings,
when accident had separated him from his disciples during his wanderings,
they located him at once by
they located him at once the by the report
report of a traveler that he had seen a
of a traveler that he had seen a
monstrous-looking man
monstrous-looking with "the
man with "the disconsolate
disconsolate appearance
appearance of stray dog."
of aa stray dog."
When they they repeated
repeated thisthis description
description to to Confucius
Confucius he he was much amused.
was much amused.
"Capital!" he said, "capital!,,.,.
"Capital!" he said, "capital!""
was an
He was an old-fashioned
old-fashioned teacher,
teacher, who believedbelieved that
that thethe maintenance
maintenance of of
distance was
distance was indispensable
indispensable to to pedagogy.
pedagogy. He was nothing if
was nothing not formal,
if not formal,
and the
and the rules
rules ofof etiquette
etiquette andand courtesy
courtesy were were hishis meat
meat and drink. He tried
and drink. tried
to check
to check andand balance
balance the the natural
natural epicureanism
epicureanism of
of the instincts with the
the instincts with the
puritanism
puritanism
and
and stoicism
stoicism of
of his
his doctrine.
doctrine. At At times
times he
he appears
appears to
to have
have in-
in-

dulged himself in self-appreciation.

dulged himself in self-appreciation. "In a hamlet of"In a hamlet of ten
ten families,"
families," he said,
said,
with'some
with moderation, "there
some moderation, "there maymay be
be found
found one
one honorable
honorable and
and sincere
sincere as as

II am,
am, but
but not
not so
so fond
fond of
of learning.''''
learning."
18
uIn
"In letters
letters I
I am perhaps
perhaps equalequal to
to
other
other men,
men, but but (the
(the character
character of) of) thethe high~r
higher man,
man, carrying
carrying out out in in his
his c<?n-
con-
duct what
duet what he he professes,
professes,
is
is what
what I
I have
have not
not yet
yet attained
attained to.''''
to."
17
"If
"If there
there
were any
were any of
of the
the princes
princes
who would
would employ
employ me, me, in
in the
the course
course of of twelve
twelve
months II should
months should havehave done
done something considerable. In
something considerable. In three
three years
years (the(the
government) would be perfected."· All
government) would be perfected."" All in all, however, in all, however, he
he bore
bore his
his great-
great-
ness with ~odesty.
ness with modesty. "There
"There were
were four
four things,"
things," his
his disciples
disciples assure
assure us, us,
ufrom which the Master
"from which the Master was entirely was entirely free.
free. He had
had no foregone
foregone conclu-
conclu-
19
sions,
sions, no
no arbitrary predeterminations,
arbitrary predeterminations,
no
no obstinacy,
obstinacy, and no egoism.""
egoism." He
called himself
called himself "a
"a transmitter
transmitter and
and not
not aa maker,"·
maker,"* and pretended that
pretended that he was

merely passing down what he had learned

merely passing down what he had
learned frQm from the
the good
good emperors
emperors Yao Yao
~d
and Shun.
Shun. He strongly desired fame
strongly desired
fame and place, ~ut he would make no
and place, but
dishonorable compromises to
dishonorable compromises to secure
secure or or retain
retain them;
them; again
again andand again
again he he
refused
refused appointments
appointments to high
to high office
office from
from men whose go-yernment government seemed
to him unjust.
to him unjust. A man should
man should say, say, he
he counseled
counseled his
his scholars, ccI
scholars, "I am not not
concemed
concerned that that II have
have nono place;
place;
concerned how II may
II am concerned may fitfit myself for
myself for
one. I am not concerned
one. I am not concerned that
that II am not
not known;
known; I
I seek
seek to
to be worthy
worthy to to
be
be known.'·
known.""
1
 662
662 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.:xxm
(CHAP. XXHI

Among
Among his his pupils were the sons of
pupils were the sons
of Mang
Mang He, He, one one ofof the
the ministers
ministers of of
the
the Duke of of Lu.
Lu. Through
Through them them Confucius
Confucius was was introduced
introduced to to the
the Chou
court
court atat La-yang;
Lo-yang; but
but he
he kept a
a modest
modest distance
distance from
from the
the officials,
officials, pre-
pre-
kept
ferring,
ferring,
as
as we have
have seen, to visit
seen, to visit the
the dying sage
dying sage Lao-tze.
Lao-tze. Returning
Returning to
to Lu,
Lu,
Confucius
Confucius found
found his his native
native province
province so
so disordered
disordered with
with civil
civil strife
strife that
that hehe
removed
removed to to the
the neighboring
neighboring state
state ofof T's~ accompanied
T'si, accompanied by by several
several of
of his
his

pupils. Passing
pupils. Passing
through
through rugged
rugged and
and deserted
deserted mountains
mountains on their way,
on their way,
they
they were
were surprised
surprised to
to find
find an
an old
old woman weeping
weeping beside
beside aa grave.
grave.
Con-
Con-
fucius
fucius sent
sent Tsze-Ioo
Tsze-loo to to inquire
inquire the the cause
cause of of herher grief.
grief. "My
"My husband's
husband's
father,"
father/' she
she answered,
answered, "was "was killed here by
killed here a
a
by tiger,tiger, and and
my
my husband
husband also;
also;
and now my
and my son
son has
has met
met the
the same
same fate."
fate." When Confucius
Confucius asked
asked why
why she she
persisted in living in so dangerous a place, she replied: "There is no op-
persisted in living in so dangerous a pkce, she replied: "There is no op-
pressive
pressive government here."
government here." "My "My children,"
children," saidsaid Confucius
Confucius to to his
his students,
students,
"remember this.
"remember this. Oppressive government is,
Oppressive government is fiercer fiercer thanthan a a tiger."·
88

tiger."
The Duke of of Ts'i gave him
Ts'i gave him audience,
audience, and and was pleased with
was pleased with his his answer
answer
to
to aa question
question about
about good government.
good government. "There
"There is
is good government when
good government
the prin~e
the prince is is prince, and
prince, and the minister is
the minister is minister;
minister; when the father is
the father is father,
father,
and
and the son is
the son is son."·
son." The Duke offered offered himhim for for hishis support the revenues
83

support the revenues

of
of the tc?wn of
the town of Lin-k'ew,
Lin-k'ew, but but Confucius refused the
Confucius refused the gift, saying that
gift, saying
that he he
had done
had nothing to
done nothing to deserve
deserve suchsuch remuneration.
remuneration. The Duke was was minded
minded
to insist on retaining him as
to insist retaining as an
an adviser,
adviser, when his
his chief
chief minister
minister dissuaded
dissuaded
hiln.
him. "these
"These scholars,"
scholars," said said Gan Ying, "are
Ying, "are impractical, and cannot be
impractical, and cannot be
imitated.
imitated. TheyThey are are haughty
haughty and and conceited
conceited of their own views,
of their views, so so that
that
they
they will
will not
not be
be content
content in
in inferior
inferior positions....
positions. . . This
This
. Mr.
Mr. K'ung
K'ung has
has aa
thousand peculiarities.
thousand peculiarities. It It would
would taketake generations
generations to exhaust all
to exhaust that he
all that he
knows about the
about the ceremonies
ceremonies of going up
of going up and
and going
going down."·
down."
84
Nothing
Nothing
caine of
came of it, an4 Confucius
it, and returned to
Confucius returned Lu, to
to Lu, to teach
teach his his pupils
pupils for for fifteen
fifteen
years more
years more before being called
before being called into public office.
into public office.
His. opportunity
His opportunity came came when,when, at at the
the turn of of the
the century,
century, he he was
was made
made
chi~ magistrate
chief magistrate of of the
the town
town of of Chung-tu.
Chung-tn. According
According to to Chinese
Chinese tradi-tradi--
tion aa veritable
tion veritable epidemic
epidemic of of honesty
honesty sweptswept through
through the the city;
city; articles
articles of of
value dropped in
value dropped the street
in the street werewere ,left untouched, or
left untouched, or returned
returned to to thethe
owner,- Promoted
owner* Promoted by by Duke Ting Ting of of Lu to to bebe Acting
Acting Superintendent
Superintendent of of
Public·Works,
Public Confu~us directed
Works, Confucius directed 'aa survey
survey of of the lands of
the lands of the
the state,
state, and
and
intr~d1iced many
introduced many improvements
improvements' in in agriculture.
agriculture. AdvancedAdvanced again again to to be be
Minister of
Minister of Crime,
Crime, his his appointment,
appointment, we are are told,
told, sufficed
sufficed of itself to
of itself to put
put
'an end to
an end to crime.
crime. "Dishonesty
"Dishonesty and and dissoluteness,"
dissoluteness," say say the
the Chinese
Chinese records,
records,
"were ashamed,
"were ashamed, and and hid
hid their
their heads.
heads. Loyalty
Loyalty and and good
good faith
faith became
became the the
 CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
THE 663
663
characteristics
characteristics of of the
the men,
men, and and chastity and docility those of the women.
chastity and docility those of the women.
Strangers came in
Strangers in crowds
crowds from from other other states.
states. Confucius
Confucius became became the the idol
idol
of
of the
the people."·
people."
88
.
This is
This is too
too good
good to to be true,
true, andand in in any case
any case proved
proved too too good
good to to endure.
endure.
Criminals
Criminals put put their
their hidden
hidden heads
heads together,
together,
no
no doubt,
doubt, and
and laid
laid snares
snares for
for
the
the Master's
Master's feet.feet. Neighboring states,
Neighboring states, say the historian, grew jealous of
say the historian, grew jealous of
Lu,
Lu, andand fearful
fearful of its rising power. A wily minister
of its minister of
of Ts'i suggested a
rising power. wily Ts'i suggested a
stratagem
stratagem to
to alienate
alienate the
the Duke of
of Lu from
from Confucius. The, Duke
Confucius. The, Duke of Ts'i of Ts'i
sent lovely "sing-song" girls,
sent toto Ting
Ting a a bevy
bevy of of lovely "sing-song" girls,
and
and one one hundred
hundred and and
~enty
twenty still
still more beautiful
beautiful horses.
horses. The Duke of
of Lu was
was captivated,
captivated, ig-
ig-
nored the disapprOVal
nored the disapproval of Confucius
of Confucius (who (who had had taught him that the first
taught him that the first
principle
principle of
of good government
good government is
is good
good example), and
example), and scandalously
scandalously
neglected
neglected his
his ministers
ministers and
and the
the affairs
affairs of
of the
the state".
state. "Master," said
"Master," said Tsze-Ioo,
Tsze-loo,
~'it
"it is
is time
time forfor you
you to
to be
be going." Reluctantly
going." Reluctantly Confucius
Confucius resigned, left Lu,
resigned, left Lu,
and began
began thirteen
thirteen years
years of'homeless
of homeless wandering.
wandering. He remarked later
remarked later that that
he
he had never
never "seen
"seen one
one who loves loves virtue
virtue as as he
he loves
loves beauty,""
beauty,""
and
and indeed,
indeed,
f~om'
from some points points of of vie~,·
view, 'it it isis one
one of of the
the most
most culpable oversights of
culpable oversights of
nature that virtue and beauty
nature that virtue and beauty so so often
often come
come in in separate packages.
separate packages.
The Master
Master and and a a few faithful
faithful disciples, no
disciples,
no longer welcome in
longer welcome in his
his native
native
state, passed now from
state, passed from province
province to
to province, receiving
province, receiving courtesies
courtesies in
in some,
some,
undergoing
undergoing dangers dangers and
and privations
privations in
in others.
others. Twice they
they were
were attacked
attacked
by
by ruffians,
ruffians, and
and once
once they
they were
were reduced
reduced almost
almost to
to starvation,
starvation, so
so that
that even
even
Tsze-Ioo
Tsze-loo beganbegan to to murmur that that such
such a a lot was hardly
lot was hardly appropriate
appropriate to
to the
the
Uhigher man."
"higher man." The Duke Duke of of Wei offered offered Confucius
Confucius the the leadership
leadership of his
of his
government,
government, but
but Confucius, disapproving
Confucius, disapproving of
of the
the Duke's
Duke's principles,
principles,
re~
re-
fused.- Once,
Once, as the little band was was traveling
traveling through
through Ts'i, Ts'~ itit came upon
88
fused. as the little band came upon
two old
two old men who, who, in in disgust
disgust with
with the
the corruption
corruption of
of the
the age,
age,
had
had retired
retired
like Lao-tze
like Lao-tze from from public affairs and
public affairs and taken
taken to to aa life
life of
of agricultural
agricultural seclusion.
seclusion.
One of of them
them recognized
recognized Confucius,
Confucius, and and reproached
reproached Tsze-loo
Tsze-Ioo for for follow-
follow-
ing
ing him.
him. "Disorder,
"Disorder, like
like a
a swelling
swelling flood,"flood," said
said the
the recluse, ~'spreads
recluse, "spreads over over
the whole
the whole empire;
empire; and and who is is hehe that
that will
will change
change it for you?
it for you? RatherRather
than follow
than follow one one who withdraws
withdraws from from thisthis state
state and
and thatthat state,
state, hadhad youyou
not better
not better follow
follow those
those who withdraw withdraw from from the the world
world altogether?"*
altogether?"·
Confucius gave
Confucius g~ve much thought thought to this rebuke,
to this rebuke, but but persisted
persisted in in hoping
hoping thatthat
some State would
some state again give
would again give him
him an an opportunity
opportunity to to lead
lead the way to
the way to reform
reform
and peace.
and peace. .'
At in the
last, in
At last, the sixty-ninth
sixty-ninth year year of of Confucius,
Confucius, Duke Gae succeeded succeeded to to
the throne
the throne of of Lu,
Lu, and
and sentsent three
three officers
officers to to the
the philosopher,
philosopher, bearing b~ apo:'
 664
664 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXIII
(CHAP.XXm
propriate
propriate presents and 'an invitation to
presents and an invitation
to return
return to to his
his native
native state.
state. During
During
the five years of life
the five years of life that that remained
remained to
to him
him Confucius
Confucius lived in
lived in simplicity
simplicity
and
and honor,
honor, often consulted by
often consulted by the
the leaders
leaders of of Lu,
Lu, but
but wisely
wisely retiring to a
retiring to a
literary seclusion,
literary seclusion,
and
and devoting
devoting himself
himself to
to the
the congenial
congenial work.
work. of
of editing
editing
the
the classics, and writing
classics, and writing the
the history,
history, of
of his
his people.
people. When
When the
the Duke
Duke of
of
8hi
Shi asked
asked Tsze-Ioo
Tsze-loo about'about hishis master,
master, and
and Tsze-Ioo
Tsze-loo did
did not
not answer
answer him,
him,
Confucius,
Confucius, hearing
hearing of of it, said:
it, said: "Why did
'Why did you not say
you not say to
to him?-He
him? He is
is sim-
sim-
ply
ply aa man who,
who, in
in his
his eager pursuit
eager pursuit of
of knowledge, forgets
knowledge, forgets his
his food;
food; who
who
in the joy
in the joy (of
(of its
its attainment)
forgets his
attainment) forgets his sorrows;
sorrows; andand who does does not
not per-
per-
ceive
ceive that
that old
old age
age is
is coming on.'"
coming on."* He consoled
consoled his
his solitude
solitude with
with poetry
poetry
and
and philosophy,
philosophy, andand rejoiced that his
rejoiced that his instincts
instincts now accorded
accorded withwith his
his rea-
rea-
son.
son. "At fifteen,"
fifteen," he he sai4,
said, "I had my
"I had
my mind
mind bent
bent on
on learning. At
At thirty
learning. thirty
stood firm.
II stood firm. At forty II was free free from
from doubt.
doubt. At At fifty I knew the decrees
forty fifty I knew the decrees
of Heaven. At sixty
of Heaven. sixty my my ear
ear was
was anan obedient
obedient organ
organ for
for the
the reception
reception of
of
truth.
truth. At seventy
seventy II could
could follow
follow what
what my
my heart
heart desired
desired without
without trans-
trans-
"*
gressing
gressing whatwhat was
was right.'·
right.
He died seventy-two. Early'
died at
at the
the age
age of of seventy-two,
Early oneone morning
morning he he was
was heard
heard
singing
singing a
a mournful song:
song:

great mountain
The great must crombIe,
mountain must crumble,
The strong
The strong beam must
must break,
break,
the wise
And the wise man wither
wither away
away like
like aa plant
plant.

When his his pupil

pupil Tsze-kung
Tsze-kung came
came toto him
him he
he said:
said: "No
"No intelligent
intelligent monarch
monarch
arises; there is not one in the
arises; there is not one in the empire
empire that
that will
will make
make me his his master.
master. My My
time isis come to
time to die."*
die."· He took
took to his couch,
to his couch, and
and after
after seven
seven days
days he
he
expired.
expired. His
His students
students buried
buried him
him with
with pomp
pomp and
and ceremony befitting
ceremony befitting their their
affection for
affection him; and
for him; and building
building huts by his
huts by his grave
grave they
they lived
lived there
there for
for three
three
years, mourning
years, mourning for
for him
him as
as for
for a
a father.
father. When all
all the
the others
others had
had gone
gone
Tsze-kung, who had loved him even beyond
Tsze-kung, who had loved him even beyond the
the rest,
rest, remained
remained three years
three years
more, mourning alone
more, mourning by the
alone by the Master's
Master's tomb.
tomb,- 88

2. The
2. The Nine
Nine Classics
Classics
He left
He left behind him five
behind him five volumes
volumes apparently
apparently written
written oror edited
edited by his own
by his own
hand, and therefore known to China
hand, and therefore known to China asas the
the "Five Ching," or
"Five Ching? or Canonical
Canonical
.Books. First, he
Books. First, he edited Li-Cbi, or
the Li-CAf,
edited the Record of
or Record of Rites,
Rites, believing
believing that these
that these
ancient rules
ancient roles of
of propriety
propriety were
were subtle
subtle aides
aides to
to the formation and
the formation mellowing
and mellowing
of character,
of character, and
and the
the maintenance
maintenance of of social
social order
order and
and peace.
peace. Second,
Second, hehe
CHAP.XXIU)
CHAP.XXin) THE AGE
THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 665
665
wrote appendices
appendices and commentariescommentaries for the I-Ching,
for the I-Ching, or or Book
Book of of Changes,
Changes,
seeing
seeing in
in this
this the profoundest contribution
profoundest contribution yet
yet made
made by
by China
China to
to that
that ob-ob-
scure
scure realm
realm of of metaphysics
metaphysics which
which he himself had sedulously
he himself had sedulously avoided in avoided in his
his
philosophy.
philosophy. Third, Third, he he selected
selected and and arranged
arranged the
the Sbi-Cbi'1lg,
Shi-Ching, or
or Book
Book of
of Odes,
Odes,
in order
in order to to illustrate
illustrate the the nature
nature 'of 'of human
human life life and
and the the principles of moral-
principles of moral-
ity.
ity. Fourth,
Fourth, he wrote
wrote the
the Ch'un
CWun Cb'i'U,
CWw, or
or Spring
Spring tmd
and A1J,t1J:ffm
Autumn Amuzls,
Annals, to to
record with with unadorned
unadorned brevity brevity the
the main
main events
events in
in the
the history
history
of
of his
his own
state
state of Lu. Fifth, Fifth, andand above
above all,all, he
he sought
sought to to inspire his pupils by gather-
inspire his pupils by gather-
ing
ing into
into a a Shu-Ching,
Shu-Ching, or or Book
Book of of History,
History, the the most
most important and elevating
important and elevating
events
events or legends of
legends of the the early reigns,
early reigns, when
when China
China had
had been
been in
in some
some measure
measure
aa unified
unified empire,
empire, and
and its
its leaders,
leaders, as
as Confucius
Confucius thought,
thought,
had
had been
been heroic
heroic and
and
unselfish
unselfish civilizers
civilizers of of thethe race.
race. He did not think
did not think of of his
his function,
function, in
in these
these
works,
works, as as that
that ofof an
an historian;
historian; rather
rather he he was
was a a teacher,
teacher, a a moulder
moulder of of youth;
youth;
and he dehberately
deliberately selected
selected from
from the past such items as would rather in-
the past such items as would rather in-
spire
spire than
than disillusion
disillusion his his pupils; we' should do him injustice if we turned to
pupils; we should do him injustice if we turned to
these
these volumes for for anan impartial
impartial and and scientific
scientific account
account of of Chinese
Chinese history.
history.
He
added to to the record imaginary
the record speeches and
and stories
stories into
into which
which he
he poured as
imaginary speeches poured as
much as as he could
could of of hishis solicitude
solicitude for for morals
morals and and his his admiration
admiration for for wis-
wis-
dom. If If he idealized
idealized the the past
past ofof his
his country he
country he did did no no more
more than
than we do do with
with
our
our own less ancient
less ancient past; if already our earliest presidents have become
past; if already our earliest presidents have become
sages
sages and saints saints inin hardly a
hardly a century
century or or two,
two, surely to the historians of a
surely to the historians of a
thousand years
thousand years hence
hence they they will
will seem
seem as
as virtuous
virtuous and
and perfect as Yao and
perfect as Yao and
Shun.
Shun.

these five
To these five Ching
Ching the the Chinese
Chinese add add fourfour Shu,Shu, or or "Books"
"Books" (of (of the the
Philosophers),
Philosophers), to
to constitute
constitute the
the ''Nine
"Nine Classics."
Classics." First
First and
and most
most important
important
of these
of these is the Lm
is the Lun Yu,Yii, or Discourses and
or Discourses and Dialogues,
Dialogues, known known to to thethe English
English
world, through
world, through a
a whim
whim of
of Legge's,
Legge's, as
as the
the "Analects"-ie.,
"Analects"-ie., the the collected
collected
fragments-of Confucius.
fragments-of Confucius. These These pagespages are are not
not from
from the the Master's
Master's hand, hand, butbut
record, with
record, with exemplary
exemplary clarity clarity and and brevity,
brevity, his his opinions
opinions and and pronounce-
pronounce-
ments as
ments as remembered
remembered by by hishis followers.
followers. They They were were compiled
compiled withinwithin aa few few
decades of
decades of Confucius'
Confucius' death, death, perhaps
perhaps by by thethe disciples
disciples of of his
his disciples,*
disciples," and and .
are the
are the least
least unreliable
unreliable guide guide that
that we have have to his philosophy.
to his philosophy. The The mostmost in- in-
teresting
teresting and
and instructive
instructive of
of all statements in the Chinese
all statements in the Chinese Classics Classics appears
appears in in
the fourth
the fourth and fifth paragraphs*
and fifth paragraphs· of of the
the second
second Shu Shu-aa work work known to to the
the
Chinese as
Chinese as TaTa Hs&eh,
HsUeb, or or The Great Learning.
The Great Learning. The Confucian Confucian philosopher
philosopher
and editor,
and editor, Chu Chu Hsi, attrib~ted these
Hsi, attributed these paragraphs
paragraphs to Confucius, and
to Confucius, and the the re-re-
mainder of
mainder of the treatise to
the treatise to Tseng
Tseng Ts'an, Ts'an, oneone of of the
the younger
younger disciples;
disciples; Kea Kea
Kwe~ aa scholar
Kwei, scholar of of the
the first
first century
century A.D., attributed the
A.D., attributed the work
work to to K'ung
K'ung Chi, Chi,
grandson of
grandson of Confucius;
Confucius; the the sceptical
sceptical scholars
scholars of of today
today agreeagree thatthat the au-
the au-
*
• Quoted
Quoted on p. 668
on p. below.
668 below.
-666
f66 STORY OF CIVILIZATION
THE STOR:Y (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXIII
XXIII

thorship is unknown.III All

thorship is unknown. All students
88
concur in
students concur in ascribing this
to this grandson
ascribing to grandson the
the
third philosophical
third philosophical classic of China,
classic of China, the
the Chung Yung,
Chung Yung, or
or Doctrine of the
Doctrine of the
Mean. The last of the Shu the Book of Mencius, of which we shall speak
is
Mean. The last of the Shu is the Book of Mencius, of which we shall
speak
presently. With this volume ends the classic literature, but
presently. With this volume ends the classic literature,
not the
but not the classic
classic

period, of Chinese thought. There were, as' we shall

period, of Chinese thought. There were,
shall see, rebels and
see, rebels
as' and heretics
heretics

of
of every
every kind
kind to
to protest against
protest against
that
that masterpiece
masterpiece of
of conservatism,
conservatism, the
the phil-
phil-
osophy
osophy ofof Confucius.
Confucius.

3.
3. The Agnosticism of
The Agnosticism of Confucius
Confucius

A fragment
fragment of
of logic
logic - The philosopher tmd
The philosopher the urcbms
and the urchins - A

formula of
formula of wisdom
'wisdom

Let
Let usus trytry to to do justice to
do justice to this
this doctrine;
doctrine; it it is the view
is the view of of life
life that
that we
shall take when
shall take when we round round out out our our first
first half-century, and
half-century, and for for all
all that
that we

know it it may be be wiser than the poetry of

wiser than the poetry of our youth. our youth. If
If we ourselves
ourselves are
are
may
heretics and
heretics young, this
and young, this is
is the philosophy that
the philosophy that we mustmust marry
marry to to our
our own
in
in 'order
order thatthat our half-truths may
our half-truths beget
may beget some
some understanding:
understanding:
We shall
shall notnot nn.d
find here
here a syste'11Z of
a system philosophy-i.e., aa consistent
of philosophy-ie., consistent struc-
struc-

ture of
ture of logic, metaphysics,
logic, metaphysics,
ethics
ethics and
and politics
politics
dominated
dominated by
by one
one idea
idea (like
(like
the palaces of
the palaces Nebuchadrezzar, which
of Nebuchadrezzar, which bore bore on on every brick the
every brick the name of of
the ruler).
the ruler). Confucius
Confucius taughttaught the the artart of reasonirig not
of reasoning not through
through rules rules oror
~llogisms,
syllogisms, but but by by the perpetual play
the perpetual
play
of
of hishis keen
keen mind upon
mind upon the opinions
die opinions
of his.
.of pupils; when
his. pupils; when theythey went
went out
out from
from his
his school
school they
they knew nothing
nothing
~bout logic,
about logf~ but but they
they could
could think:
think clearly
clearly and
and to
to the
the point* Clarity and
point. Clarity
honesty of
honesty thought all:d
of thought and expression were the first lessons
expression were the first
lessons of of the
the Master.
Master.
M
.""The whole end
The whole end ofof speech
speech is
is to
to be
be understood'''MI_
understood" -a a lesson
lesson not
not always
always re-re-
m~b~ed. by
membered by philosophy.
philosophy. "When you you know a thing, to
a thing, to hold
hold that
that you
you
know it; it* and
and when you do
do not,
not, to
to admit
admit the
the fact-this
fact this isis knowledge."'"
you knowledge.""
Obscurity
Obscurity of thought and
of thought and insincere
insincere inaccuracy
inaccuracy of of speech
speech seemed
seemed to to him
him
national calamities.
national* calamities. If If aa prince
prince who was was notnot in in actual
actual fact
fact andand power
power a a
prince .show.~
prince .should cease
cease to
to be
be called
called a
a prince,
prince, if
if a
a father
father who was
was not
not a
a
fatherly
fatherly ~ather
father should
should cease
cease to
to 'be
be called
called father, if
aa father, an unfilial
if an imfilial sonson should
should
cease to be
cease to be called
called a a son-then
son then men might might be
be stirred
stirred to
to reform
reform abuses
abuses too
too
often ~overed up
often covered with words:
up with words. Hence 'Yhen when Tsze-Ioo
Tsze-loo told told Co~cius,
Confucius,
prince of
"The prince of Wei has been waiting
has been waiting for
for you,
you, in
in order
order with
with you
you to to
administer
administer the the gov~ent;
government; what what willwill you
you consider
consider the first thing
the first thing toto be
be
"
done?'~ ... !t~
done? answered,~ to
he answered,, to tbe
the .astonishment
.astonishment of prince and
of prince pupil, "What
and pupil, "What is is

necessary
necessary is to
is to rectify
rectify
names."·
names."
88
CHAP.XXIU)
CHAP.XXin) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 667
667

Since his
Since his dominating
dominating passionpassion waswas the the application
application of of philosophy
philosophy to to con-
con-
duct and government, Confucius avoided metaphysics,
duct and government, Confucius avoided metaphysics, and tried to. turn and tried to. tom
the minds of
the minds his followers
of his followers from
from all all recondite
recondite or or celestial
celestial concerns*
concerns. Though Though
he made
he made occasional
occasional mention
mention of of "Heaven"
"Heaven" and prayer,· and
and prayer," and counseled
counseled his his
disciples to
disciples
to observe
observe sedulously
sedulously the the traditional
traditional rites rites of of ancestor
ancestor worshipworship
and national
and sacrifice,1GO* he
national sacrifice, 1
he was
was so so negative
negative in in his
his answers
answers to to theological
theological
questions that
questions that modern
modem commentators
commentators agree agree in in calling
calling him him an agnostic.1<11
an agnostic. 101

Tsze-kung asked
When Tsze-kung him, "Do
asked him, "Do the the dead
dead havehave knowledge,
knowledge, or or are they
are they
without knowledge?"
without knowledge?" ConfuciusConfucius refused refused to make any
to make any definite
definite reply.reply.1O:I
When Ke Loo Loo asked
asked about
about "serving
"serving the the spirits"
spirits" (of (of thethe dead),
dead), the the Master
Master
responded:
responded: "While
'While you
you are
are not able
not able to to serve
serve men,
men, how can
can you
you serve
serve their
their

spirits?" Ke Loa asked:

spirits?" Ke Loo
asked: "I venture to
"I venture to ask about death?"
ask about death?" and and was was an- an-
swered: "While you dodo not ~ow life,
not know life, how can can youyou knowknow aboutabout death?"
death?"101
* 108
swered: While you
When Fan Fan Ch'e
Ch'e inquired
inquired "what''what constituted
constituted wisdom?"wisdom?" Confucius Confucius said: said:
"To give
give one's self earnestly
one's self earnestly to
to the
the duties
duties due
due to
to men,
men, and,
and, while
while respect-
respect-
ing spiritual
ing beings, to
spiritual beings,
to keep aloof from
keep aloof from them,them, may may be be called
called wisdom."
wisdom."* 104

His disciples
His disciples telltell us
us that
that "die
uthe subjects on which die
subjects on which
the Master
Master did nat talk
did not talk
were extraordinary
were extraordinary things, featsthings, feats of
of strength, disorder,
strength, disorder,
and
and spiritual
spiritual
*
beings.'"
beings."
1
They
They were
were much disturbed
disturbed by
by this
this philosophic modesty,
philosophic modesty, and
doubtless
doubdess wishedwished thatthat the
the Master
Master would would solve solve for them the
for them mysteries of
the mysteries of
heaven. The Book
heaven. Book of Lieh-tze tells
of Lieh-tze tells with
with gleeglee the
the fable
fable of of the the street-
street-

urchins who ridiculed

urchins ridiculed the the Master
Master whenwhen he he confessed
confessed his his inability
inability to
to a.DS\ver
answer
their simple
their question-
simple question-"Is
"Is the
the sun
sun nearer
nearer to
to the
the earth
earth at at dawn,
dawn, when it it is
is

larger, or at noon, when it it is

is hotter? "UIG The only metaphysics that
only metaphysics that Con-
106

larger, or at noon,
hotter?"
fucius would recognize
fucius would was
was the search for unity in
unity in all
all phenomena, and the
the search for the
recognize phenomena,
effort
effort to to :find
find some
some stabilizing harmony between
stabilizing harmony
between the the laws
laws of of right
right conduct
conduct
and
and thethe regularities
regularities
of
of nature.
nature. ''Tsze,''
*Tsze," he
he said
said to
to one
one of
of his
his favorites,
favorites,
"you
"you think,
think, I suppose, that
I suppose, that I
I am one one who learns learns manymany thingsthings and and keeps
keeps
them
them inin his
his memory?" Tsze-kung
memory?" Tsze-kung replied, replied, "Yes,
"Yes, but
but perhaps
perhaps it is
it is not
not so?"
so?"
"No,"
"No," was
was the
the answer;
answer; "I
"I seek
seek unity, all-pervading."lOT
unity, all-pervading."
107
This,
This, after
after all,
all, is
is

the
the essence
essence of of philosophy.
philosophy.
His·
His* master pasSion
master was
was for morality. The chaos of his time seemed to
for morality. chaos of his time to
passion
him
him a a moral
moral chaos,
chaos, caused
caused perhaps
perhaps by by thethe weakening
weakening of of the ancient faith
the ancient faith

and the spread

and the spread of
of Sophist scepticism
Sophist scepticism
as
as to
to right
right and \vrong;
wrong; it
it was to
to be
cured old beliefs,
by a a return
return to to the
the old beliefs, but by an earnest
cured Dotnot by but by earnest search
search for more
for more
compleie knowledge,
complete knowledge,
and
and aa moral
moral regeneration
regeneration based
based upon
upon a soundly soundly
regulated family
regulated family
life. The Confucian
life. The Confucian program program is
is expressed
expressed pithily
pithily and
profO\U1dly
profcmadly
in
in the famous paragraphs
the famous paragraphs of Tbe
of The Gre.tGreat LetJr1Mlg:
Leammg:
 668
668 THE STORY 0 F CIVILIZATION
S TOR Y OF CIVIL I ZAT ION (CHAP. XXHI
(CHAP. XXIII

The ancients
The ancients who
who wished
wished to to illustrate
illustrate thethe highest
highest virtue
virtue through-
through-
out
out the
the empire
empire
first
first ordered
ordered well
well their
their own states.
states. Wishing
Wishing to to order
order
well their states, they first regulated
well their states, they first regulated their
their families.
families. Wishing
Wishing to
to reg-
reg-
ulate their
ulate families, they
their families, first cultivated
they first cultivated theirtheir own selves. Wishing
selves. Wishing to to
cultivate their
cultivate own selves,
their own selves, they first rectified
they first rectified their
their hearts.
hearts. Wish-
Wish-
ing to rectify their hearts, they first
ing to rectify their hearts, they
first sought
sought to to bebe sincere
sincere in in their
their
thoughts. Wishing
thoughts. Wishing
to
to be
be sincere
sincere in
in their
their thoughts,
thoughts, theythey first
first ex-
ex-
tended to
tended to the
the utmost
uttnost their
their knowledge.
knowledge. Such Such extension
extension of of knowl-
knowl-
edge lay in
edge lay in the
the investigation
investigation of things.
of things.
Things being investigated, knowledge
Things being investigated, knowledge became complete. Their
became complete. Their
knowledge being
knowledge being complete,complete, their
their thoughts
thoughts were
were sincere.
sincere. Their
Their
thoughts being sincere,
thoughts being sincere, their
their hearts
hearts were
were then
then rectified.
rectified. Their
Their hearts
hearts
being rectified,
being rectified, their
their own
own selves
selves were
were cultivated.
cultivated. Their
Their own selves selves
being cultivated,
being cultivated, their
their families
families were
were regulated.
regulated.
Their
Their families
families being
being
regulated, their
regulated, their states
states were
were rightly govemed. Their
righdy governed. Their states being
states being
rightly governed,
rightly governed,
the
the whole
whole empire
empire was
was made
made tranquil
tranquil and
and happy.-
happy.
108

This is
This the keynote
is the keynote and and substance
substance of of the
the Confucian philosophy; one
Confucian philosophy; one
might forget
might forget all
all other
other words
words of
of .the
-the Master
Master and
and his
his disciples,
disciples,
and
and yet carry
yet carry
away
away with
with these
these "the
"the essence
essence of
of the
the matter,"
matter," and
and a
a complete
complete guide to
guide to life.
life.

world is
The world is at
at war, says Confucius,
war, says Confucius, because
because its
its constituent
constituent states
states are
are im-
im-
properly governed;
properly governed; these these are
are improperly
improperly govemed because no
governed because no amount of of
legislation
legislation cancan taketake the place of
the place of the
the natural
natural social
social order provided 'by
order provided by ~e the
family; the
the family is in
is in disorder,
disorder, and
and fails
fails to
to provide this
this natural
natural social
social
family; family provide
order,
order, because
because men forget forget
that
that they
they cannot
cannot regulate their families if
regulate their families
if they
they
do
do not
not regulate themselves;
regulate themselves; they they fail
fail to
to regulate
regulate themselves
themselves because
because they
they
have
have not
not reetitied
rectified their
their hearts-i.e.,
hearts i.e., theythey havehave notnot cleansed
cleansed their
their own soulssouls
of
of disorderly
disorderly desires;
desires; their
their hearts
hearts are-are* not
not rectified
rectified because their thinking
because their thinking
is
is insincere, doing
insincere, doing scant
scant justice
justice to
to reality
reality
and
and concealing
concealing rather
rather than re-
than re-
vealing
vealing their
their own natures;natures; their thinking is
their thinking is insincere
insincere because
because they they letlet

their wishes
their wishes discolor
discolor the the facts
facts and
and detennine
determine their their conclusions,
conclusions, instead
instead of
of
seeking
seeking to to ext~d
extend theirtheir knowledge
knowledge to to the utmost by
the utmost by impartially
impartially ipvesti-
investi-
gating
gating
the
the nature
nature of
of things.
things. Let
Let men seek
seek impartial knowledge,
impartial knowledge, and
and their
their

thinking
thinking will
will become sincere;
sincere; let
let their
their thQughtS
thoughts b~
be Sinc:~e'
sincere ~d
and their
their hearts
hearts
vnn 'be'
will be cleansed -of
cleansed of 'disorderly
disorderly
desires;'lei::~eil
desires; hearts-be "so cleanse~
lerifidif heattS·be,:so cleansed, ~d 2nd
their selves will
their own 'selves' will bebe regUlated;
regulated; let their'
let their own.''Selves',
own ^Ives ~e
be ·:reguIa~d,'
-regulated; aiid
did
'their
their families
families will automatically be re~ted-not
will autolnatically be regulated not by
by virtuous
virtuous sermonizing
sermonizing
or
or passionate punishments,
passionate punishments,
but
but by
by the
the silent
silent power
power of
of 'example
example itself;
itself; let
let

the
the famjly
family be
be so'
sd regulated
regulated with
with knowledge,
knowledge, sinceritysincerity and,
and example,~and
example,* and it
it
CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
THE 669
669
will give io-rth ,such spontaneous social order that successful government
will give forth such
spontaneous social order that successful government
will once more be a feasible thing; let the state maintain internal justice
will once more be a feasible
thing; let the state maintain internal justice
and tranquillity, and all
and tranquillity, all the world will
the world be peaceful
will be peaceful and happy.-It
and happy. It is
is a
a
counsel
counsel of perfection, and
of perfection, and forgets
forgets that
that man is
is a
a beast
beast of
of prey;
prey;
but
but like
like
it offers
Christianity it
Christianity offers us
us a
a goal
goal to
to strike at, and
strike at, a ladder
and a to climb.
ladder to It is
climb. It is one
one
of the golden
of the of philosophy.
texts of
golden texts philosophy.

4. The Way
4. Way ofof the Higher Man
the Higher

Another portrait
Another portrait of
of the sage - Elements
the sage of character
Elements of - The
character - The
Golden Rule
Golden Rule

Wisdom, therefore, begins

Wisdom, therefore, begins at at home,
home, andand the foundation of
the foundation of society
society is
is
~ciplined individual
aa disciplined individual in in a a disciplined family. Confucius agreed with
disciplined family. Confucius agreed with
Goethe that that self-development
self-development is
is the
the root
root of
of social
social development;
development; and and
Tsze-loo asked
when Tsze-Ioo asked him,
him, "What constitutes the Higher Man?" he re-
''What constitutes the Higher Man?" he re-
*
plied,
plied, "The cultivation
cultivation of
of himself
himself with
with reverential
reverential care.'"
care."
1
Here
Here and
and
there, throughout
there, throughout the the dialogues,
dialogues, we :find him putting
find him putting together, piece by
together, piece by
piece, his picture
piece, his picture of of the
the ideal
ideal man-a
man a unionunion of philosopher and
of philosopher and saint
saint
producing the
producing the sage.
sage.
The Superman
Superman of Confucius is
of Confucius is composed of
composed of three three
virtues severally
virtues selected
selected as supreme by Socrates,
as Nietzsche
Nietzsche and
and Christ:
Christ:
severally supreme by Socrates,
will. "The Higher Man is
intelligence,
intelligence, courage,
courage, and good will.
and good Higher is anxious
anxious lest
lest he
he
should
should not not get truth; he
get truth; he isis not
not anxious lest poverty should
anxious lest poverty should come upon upon
him....
him. ... He is is catholic,
catholic, not
not partisan....
partisan.
... He requires that in
requires that in what he he says
says
"
there should
there should be be nothing
nothing inaccurate.'nu
inaccurate."
1
But
But hehe is no mere
is no mere intellect,
intellect, notnot
merely aa scholar
merely scholar or or aa lover
lover ofof knowledge;
knowledge; he he has
has character
character as as well
well asas in-
in-
telligence.
telligence.
''Where
"Where the
the solid
solid qualities
qualities
are
are in
in excess
excess ofof accomplishments,
accomplishments,
we have
we have rusticity;
rusticity; where
where the accomplishments are
the accomplishments are in
in excess
excess ofof the
the solid
solid
qualities,
qualities,
we have
we have the manners of
the manners of a a clerk.
clerk. When the the accomplishments
accomplishments and and
solid
solid qualities are equally
are blended, we then
equally blended, have the
then have the man of of complete
complete
qualities
virtue."111 1
Intelligence
virtue."" Intelligence is
is intellect
intellect with
with its
its feet
feet on the
the earth.
earth.

The
The foundation
foundation of of character is sincerity.
character is "Is it not just an entire
sincerity. "Is it not just
entire sin-
sin-

cerity
cerity
which
which marks
marks the
the Higher
Higher Man?"m
Man?"
*
"He
13
acts before
acts before he
he speaks,
speaks, and
"
afterwards
afterwards speaks according
speaks according
to
to his
his aetions.'tDI
actions."
1
"In
"In archery
archery we have some-.
some-
thing
thing like
the way
like the way of of the
the Higher Man. When the
Higher Man. the archer misses the
archer misses the center-
center
of the target,
of the target, he
he turnS
turns round
round and
and seeks
seeks for
for the
the cause
cause of
of his
his failure
failure in
in him-
self.'uu "What the
self.""* "What the Higher Higher Man seeks
seeks is
is in
in himself;
himself; what the
the lower man
seeks is in others.
seeks is in others. •
. • •
. The Higher
The Higher
. Man is
is distressed
distressed by,his
byJhis want of
of ability,
ability,
670
670 THE
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XXIII
(CHAP. XXIII

not ...
not by men's
••. by men's not
not knowing
knowing him";
him"; and
and yet
yet "he
"he dislikes
dislikes the
the thought
thought of his
of his
name not being
name not being mentioned
mentioned after
after his
his death.'n:II
death."*
8
He "is
"is modest
modest in
in his
his speech,
speech,
but exceeds
but exceeds in his actions.
in his actions. ...
• . • He seldom
seldom speaks;
speaks; when
when hehe does he isis sure
does he sure
to hit
to hit the
the point
point. .• . . That
That· wherein
. . wherein the the Higher
Higher Man cannot cannot be equaled isis
be equaled
simply this: his work, which
simply this: his work,
which other other men cannot cannot see." see.'n1I He isis moderate
* 13
moderate in in
word and
word and deed;
deed; in in everything
everything "the Higher Man conforms
"the Higher conforms with with thethe pathpath ofof
the mean."11T
the mean.' mT For "there is no end
For there is no end of
<c
things by
of things which man isis affected;
by which affected; and and
when his likings and
when his likings and dislikings dislikings are
are not
not subject
subject to
to regulation,
regulation, he
he is
is changed
changed
into thethe nature
nature of of things
things as as they
they comecome' before
before him."him.'~* "The "The Higher
Higher Man
118
into
moves so
moves as to
so as to make
make his movements in
his movements in all all generations
generations aa universaluniversal path; path; he he
behaves so
behaves so asas toto make
make his his conduct
conduct in in allall generations
generations aa universaluniversal 'law; law; he he
speaks
speaks
so
so as
as to
to make
make his
his words
words in
in all
all generations
generations
a
a universal
universal norm.'nJOt
norm."
1
*!
He accepts
accepts completely
completely the Golden Rule,
the Golden Rule, whichwhich is is here
here laidlaid down explicitly
explicitly
four centuries before
four centuries before Hillel and Hillel and five
five centuries
centuries before
before Christ:
Christ: "Chung-kung
"Chung-kung
asked about
asked about perfect
perfect virtue.
virtue. The The Master
Master said, said, . • . *Not
. . 'Not to
. to dodo unto
unto othefsothers asas
""*
you
you would
would not
not wish
wish done
done unto
unto yourself.'
yourself.'
,nil The principle
principle
is
is stated
stated again
again
and again, always
and again, always negatively,
negatively, and and once
once in in aa single
single word. "Tsze-kung asked,
word. "Tsze-kung asked,
'Is there
'Is there one one wordword which
which may may serveserve as as aa rulerule of of practice
practice for for all all one's
one's
'**
life?' The Master
life?' The Master said, said, 'Is
'Is not
not reciprocity
reciprocity such
such a
a word?'
word?' 'me Nevertheless
Nevertheless he
he
did not
did wish, like
not wish, like Lao-tze,
Lao-tze, to to return
return good good for for evil;
evil; andand when one of his
one of his

pupils
pupils
asked
asked him,
him, "What
'What do you say concerning
you say concerning the
the principle
principle that
that injury
injury
should
should be be recompensed
recompensed with with kindness?"
kindness?" he replied, more
he replied, more sharply
sharply than
than was
his
his custom:
custom: "With "With what,
what, then,then, will
will you recompense
you recompense kindness?
kindness? Recompense
Recompense
injury with justice, and recompense ~dness
and recompense kindness with with kindness.'"
4

injury with justice,

kindness.""
. , The
The very basis of the Higher Man's
very basis of the Higher
character is
Man's character is an
overflowing sympathy
an overflowing sympathy
towards all
towards all men.
men. He is is not
not angered
angered by by th~
the excellences
excellences of
of other
other men;
men; when
he_ sees men
he.se.es men of of worth
worth he he thinks
thinks of of equaling
equaling them;
them; whe~
when he
he sees men of
sees of low
worth he
worth turns inward
he turns inward and examines himseIf;Wa
and examines for there are few faults
181*
himself; for there are faults

that we do
that not share
do not share withwith our neighbors. He pays
our neighbors. pays no attention
attention to to slander
slander
or
or violent
violent speech/lAb
speech."*
He is is courteous
courteous and affable
and affable to all,
to all, but he does not gush
but he does not gush
*
forth
forth indiscriminate
indiscriminate praise.- He ~eats
treats his his inferiors
inferiors without contempt, and
1

praise.
without contempt,
his
his superiors without seeking to ~ourt their
their favor.- He is grave in
is deport-
148
without seeking to court favor. grave in deport-
superiors
ment,
ment, since since men will will not take seriously
not take seriously one one who is- is not serious with
not serious with them;them; hehe
is ~ow
is slow ~ in words ~d and eamest
earnest in in conduct;
conduct; he is
is not
not quic~
quick with his
his tongue,
tongue, or or
given
given
~ t~
to clever
clever repartee;
repartee;
be
he is e8I:Best
is earnest because
because he
he has
has work to to do-and
do and this
this

unaffected dignitY.
1II
isis the-secret
the secret of his unaffected
of his He is is courteous
courteous even even to his familiars,
to his
117
dignity. familiars,
*
but maintairis
but maintains his reserve towarOs
his reserve towards ill, even his
all, even his son.
son.UI Confucius
Confucius sums sums up up the
1
the

Cf Spinoza:
. •* Cf..
Spinoza: "We are are tossed
tossed about by external
about by causes in
external causes in many
many ways,
ways, and
and like
like waves
waves
driven by
driven by contrary winds, we waver
contrary winds, waver and
and are
are unconscious
unconscious of of the issue and
the issue our fate.''11t
and our 139
fate."
··ftCf.
Cf. one
one of
of Kant's formulations of
Kant's formulations of the "Categorical Imperative"
the "Categorical Imperative" of of morals:
morals: "So to will
"So to will
that
that the-maxim
the- maxim of thy conduct
of thy conduct can
can become
become aa universellaw.'''''
universal law."14
CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE
THE AGE
AGE OF TH E PHILOSOPHERS
0 F THE PHI LOS 0 P H ER S 67 1
671

qualities of
qualities his "Higher
of his A1an"-so
"Higher Man" similar to
so similar to the Megalops'Ychos, or
the Megalopsychos, or "Great-
"Great-
Minded Man,"
Minded Man," of
of Aristotle-in
Aristotle-in these
these words:
words:
The Higher
The Higher Man 1\.{an has
has nine things which
nine things which are are subjects with him
subjects with him of
of
thoughtful
thoughtful consideration.
consideration. In regard to the use of his
In regard to the use of his eyes he is eyes he is
anxious to
anxious to see clearly. ...
see clearly. . .. In
In regard
regard to his countenance
to his countenance he he isis anxious
anxious
that itit should
that should be be benign.
benign. In In regard
regard toto his demeanor he
his demeanor he isis anxious
anxious
that itit should
that should be be respectful.
respectful. In In regard
regard toto his
his speech
speech hehe isis anxious
anxious
that itit should
that should be be sincere.
sincere. InIn regard
regard to
to his doing of
his doing of business
business he he isis
anxious that
anxious that itit should
should be be reverently
reverently careful.
careful. In In regard
regard toto what
what hehe
doubts about,
doubts about, he he isis anxious
anxious toto question
question others.
others. When he angry
he isis angry
he thinks
he thinks of of the
the difficulties his anger
difficulties his may involve
anger may involve him in. When
him in.
he sees
he sees gain
gain toto bebe got
got he thinks of
he thinks righteousness.-*
of righteousness. 1

5. Confucian
5. Confucian Politics
Politics
Popular sovereigntyGovernment
Popular sovereignty-Government byby exampleThe decentrali-
extrmple-The decentrali- .
.

zation of
zation of wealth
wealth - Music
Music and
and manners
mtmners - Socialism
Socialism
revolution
and revolution
and

None butbut such men, in

such men, the judgment
in the judgment of of Confucius,
Confucius, couldcould restore
restore the
the
family
family and
and redeem
redeem the
the state.
state. Society
Society rests
rests upon
upon the
the obedience
obedience of
of the
the
children to
children to their
their parents,
parents,
and
and of
of the
the wife
wife to
to her
her husband;
husband; when these these
*
go,
go, chaos
chaos comes.-
comes.
1
Only
Only one
one thing
thing
is
is higher than
higher than this
this law
law of
of obedience,
obedience,
and that is
and that is the
the moral
moral law.
law. "In serving his
"In serving his parents (a
parents (a son) son) maymay remon-
strate
strate with
with them,
them, but but gendy; when he sees that they do
gently; when he sees that they
do not
not incline
incline toto
follow
follow (his advice),
(his advice), he
he shows
shows an
an increased
increased degree
degree of
of reverence,
reverence, but
but
does·not abandon (his
does not abandon (his purpose) ..•.
. .When
. the command is
the is wrong, a
wrong, a son son
purpose). 181
should resist his
should resist his father,
father, and
and a a minister
minister should
should resist
resist his
his August
August Master."Ul
Master."
Here was one root
Here was one root of of Mencius'
Mencius' doctrine
doctrine of
of the
the divine
divine right
right of
of revolution.
revolution.

There
There waswas not
not much of of the revolutionist in
the revolutionist in Confucius;
Confucius; perhaps
perhaps he sus-sus-

pected that
that the
the inheritors
inheritors of of a a revolution
revolution are
are made of the same flesh
of the flesh as
as the
the
pected
men whom it
men it deposed. But enough in the Book of
deposed. But he he wrote
wrote bravely
bravely enough in the of Odes:
Odes:
"Before
"Before thethe sovereigns
sovereigns
of
of the
the Shang (Dynasty)
Shang (Dynasty) had lost
lost (the
(the hearts
hearts of)
of)
the people, they were
the people, they were the the mates
mates of
of God.
God. Take warning
warning from
from the
the house
of
of Shang.
Shang.
The
The great
great
decree
decree is
is not
not easily preServed."·
easily preserved."
189
The people
people areare
the actual
the actual and
and proper
proper source
source of
of political sovereignty,
political sovereignty,
for
for any govern-
any govern-
ment
ment that
that does
does not
not retain
retain their
their confidence
confidence sooner
sooner or later falls.
or later falls.

Tsze-kung asked about government. The

Tsze-kung asked about government.
The Master said, "(The
Master said, "(The
requisites of
of government) are
are three:
three: that
that there
there should be suffi-
should be suffi-
requisites government)
672
672 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXIII
(CHAP.XXHI

ciency
ciency ofof food,
food, sufficiency of military equipment, and the confidence
sufficiency of military equipment, and the confidence
of
of the
the people in
people in their ruler." Tsze-kung"
their ruler." Tsze-bing said,
said, "If it cannot
"If it' cannot be be
helped,
helped, and
and one
one of
of these
these must
must be be dispensed
dispensed with,
with, which
which ofof the
the three
three
should
should be be foregone
foregone first?'"
first?" "The military equipment,"
military equipment,"
said
said the
the
Master.
Master. Tsze-kung
Tsze-kung asked
asked again,
again,
"If
"If it
it cannot
cannot be
be helped,
helped,
and
and one
one of
of
the remaining
the remaining two must
must be
be dispensed with,
dispensed with, which
which of
of them
them should
should be
be
foregone?"
foregone?" The Master Master answered, "Part with
answered, "Part with the
the food.
food. From of of
old,
old, death
death has
has been the lot of all men; but if the people
been the lot of all men; but if the people have no have no
faith (in
faith (in their
their rulers) there is
rulers) there no standing
is no (for the state).'"
standing (for the state).""
8

The first
first principle of
government, in
principle of government, in the view of
the view Confucius, is
of Confucius, is as
as the
the
first
first principle of
principle of character-sincerity. Therefore the
character sincerity. Therefore the prime
prime instrument
instrument
of
of government
government is good example: the
is good example: the ruler
ruler must
must be
be an
an eminence
eminence of
of model
model
behavior, from which,
behavior, from by prestige
which, by prestige imitation,
imitation, right conduct will
right conduct will pour
pour down
upon
upon his people.
his people.

Ke K'ang
K'ang asked
asked Confucius
Confucius about about government,
government, saying, "What do
C(

saying, What do
you say
you say to killing the unprincipled
to killing the unprincipled for the good
for the good ofof the
the principled?"
principled?"
Confucius
Confucius replied,
replied,
"Sir,
"Sir, in
in carrying
carrying on
on your
your government, why
government, why
should
should youyou useuse killing
killing
at
at all?
all? Let your (evinced)
Let your (evinced) desires
desires be be for
for
what isis good, and
good, and the
the people
people will
will be
be good.
good. The relation
relation between
between
superiors
superiors andand inferiors
inferiors isis like
like that between the
that between the wind
wind and the grass.
and the grass.
I

The grass
grass must
must bend
bend when the
the wind
wind blows across it ... He who
blows across it. . ..
exercises government by means
exercises government by means of, of his virtue may be
his virtue
may be compared
compared to to
the north
die north polar
polar star, which keeps
star, which keeps itsits place,
place, and
and all the stars
all the tum
stars turn

toward it.
toward it. ....
• • Ke K'angK'ang askedasked how to to cause
cause thethe people
people to to
reverence (their
reverence ruler), to
(their ruler), to be
be faithful
faithful toto him,
him, and
and to
to urge
urge them-
them-
selves to
selves to virtue.
virtue. The Master
Master said,said, "Let him preside
"Let him preside overover themthem
with gravity-then
with gravity-then they they will reverence him.
will reverence Let him
him. Let him be be filial
filial and
and
kind to all-then they
kind to all-then will be
they will be faithful
faithful to him. Let
to him. Let him advance
him advance the the
good and
good and teach
teach the incompetent-then
the incompetent they will
then they eagerly seek
will eagerly seek to to
be virtuous."
be virtuous.'" 18*

As good
As good example
example is
is the first instrument
the first instrument of
of government,
government, good
good appoint-
appoint-
ments are
ments are the
the second.
second. "Employ
"Employ thethe upright
upright and
and put
put aside
aside the
the crooked;
crooked;
in this
in way the
this way crooked can
the crooked can be
be made toto be
be upright/""
upright.'" 'The
''The administra-
administra-
tion of
tion of government,"
govemment," says Doctrine of
the Doctrine
says the of the
the Mem,
Metm, "lies in (getting
"lies in (getting
proper)
proper) men.
men. Such
Such men are
are to
to be
be got by
got by means
means of
of (the ruler's)
(the ruler's) own own
character.'"
character.'"
88
What would not
would ministry of
not aa ministry of Higher
Higher Men do, even in
do, even in
one generation,
one generation, to
to cleanse
cleanse the
the state
state and
and guide
guide the
the people
people to to aa loftier
loftier
CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
THE 673
level civilization?** First
level of civilization?- of all,
First of all, they relations as
they would
would avoid
avoid foreign as
foreign relations
much as
much as possible, and
possible, and seek
seek to
to make
make their
their state
state so
so independent of out-
independent of
out-
side supplies that it
side supplies that it would
would never
never be be tempted to war
war for for them.
them. They
tempted to They
would reduce the luxury
would reduce the luxury of of courts,
courts, and
and seek
seek a wide distribution
a wide distribution of of wealth,
wealth,
for
for "the
"the centralization
centralization of wealth is
of wealth the way
is the
way to to scatter
scatter thethe people, and
people,
letting
letting it be
it be scattered
scattered among them is the way to collect
among them is the way to collect the people." the people."· 138

They
They would
would decrease
decrease punishments,
punishments, and and increase public instruction;
increase public instruction; for
for
"there being instruction,
"there being instruction, there
there will
will be
be no
no distinction of classes."·
distinction of classes." The 1*8

higher subjects
higher subjects would
would be
be forbidden
forbidden to
to the
the mediocre, but
mediocre, but music
music would
be taught
be taught to to all.
all. ''"When
"When one one has
has mastered
mastered music music completely, and regu-
completely, and regu-
lates his heart
lates his heart andand -mind
mind accordingly, the natural, correct, gentle and
accordingly, the natural, correct, gentle
and
sincere heart is is easily developed, and joy attends
attends itsits development. • • •
easily developed, and joy
sincere heart . . .
development.
The best
best wayway to to improve
improve manners and customs is to ....
manners and customs is to pay attention
. . pay attention to
to
the composition
the composition of of the
the music played in
music played in the country.* ... Manners
the country.- . . . Manners and
music should
music should not not for
for a a moment be be neglected
neglected by anyby anyone.one. . . . Benevo-
. Benevo-
. .

lence is
lence is akin to music,
music, and and righteousness
righteousness to to good manners.'" 140
akin to good manners."
Good manners,
manners, too, too, must
must be
be a
a care
care of
of the
the government,
government, for for when man-
ners decay
ners decay the nation decays
the nation decays withwith them.
them. Imperceptibly
Imperceptibly the the rules
rules of
of
propriety form. at least the outward charaeter,:IA and add to the sage the
propriety form at least the outward character," and add to the sage
1
the
graciousness
graciousness of
of the
the gentleman;
gentleman; we become
become what
what we do.
do. Politically
Politically "the
"the
usages
usages of
of propriety
propriety serve
serve as
as dykes
dykes for
for the
the people against evil
people against evil excesses";
excesses";
and
and "he
"he who thinks the
who thinks the old
old embankments
embankments useless, useless, and
and destroys them, is
destroys them,
is
*
sure to suffer
suffer from
from the the desolation caused by
desolation caused by overB.owing water": ~ one
overflowing water":
1

sure to one
almost hears the
almost hears the stem
stern voice
voice of the angry
of the angry Master
Master echoing
echoing thosethose words

today from that Hall of the Classics where once all his words were
today from that Hall of the. Classics where once all his words were en-
en-

graved in
graved in stone,
stone, and
and which revolution has
which revolution has left
left desecrated
desecrated and and forlorn.
forlorn.
And yet
And yet Confucius
Confucius too had his
too had his Utopias
Utopias and
and dreams,
dreams, and
and might have
might have
sympathized at times with men who,
sympathized at times with who, convinced
convinced that that the
the dynasty
dynasty had
had
lost
lost "the
"the great
great
decree"
decree" or or "~date
"mandate of of Heaven,"
Heaven," draggeddragged down one
one
system of order in the hope of of rearing
rearing a a better
better one
one on ruins. In the
on the mins.
the la the
system of order in the hope
end
end hehe became
became aa socialist,
socialist, and gave his
and gave his fancy rein:
fancy rein:

When thethe Great

Great Principle
Principle (of
(of the
the Great
Great Similarity)
Similarity) prevails, prevans,
the whole
the whole world
world becomes
becomes a a republic; they
republic; they
elect men of
elect of talents,
talents,

virtue and
virtue and ability; they
ability; they
talk about
talk about sincere
sincere agreement,
agreement, and cultivate
cultivate
universal peace.
universal peace. Thus
Thus men do do not
not regard
regard as parents only
their parents
as their only their
their

•* "Let me write
write t\1e who
songs of
of a
a nation," said Daniel
"Let me the BODgS nation," said O'Conndl, "and II care
Daniel o'Connell, care not
not who
makes
makes its
its laws."
laws."
674
674 THE STORY
S T OR Y OF OF CIVILIZATION
CIVIL I Z A T ION (CHAP. XXIII
(CHAP. L"{III

own parents,
own parents, nor
nor treat
treat asas their
their children only thek
children only their own
own children.
children.
A competent
competent provision
provision isis secured
secured for the aged
for the aged till
till their
their death,
death, em-
em-
ployment for the middle-aged,
ployment for the middle-aged,
and
and the
the means
means of
of growing up
growing up for for
the young.
the young. The
The widowers,
widowers, widows,
widows, orphans,
orphans, childless
childless men,
men, and
and
those who
those are disabled
who are by disease,
disabled by disease, are
are all
all sufficiently
sufficiently maintained.
maintained.
Each man
Each man has
has his rights,
his rights, and
and each
each woman her her individuality
individuality safe-
safe-
guarded. They produce wealth,
guarded. They produce wealth, disliking
disliking that
that it
it should
should be
be thrown
thrown
away upon
away upon thethe ground,
ground, butbut not
not wishing
wishing to keep itit for
to keep for their
their own
gratification. Disliking
gratification. Disliking
idleness they labor,
idleness they labor, but but not
not alone
alone with
with a view
a view
to thek
to their own
own advantage.
advantage. In In this way selfish
this way selfish schemings
schemings are are repressed
repressed
and find
and find no way to
no way to arise.
arise. Robbers,
Robbers, filchers
filchers and
and rebellious
rebellious traitors
traitors
do not
do not exist
exist. Hence
Hence thethe outer
outer doors
doors remain
remain open,
open, and
and are
are not
not shut.
shut.
This is
This is the
the state
state of
of what
what II call
call the
the Great
Great Similarity.
Similarity.14I1*8

6. The
6. The Influence
Influence of
of Confucius
Confucius
The Confucian
The Confucian scholars-Their victory
scholars-Their over the
victory over tbe Legalists-De-
Legalists-De-
fects of Confu.cianiS1n-The
fects of conte11lporaneity of
Confucianism-The contemporaneity of Confucius
Confucius
The success
The success of of Confucius
Confucius was was posthumous,
posthumous, but but complete.
complete. His His philos-
philos-
ophy had struck a practical and
ophy had struck a practical and political note political note that
that endeared
endeared it
it to
to the
the
Chinese
Chinese after
after death
death had had removed
removed the possibility of
die possibility his insisting
of his upon its·
insisting upon
its

realization.
realization. Since
Since men
men of of letters
letters never
never quite
quite
reconcile
reconcile themselves
themselves to
to being
being
men of of letters, the literati
letters, the literati of the centuries
of the after Confucius
centuries after Confucius attached
attached them-
them-
selves sedulously
selves· to his doctrine as a road to influence and
sedulously to his doctrine as a road to influence public em-
and public
ployment, and created a class of Confucian
ployment, and created a class of Confucian scholars scholars destined
destined to
to become
the
the most
most powerful
powerful group group in in the
the empire. Schook sprang
empire. Schools sprang up up here
here and
there
there for
for the teaching
die teaching of
of the
the Master's
Master's philosophy
philosophy as
as handed
handed down by his
by his

disciples, developed by Mencius, and

disciples, developed by Mencius,
emended by
and emended by aa thousand
thousand pundits
pundits in in
the
the course
course of of time;
time; and
and these
these schools,
schools, as
as the
the intellectual
intellectual centers
centers of
of China,
China,
kept
kept civilization
civilization alive
alive during
during centuries
centuries ofof political: collapse, much as
political collapse,
as the
the
monks
monks preserved some measure of ancient
preserved some measure of
ancient culture,
culture, andand some degreedegree of of
social order, during
social order, during the
the Dark
Dark Ages
Ages that
that followed
followed the
the fall
fall of
of Rome.
A rival
rival school,
school, thethe ''Legalists,'' disputed for
"Legalists," disputed
for a while this
a while this leadership
leadership of of
Confucian
Confucian thought
thought in
in the
the political world,
political world,
and
and occasionally
occasionally moulded the
the
policy
policy of
of the
the state.
state. To make governmentgovernment depend
depend upon the
upon good ex-
the good ex-
ample
ample of of the
the governors
governors and and the
the inherent goodness of
inherent goodness of the
the governed,
governed, saidsaid

the Legalists,
the Legalists, was
was to
to take
take a
a considerable
considerable risk; history
risk; history had
had offered
offered no
superabundance
superabundance of of precedents
precedents for for the
the successful
successful operation
operation of of these
these ideal-
ideal-

istic principles. Not

istic Not men but
but laws
laws should
should rule, they argued;
rule, they argued; and
and laws
laws
principles.
CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
THE 675
675

must
must be be enforced
enforced until, until, becoming
becoming a a second nature to
second nature to aa society, they are
society, they are
obeyed
obeyed without force. force. The people are
people are not
not intelligent enough to rule
intelligent enough to rule
themselves
themselves well; they
well; they prosper prosper best
best under
under an
an aristocracy. Even
aristocracy. Even tradesmen
tradesmen
are not too intelligent,
are not too
intelligent, but but pursue
pursue their
their interests
interests very often to the detri-
very often to the detri-
ment
ment of of the
the state;
state; perhaps,
perhaps, said
said some
some of
of the
the Legalists,
Legalists,
it
it would
would be
be wiser
wiser
for the state to socialize capital,
for the state to socialize monopolize trade, and prevent the man-
capital, monopolize trade, and prevent the man-
w
ipulation
ipulation of of prices
prices and
and the
the concentration
concentration of
of wealth.
wealth.
14*
These
These \vere were ideasideas
that were destined
that destined to to appear again and
appear again and again in the history
again in the history of Chinese
of Chinese
government.
government.
In
In the
the long run the
long the philosophy of
philosophy of ConfuciusConfucius triumphed.
triumphed.
We shall shall see
see
later how the
later
mighty Shih
the mighty Shih Huang-ti,
Huang-ti, with
with a
a Legalist
Legalist
for
for his
his prime
prime
minister,
minister,
sought
sought to to end the tie influence
influence of of Confucius
Confucius by by ordering that all existing
ordering that all existing
Gmfucian literatur~
Confucian literature should should be be burned.
burned. But But the the power
power of of the the word
word
proved stronger
proved stronger than
than that
that of
of the
the sword;
sword; the
the books
books which
which the
the "First
"First
Emperor"
Emperor" sought sought to to destroy
destroy became
became holy holy and and precious through his
precious through his
enmity, and
enmity, and men died died as as martyrs in
martyrs in the the effort
effort to to preserve
preserve them.
them. When
Shih
Shih Huang-ti
Huang-ti and his
his brief
brief dynasty
dynasty had
had passed
passed away,away, a
a wiser
wiser emperor,
emperor,
Wu T~ brought the
Ti, brought the Confucian
Confucian literature
literature out out of of hiding, gave
hiding, gave office to
office to
its
its students,
students, and· strengthened the
and -strengthened the Han Dynasty by introducing
Dynasty by introducing the
the ideas
ideas
and methods
methods of of Confucius
Confucius into into the
the education
education of Chinese youth and
of Chinese youth and
statesmanship.
statesmanship. Sacrifices
Sacrifices were
were decreed
decreed in
in honor
honor of
of Confucius;
Confucius; the
die texts
texts of
of
the Classics
the were by
Classics were imperial
by imperial command engraved
engraved on
on stone,
stone, and
and became
became
the official
the official religion, of
religion of the the state.
state. Rivaled
Rivaled at at times
times by by the the influence
influence of of
Taoism, and
Taoism, and eclipsed
eclipsed for for a while by
a while by Buddhism,
Buddhism, Confucianism
Confucianism was
was re-
re-

stored
stored andand exalted
exalted by by the the T'ang Dynasty, and
T'ang Dynasty, and the great T'ai
the great T'ai TsungTsung
ordered that
ordered that aa temple
temple shouldshould be be erected
erected to to Confucius,
Confucius, and and sacrifices
sacrifices

offered in
offered it by
in it by scholars
scholars and officials, in
and officials, every town
in every town and and village
village of the
of the
empire. During
empire. During the the Sung Dynasty aa virile
Sung Dynasty virile school
school of of "N eo-Confucians"
"Nee-Confucians"
arose, whose
arose, whose innumerable
innumerable commentaries
commentaries on on thethe Classics spread the
Classics spread phil-
the phil-
osophy
osophy of
of the
the Master,
Master, in
in varied
varied dilutions, throughout
dilutions, throughout the
the Far
Far East,
East, andand
stimulated aa philosophical
stimulated philosophical development
development in in Japan.
Japan. From the the rise rise of of the
the
Dynasty to
Han Dynasty to the fall of
the fall of the
the Manchus
Manchus-i.e., i.e., for
for two
two thousand
thousand years-the
years the
doctrine of
doctrine of Confucius
Confucius moulded moulded and and dominated
dominated the the Chinese
Chinese mind. mind.
The history of
The history China might
of China might be be written
written in in terms
terms of of that
that influence.
influence. For For
generation after
generation after generation
generation the writipgs of
the writings of the
the Master
Master were were the the texts
texts ofof
the official
the official schools,
schools, and and nearly
nearly every
every ladlad who came came through
through those those schools
schools
had learned
had learned those
those textstexts by by heart.
heart. The stoic stoic conservatism
conservatism of of thethe ancient
ancient
sage
sage
sank
sank almost
almost into
into the
the blood
blood of
of the
the people,
people, and
and gave
gave to
to the
the natiotli
nation, and and
67
6766 TH STORY
THEE ST OR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F CIVIL I ZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXIII

to
to its
its individuals,
individuals, a a dignity and profundity unequaled elsewhere
dignity and profundity unequaled
elsewhere in in the
the
world or
world or in history. With
in history. With the the help
help ofof this
this philosophy China
philosophy China developed developed
aa harmonious
harmonious communitycommunity life, life, a
a zealous
zealous admiration
admiration for
for learning and wis-
learning wis-
dom, and a quiet and stable culture
dom, and a quiet and stable culture which made Chinesewhich made Chinese civilization
civilization strong
strong
enough
enough to
to survive
survive every
every invasion,
invasion, and
and to
to remould
remould every
every invader
invader in
in its
its

own image.
image. Only Only in
in Christianity
Christianity and
and in
in Buddhism
Buddhism can
can we find
find again
again
so heroic an
so heroic an effort
effort toto transmute
transmute into into decency
decency the
the natural
natural brutality
brutality of
of men.
men.
today, as
And today, then, no
as then, no better
better medicine
medicine couldcould be be prescribed
prescribed for for any people
any people
suffering
suffering from from the disorder generat~d
the disorder generated by by an an intellectualist
intellectualist education,
education, a a
decadent
decadent moral moral code,
code, and and a a weakened
weakened fibre fibre of of individual
individual and and national
national
character,
character, than than thethe absorption
absorption of of the
the Confucian philosophy by
Confucian philosophy by the the na-
na-
tion's youth.
tion's youth.
But that philosophy
But that philosophy could could not not bebe aa complete nourjshment in
complete nourishment in itself.
itself. ItIt

was well
was well fitted
fitted to to a a nation
nation stmggling
struggling out out ofof chaos
chaos and and weakness
weakness into into
order and
order and strength, but
but it woul~
it would prove a
a shackle
shackle upon a
a country com-
strength, prove upon country
pelled by
pelled by international
international competition
competition to to change
change and and grow.
grow. The rules rules ofof
propriety,
propriety, destined
destined to
to form
form character
character and
and social
social order,
order, became
became a
a strait-
strait-

jacket forcing
jacket forcing almost
almost everyevery vitalvital action
action intointo a a P!escribed
prescribed a.I:1dand unaltered
unaltered
mould. There
mould. There was was something
something prim prim and
and Puritan
Puritan about
about Confucianism
Confucianism which which
checked
checked too thoroughly the
too thoroughly the natural
natural andand vigorous impulses
vigorous impulses of
of mankind;
mankind;
its virtue was
its virtue was soso complete
complete as
as to
to bring sterility.
bring sterility. No room
room was
was left
left in
in it
it for
for
pleasure
pleasure and
and adventure,
adventure, and
and little
little for
for friendship
friendship
and
and love.
love. It
It helped
helped to' to
"
keep
keep woman in
in supine debasement,UII
supine debasement,
1
and its cold perfection
and its cold perfection froze the froze the
nation into
nation into a a conservatism
conservatism as as hostile
hostile to progress as
to progress as it was favorable
it was favorable to to
peace.
peace.
We mustmust not blame all
not blame all this
this upon Confucius;
upon Confucius; one one cannot
cannot be be expected
expected
to do
to do the thinking of
the thinking of twenty
twenty centuries.
centuries. We ask
ask of
of a
a thinker
thinker only
only that,
that,
as the result
as the result of of a a lifetime
lifetime of of thought,
thought, he shall in
he shall in some
some wayway illuminate
illuminate our our
path
path to
to understanding.
understanding. Few men have
have done
done this
this more
more certainly
certainly
than
than
Confucius.
Confucius. As we read read him,
him, and perceive how little
and perceive little ofof him him must
must be be
erased
erased todaytoday because
because of of the
the growth
growth of
of Imowledge
knowledge and
and the
the change
change of of
circumstance,
circumstance, how soundly
soundly he
he offers
offers us
us guidance
guidance even
even in
in our
our contem-
contem-
porary
porary worl~
world, we forget
forget his
Ws platitudes
platitudes and
and his
his unbearable
unbearable perfectioD.,
perfection, and
and
join
join his
his pious grandson,
pious grandson, K'ung K'ung Chi in
in that
that superlative
superlative eulogy
eulogy which
which be-
be-
gan
gan the
the deification
deification of of Confucius:
Confucius: .

Chung-ni
Grang-ni (Confucius)
(Confucius) handed down the
the doctrines
doctrines of
of Yao and
and
Shun as if
Shun as if they had been his
they had been his ancestors,
ancestors, and elegantly displayed
and elegantly the
displayed the
CHAP. XXUI)
CHAP.XXm) THE AGE OF THE
TH E PHILOSOPHERS
PH IL 0 SOP HER S 677
677

regulations of
regulations
of Wen and
and Wu, taking them
Wu, taking them as his model.
as his model. Above
Above he
he
harmonized with
harmonized the times
with the times of
of heaven,
heaven, and
and below
below he
he was
was conformed
conformed
to the
to the water
water and
and land.
land.
may be
He may be compared
compared to to heaven
heaven and and earth
earth inin their
their supporting
supporting and and
containing,
containing,
their
their overshadowing
overshadowing and
and curtaining,
curtaining,
all
all things.
things. He may
may
be compared
be compared to to the
the four
four seasons
seasons inin their
their alternating
altemating progress,
progress, andand to
to
the sun
the sun and
and moon
moon in in their
their successive
successive shining.
shining. . ••
. . .

All-embracing and
All-embracing and vast,
vast, he
he isis like
like heaven.
heaven. DeepDeep and and active
active asas aa
fountain,
fountain, he
he is
is like
like the
the abyss.
abyss. He is
is seen,
seen, and
and the
the people
people all
all rev-
rev-
erence him; he
erence him; he speaks,
speaks, and and the
the people
people all believe him;
all believe him; hehe acts,
aets, and
and
the people
the people are all pleased
are all p1eased with him.
with him.
Therefore his
Therefore his fame
fame overspreads
overspreads the the Middle
Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom, and and extends
extends
to all
to barbarous tribes.
all barbarous tribes. Wherever
Wherever ships ships and and carriages
carriages reach,
reach, wher-
wher-
ever the
ever the strength
strength of of man
man penetrates,
penetrates, wherever
wherever the the heavens
heavens over-
over-
shadow and
shadow and the
the earth
earth sustains,
sustains, wherever
wherever the the sun
sun andand moon shine,shine,
wherever frosts
wherever frosts and
and dews fall-all who have
dews fall-all have blood
blood andand breath
breath un-un-
feignedly
feignedly honor
honor and
and love
love him.
him. Hence
Hence it it is
is said:
said: "He is
is the
the equal
equal
of Heaven."
of Heaven. 'nM 146

m. SOCIALISTS AND ANARCHISTS

HI.

The two hundred years

two hundred that followed
years that upon Confucius
followed upon were centuries
Confucius were centuries
of
of lively controversy and raging heresy. Having discovered the
lively controversy and raging heresy. Having discovered
the pleasures
pleasures
of philosophy, some
of philosophy, some men,
men, like
like Hui
Hui SzeSze and Kun~
andKung Sun
Sun Lung, played
Lung, played withwith
MT
logic,
logic,
and
and invented
invented paradoxes
paradoxes
of
of reasoning
reasoning
as
as varied
varied and
and subtle as
subde as Zeno's.ur
Zeno's.
Philosophers flocked to the-city of Lo-yang as, in the same centuries, they
Philosophers flocked to the'city of Lo-yang as, in the same centuries, they
were
were :Bocking
flocking toto Benares
Benares and
and Athens;
Athens; and
and they enjoyed in
they enjoyed in the
the Chinese
Chinese
capital all that
capital all
that freedom
freedom of of speech
speech andand thought
thought which
which made Athens the
Athens the
intellectual
intellectual center
center ofof the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean world.
world. Sophists called Tsung-
Sophists called Tsung-
heng-kill,
heng-kia, or
or "Crisscross
"Crisscross Philosophers,"
Philosophers,"
crowded
crowded the
the capital
capital to
to teach
teach all
all

and
and sundry
sundry the art of
the art of persuading
persuading any
any man toto anything.2M
anything." To La-yang
8
Lo-yang
came
came Mencius,
Mencius, inheritor
inheritor of
of the
the mantle
mantle of
of Confucius,
Confucius, Chuang-tze,
Chuang-tze, greatest
greatest
of Lao-tze's followers, Hsiin-tze,
of Lao-tze's followers, Hsiin-tze, the
the apostle
apostle of
of original evil, and Mo T~
original evil, Ti,
the prophet
the prophet of
of universal
universal love.
love.

1.
1. Mo Ti, Altruist
MoTi, Altruist
r ,

An early logicmr^hristian^and pacifist

early logicim--Christitm-tmt1 pacifist

"Mo Tl,"
ccMo said his
H," said his enemy,
enemy, Mencius, "loved all
Mencius, "loved all men, and would gladly
men, and·would gladly
2Mt
wear out his
wear out his whole
whole being
being from
from head
head to
to heel
heel for
for the
the benefit
benefit of
of mankind.
mankind."
67
78
<J 8 THE STORY
THE OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XXIII
(CHAP. XXIII

He was
He was aa native
native of
of Lu,
Lu, like
like Confucius,
Confucius, andand flourished
flourished shortly
shortly after
after the
the
passing of
passing
of the
the sage.
sage. He
He condemned
condemned the the impracticality
impracticality of of Confucius'
Confucius'
thought, and
thought, and
offered to replace
offered to replace it
it by exhorting
by exhorting all
all men
men to
to love
love an-
one an-
one
other. He
other. He was
was among
among thethe earliest
earliest of
of Chinese
Chinese logicians,
logicians, and the worst of
and the worst of
Chinese
Chinese reasoners.
reasoners. He
He stated
stated the
the problem
problem of
of logic
logic with
with great simplicity:
great simplicity:

These are
These are what
what I call the
I call the Three
Three Laws
Laws of Reasoning:
of Reasoning:
I.
1. Where to
Where to find
find the
the foundation.
foundation. Find
Find it in the
it in the study
study of
of the
the
experiences
experiences
of
of the
the wisest
wisest men of
of the
the past.
past
2.
2. How to
to take
take aa general survey of
general survey it? Examine
of it? Examine the
the facts
facts of
of the
the
actual experience
actual experience of
of the
the people.
people.
3.
3.
How to
to apply
apply it?
it? Put it
Put it into law and
into law and governmental policy,
governmental policy,
and see
and see whether
whether or
or not
not it is conducive
it is conducive to
to the
the welfare
welfare of
of the
the state
state
and the
and the people.**
people.-

On this
On this basis
basis Mo Ti Ti proceeded
proceeded to to prove
prove that
that ghosts
ghosts and and spirits
spirits are
are real,
real,
for many people
for many people havehave seen
seen them.
them. He objectedobjected strongly
strongly to to Confucius'
Confucius'
coldly impersonal view of heaven, and argued for
coldly impersonal view of heaven, and argued
for the
the personality
personality of of God.
God.
Like Pascal,
Like Pascal, hehe thought
thought religion
religion aa good
good wager:
wager: if if the
the ancestors
ancestors to to whom
we sacrifice
sacrifice hear
hear us,
us, we have
have made
made a
a good bargain;
good bargain; if
if they
they are
are quite
quite dead,
dead,
and unconscious of
and unconscious of our
our offerings,
offerings,
the
the sacrifice
sacrifice gives
gives us us anan opportunity
opportunity to to

"gather
"gather
our
our relatives
relatives andand neighbors
neighbors and
and participate
participate
in
in the
the enjoyment
enjoyment of
of
*
the sacrificial victuals
the sacrificial victuals andand drinks."1JI1
1
drinks."
In
In the
the same
same manner,
manner, reasons
reasons Mo Ti, Ti, universal
universal love love is is the
the only
only solution
solution
of the social problem; for if it were
of the social problem; for if it were applied applied thete
thete is
is no doubt
doubt that
that it
it would
bring Utopia. "Men in
bring Utopia. in general
general loving
loving oneone another,
another, the the strong
strong would not
make prey
make prey of of the
the weak,
weak, the
the many
many would
would not
not plunder
plunder the few,
the few, thethe rich
rich

would not
would not insult
insult thethe poor,
poor, the
the noble would not
noble would not be be insolent
insolent to to the
the mean,
mean,
and
and the
the deceitful
deceitful would
would not not impose upon the
the simple.'" Selfishness is
Selfishness is the
the
impose upon simple.""*
source
source of of all
all evil,
evil, from
from thethe acquisitiveness
acquisitiveness
of
of the
the child to the conquest
child to the conquest of of
an
an empire. Mo Ti Ti marvels
marvels thatthat aa man who steals steals a
pig is
a pig is universally con-
universally con-
empire.
demned
demned and
and generally punished,
generally punished,
while
while a
a man who invades
invades anel
and appropriates
appropriates
aa kingdom
kingdom is
is a
a hero
hero to his
to his people and
people and a
a model
model to
to posterity.·
posterity.
388
From this this

pacifism
pacifism
Mo Ti
Ti advanced
advanced to
to such
such vigorous
vigorous criticism
criticism of
of the
the state that his
state that his

doctrine
doctrine verged
verged on on anarchism,
anarchism, and and frightened
frightened the the authorities.-
authorities." Once,
4
Once,
his
his biographers
biographers
assure
assure us,us, when
when the
the State
State Engineer
Engineer of
of the
the Kingdom
Kingdom of of
Chu was about
Chu was about to to invade
invade the
the state
state of
of Sung
Sung in
in order
order to
to test
test a
a new
new siege
siege
ladder
ladder which
which he he had
had invented,
invented, Mo Mo Ti dissuaded him
Ti dissuaded him by preaching
by preaching to
to him
him
his doctrine of
his doctrine of universal
universal lovelove and
and peaCe.
peace. "Before
"Before II met
met you,"
you," said
said the
the
CHAP. XXIU)
CHAP.XXin) THEE AGE OF
TH PHILOSOPHERS
OP THE PHILO SOP H ER S 679
679
Engineer,
Engineer, "I had wanted to
"I had to conquer the
conquer the statestate of
of Sung. But since I have
Sung. But since I have
seen you II would not
seen you not have
have it even if
it even it were
if it were given
given to
to me without resist-
without resist-

ance but with

ance but with no justjust cause."
cause." "If"If so,"
so," replied
replied
Mo Ti,
Ti, "it
"it is
is as
as if
if I
I had
had
already given
already given you you the
the state
state of
of Sung.
Sung. Do persist
persist
in
in your righteous course,
your righteous course,
will give
and II will give you
you the
the whole
whole world.'"
world.""
8

The Confucian scholars,

scholars, as well as
as well as the of Lo-yang,
politicians of
the politicians
Lo-yang, met met these
these
amiable proposals
proposals with
with laughter.-
laughter."
8
Nevertheless
Nevertheless Mo Ti
Ti had
had his
his followers,
followers,
and for centuries his
for two centuries his views became the
views became religion of
the religion of aa pacifistic seet.
sect.
pacifistic
Two of his disciples,
of his Sung
disciples, Sung PingPing and
and Kung
Kung Sun
Sun Lung, waged
Lung, waged active
active cam-
cam-
paigns for disarmament."* Han Fe~
for disarmament." Fei, the
the greatest critic of his age, attacked
paigns greatest critic of his age, attacked
the
the movement from what we might
from what might call
call a Nietzchean standpoint,
a Nietzchean arguing
standpoint, arguing
that until
that until men had actually sprouted
actually sprouted the
the wings
wings of
of universal
universal love,
love, war
war
would continue
continue to to be
be the
the arbiter
arbiter ofof nations.
nations. When Shih Shih Huang-ti ordered
ordered
Huang-ti
his famous "burning
his famous "burning of of the
the books,"
books," thethe literature
literature of
of Mohism
Mohism was was cast
cast into
into
the flames
the flames along
along with
with the
the volumes
volumes of
of Confucius;
Confucius; and
and unlike
unlike the
the writings
writings
and doctrines
doctrines ofof the
the Master,
Master, thethe new religion did not survive the con-
religion did not survive the con-
flagration.-
flagration."*

2.
2. Y Ilng Chu,
Yang Egoist
Chu, Egoist
An epicurean
epicurean determinist-The
determnistThe case
case for 'Wickedness
fOT 'wickedness

Meanwhile
Meanwhile a a precisely
precisely opposite
opposite doctrine had found
doctrine had vigorous expression
found vigorous expression
among
among the
the Chinese.
Chinese. Yang
Yang Chu,
Chu, of
of whom we know nothing except through
nothing except through
the mouths
the mouths of of his
his enemies,· announced
announced paradoxically that life is is full
full of
of
enemies," paradoxically that life
suffering,
suffering, and
and that its chief
that its purpose is
chief purpose is pleasure. There is no god,
pleasure. There is god, said
said
Yang,
Yang, and no
no after-life;
after-life; men are
are the
the helpless puppets
helpless puppets
of
of the
the blind
blind natural
natural
forces
forces that made them,
that made them, and
and that
that gave
gave them
them their unchosen ancestry
their unchosen ancestry and
*
their inalienable
their inalienable character.-
character.
1
The wise
wise man willwill accept tllis fate
accept this fate without
without
complaint,
complaint, but
but will
will not
not be
be fooled
fooled by
by all
all the
the nonsense
nonsense of
of Confucius
Confucius and
and
Mo Ti about
about inherent
inherent virtue,
virtue, universal
universal love,
love, and
and a
a good
good name:
name: morality is
morality is a
a
deception practised upon
deception practised upon thethe simple
simple by by the
the clever; universal love
clever; universal love is
is the
the
delusion
delusion ofof children
children who do do not
not know the universal enmity
the universal enmity that
that forms
forms
the law
the law ofof life;
life; and
and a good name is
a good is a posthumous bauble
a posthumous bauble ,vhich
which the the fools
fools
paid so
who paid so dearly
dearly for it cannot
for it enjoy. In
cannot enjoy. In life the good
life the
good suffer
suffer like
like the
the
bad, and
bad, the wicked
and the wicked seemseem toto enjoy
enjoy themselves
themselves more
more keenly
keenly than
than the
the good.-
good.
101

The wisest
wisest men of of antiquity
antiquity werewere notnot moralists
moralists and rulers, as
and rulers, as Confucius
Confucius
supposed,
supposed, butbut sensible
sensible sensualists
sensualists who had had the
the good
good fortune
fortune to to antedate
antedate
the legislators
the legislators
and
and the
the philosophers,
philosophers, and
and who enjoyed
enjoyed the
the pleasures
pleasures of of
every impulse. It is
It is true
true thai:
that the
the wicked
wicked sometimes
sometimes leave
leave a
a bad
bad name
every impulse.
680
680 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
'THE (CHAP. XXIII
(CHAP.XXIII

behind them,
behind them, but
but this is
this is a
a matter
matter that
that does not disturb
does not their bones.
disturb their bones. Con-
Con-
sider,
sider, says Yang Chu, the fate of
says Yang Chu, the fate
the good
of the good and the evil:
and the evil:

All agree
All in considering Shun, Yii, Chou-kung and
agree in considering Shun, Yii, Chou-kung
and Confucius
Confucius to to
have
have been
been the
the most
most admirable
admirable of
of men,
men, and
and Chieh
Chieh and
and Chou the
the most
most
wicked.·
wicked.*
Now Shun Shun had had toto plough
plough the the ground
ground on on thethe south
south of of the
the Ho,
Ho,
and
and to to play
play the
the potter
potter by by the
the Lei
Lei lake. His
lake. His four
four limbs
limbs had
had not
not
even
even a temporary rest;
a temporary rest; for
for his
his mouth and
and belly
belly he
he could
could not
not even
even
find
find pleasant food
pleasant
food andand warm clothing. love of his parents
clothing. No love of his parents
rested upon him;
rested upon him; no
no affection
affection of
of his
his brothers
brothers and
and sisters.
sisters. . . . When
. . .

Yao at
Yao at length resigned
length resigned to to him
him thethe throne,
throne, he he was
was advanced
advanced in in age;
age;
his wisdom
his wisdom was was decayed;
decayed; his
his son
son Shang-chun
Shang-chun proved proved without
without ability;
ability;
and
and hehe had had finally
finally
to
to resign the throne to Vii. Sorrowfully came
resign the throne to Yii. Sorrowfully
he to
he his death.
to his death. Of all all mortals
mortals nevernever was was one whose life
one whose life was so so
wom out
worn out and
and empoisoned
empoisoned as
as his.
his. • ...• •
All the
All the energies
energies of of Yii
Yii were
were spent
spent on on hishis labors with the
labors with the land;
land;
aa child
child waswas born
born to to him,
him, but but he he could
could not not foster
foster it; passed his
he passed
it; he his

door without entering;

door without entering; his body became
his body became bent
bent and
and withered;
withered; the
the skin
skin
of his
of hands and
his hands and feet
feet became
became thick thick and and callous.
callous. When at at length
length
Shun resigned
resigned to to him
him the the throne,
throne, he
he lived
lived in
in a
a low
low mean
mean house,
house,
though
though his
his sacrificial
sacrificial apron and
apron and cap
cap were
were elegant.
elegant.
Sorrowfully
Sorrowfully
came he he to to his
his death.
death. Of all all mortals
mortals nevernever was was one whose life
one whose life was
was
so
so saddened
saddened and and embittered
embittered as as his.
his. .... ••
Confucius
Confucius understood
understood the the ways
ways of of thethe ancient
ancient sovereigns
sovereigns and
kings.
kings. He responded
responded to
to the
the invitations
invitations of of the princes
the princes of
of hishis time.
time.
The treetree waswas cutcut down over over himhim in in Sung;
Sung; the
the traces
traces of
of his
his foot-
foot-
steps
steps
were removed in
were removed in Wei;
Wei; he he was reduced
reduced to extremity in
to extremity in Shang
Shang
and
and Chou;
Chou; he he was
was surrounded
surrounded in in Ch'an
Ch'an and and Ts'i;
Ts'i; ... he he was dis- dis-

graced by
graced by Yang Yang Hu.
Hu. Sorrowfully
Sorrowfully came he
he to
to his
his death.
death. Of all
all

mortals never
mortals never waswas oneone whose
whose life life was
was so so agitated
agitated and
and hurried.
hurried, as
as

his.
his.

These
These four four sages, during their
sages, during
their lives,
lives, hadhad not single day's
not aa single joy.
day's joy.
Since their death
Since their death they
they have
have hadhad a a fame
fame that will last
that will last through myriads
through myriads
of
of ages.
ages.
But
But that
that fame
fame is
is what no no one
one who cares
cares for what is
for what is real
real

would chose.
would chose. Celebrate
Celebrate them-they
them-they do
do not
not know it.
it. Reward
them-they
them they do do not
not know it. it Their
Their fame fame is more to
no more
is DO to them than than
to the
to trunk of
the trunk of a a tree,
tree, or
or a
a clod
clod of
of earth.
earth.
(On
(On the the other
other hand)
hand) Chieh
Chieh camecame into into thethe accumulated
accumulated wealth wealth of of

• For
For Shun and
and Yii cf. page
Yu cf. page 644
644 above;
above; for and Chou
Chieh and
for Chieh (Hsin) cf.
(Hsin) cf.
pp. 644-5.
pp. 644-5.
681
68l THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
( CHAP. XXIII

acknowledge
acknowledge the the peculiar
peculiar
affection
affection due
due to
to aa father.
father. To acknowledge
acknowledge
neither king
neither king
nor
nor father is
father is to
to be
be in
in the
the state
state of
of a
a beast.
beast. IfIf their
their
principles
principles
are
are not
not stopped,
stopped, and
and the
the principles
principles of
of Confucius
Confucius set forth,
set forth,
their
their perverse speaking \vill delude the people, and
perverse speaking will delude the people,
and stop
stop up
up the
the path
path
of
of benevolence
benevolence and
and righteousness.
righteousness.
II am alarmed
alarmed by these things,
by these and a.ddress myself to the de-
things, and address myself to the de-
fense of
fense of the
the doctrines
doctrines of
of the
the former
former sages,
sages,
and
and to
to oppose
oppose Yang
Yang and
drive away
Mo. II drive away their
their licentious
licentious expressions,
expressions,
so
so that
that such
such perverse
perverse
speakers may
speakers may not
not be
be able
able to
to show
show themselves.
themselves. When sages
sages shall
shall
rise up again, they will
change my
2M
rise up again, they will not
not change my words.
words."
4

3.
3. Mencius,
Mencius, Mentor
Mentor ofof Princes
Princes

A model
model mother
mother - A philosopher
philosopher tmlong
among kings
kings - Are
Are men by
by
nature
nature good?-Smgle tax Mencius and
good? Single tax-Mencius and the
the cO'fffmU'1lists
communists
-The profit-motive-The
The profit-motive The right
right of
of revolution
revolution

Mencius,
Mencius, destined
destined to to be second in
be second in fame
fame to to Confucius
Confucius alone alone in the rich
in the rich
annals
annals of
of Chinese
Chinese philosophy, belonged
philosophy, belonged to
to the
the ancient
ancient family
family of
of Mang; his
Mang; his

name Mang
Mang Ko was changed
changed by by an
an imperial
imperial decree
decree to
to Mang-tze-i.e.,
Mang-tze i.e., Mang Mang
the Master
the Master or Philosopher; and
or Philosopher; and the
the Latin-trained
Latin-trained scholars
scholars of of Europe
Europe trans-
trans-
formed him into into Mencius,
Mencius, as as they had
they had changed K'ung-fu-tze
changed K'ung-fu-tze into
into Con-
fucius.
fucius.
We know the the mother
mother of of Mencius
Mencius almost
almost as as intimately
intimately as as we know
him; for
him; for Chinese
Chinese historians,
historians, who have have made
made her her famous
famous as as a model of
a model of
maternity,
maternity, recount
recount many pretty
many pretty stories
stories of
of her.
her. Thrice,
Thrice, we are
are told,
told, she
she
changed her
changed her residence
residence on his his account:
account: once once because
because they they lived near aa
lived near
cemetery, and.
cemetery, and. the
the boy began to
boy began to behave like an
behave like an undertaker;
undertaker; another
another timetime
because they lived
because they lived near
near aa slaughterhouse,
slaughterhouse, and
and the
the boy
boy imitated
imitated too
too ~ell
well
the cries
the cries of
of the
the slain animals; and
slain animals; and again
again because
because they they lived
lived near
near aa market
market
place, and
pkce, and the
the boy began to
boy began to act
aet the
the part
part of
of aa tradesman;
tradesman; finallyfinally she
she found
found
a home near
a near aa school,
school, and
and was
was satisfied.
satisfied. When the the boy
boy neglected
neglected his his
studies she
studies she cut through, in
cut through, his presence,
in his presence, the the thread
thread of of her
her shuttle;
shuttle; andand
when he he asked
asked whywhy she
she did
did so
so destructive thing, she
destructive aa thing, she explained
explained that that she
she
was but
was imitating his
but imitating his own negligence,
negligence, and and the the lack
lack of of continuity
continuity in his
in his
studies and
studies and his his development.
development. He became became an an assiduous
assiduous student,
student, married,
married,
resisted the temptation
resisted the temptation to to divorce
divorce his his wife,
wife, opened
opened aa schoolschool of philosophy,
of philosophy,
gathered aa famous
gathered famous collection
collection of of students
students about
about him,him, and received invita-
and received invita-
tions from
tions various princes
from various princes toto come and and discuss
discuss with with them
them hishis theories
theories of of
government.
government. He hesitated
hesitated to
to leave
leave his
his mother
mother ~
in her
her old
old age,
age,
but
but she
she sent
sent
 CHAP.xxm)
CHAP.XXm) THE AGE
THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
OF THE PHILOSOPHERS 683
683
him
him off with aa speech
off with
speech that
that endeared
endeared her to all
her to all Chinese
Chinese males,
males, and
and may
may
have been
have been composed
composed byby one
one of
of them.
them.

It
It does
does not
not belong
belong toto a
a woman
woman to to determine
determine anything of herself,
anything of herself,
but she is subject to
she is
subject to the
the role
rule of
of the
the three
three obediences.
obediences. When
When young
young
she
she has
has toto obey her
obey her parents;
parents; when
when married
married she
she has
has to
to obey
obey her
her
husband;
husband; when aa widow she
she has
has to obey her son. You are a man in
to obey her son. You are a man in
your
your full maturity,
full
maturity, and old. Do you act
and II am old. you act as
as your
your conviction
conviction of
of
righteousness
righteousness tells
tells you you ought to
you you ought to do, and II will
do, and will aet
act according to
according to
the
the role
rule which belongs to
belongs to me.me. Why
Why should
should you
you be
be anxious
anxious about
about
"
me?-
me?
1

He went,
He went, for for the
the itch
itch to teach is
to teach is aa part of the itch to rule; scratch the
part of the itch to rule; scratch the
one
one andand find
find thethe other.
other. LikeLike Voltaire,
Voltaire, Mencilis
Mencius preferred monarchy to
preferred monarchy to
democracy,
democracy, on the
the ground
ground that
that in
in democracy it is
democracy it is necessary to
necessary to educate
educate
all if
all if the
government is
the government is to
to succeed,
succeed, while under monarchy
while under monarchy it is only re-
it is
only re-
quired
quired that
that the
the philosopher
philosopher should
should bring
bring one
one man-the
man the king-to
king to wisdom,
wisdom,
in
in order
order to to produce
produce the the perfect
perfect state.
state. "Correct
"Correct what
what is
is wrong
wrong in in the
the
prince's
prince's mind. Once rectify
rectify the
the prince,
prince,
and
and the
the kingdom
kingdom will
will be
be settled."·
settled."
1811

He went
went first to Ch'~
first to Ch'i, and triedtried to to rectify its Prince Hsuan; he accepted
rectify its Prince Hsuan; he accepted
an honorary office,
an honorary office, butbut refused
refused the the salary that went with it; and soon
salary that went with it; and soon
finding
finding that
that the
the Prince
Prince was
was not
not interested
interested in
in philosophy, he withdrew to
philosophy, he withdrew to
the small principality
the small principality of of T'ang,
T'ang, whose whose ruler ruler became
became aa sincere
sincere but but in-
in-
effectual pupil.
effectual pupil. Mencius
Mencius returned
returned to Ch'~ and
to Ch'i, and proved
proved his his growth
growth in in
wisdom and
wisdom and understanding
understanding by accepting aa lucrative
by accepting lucrative office
office from
from Prince
Prince
Hsuan. When,
Hsuan. When, during
during these
these comfortable
comfortable years, years, his
his mother
mother died,
died, hehe buried
buried
her with
her such pomp
with such pomp that his pupils
that his pupils were were scandalized;
scandalized; he he explained
explained to to them
them
that it
that it was
was only sign of
only aa sign his filial
of his devotion. Some
filial devotion. Some years
years later
later Hsuan
Hsuan setset
out upon aa war of
out upon of conquest,
conquest, and, resenting Mencius'
and, resenting untimely pacifism,
Mencius' untimely pacifism,
terminated his
terminated his employment.
employment. Hearing Hearing that that thethe Prince
Prince of of Sung
Sung had had ex-
ex-
pressed
pressed his
his intention
intention of
of rn1ing
ruling like
like a
a philosopher,
philosopher, Mencius
Mencius journeyed
journeyed to to
his court,
his court, butbut found
found thatthat the
the report
report had had been
been exaggerated.
exaggerated. Like Like thethe men
men
invited to
invited to an
an ancient
ancient wedding-feast,
wedding-feast, the the various
various princes
princes hadhad many
many excuses
excuses
for' not
for not being
being rectified.
rectified. "I "I have
have an infirmity," said
an infirmity," said one
one ofof them;
them; "I "I love
love
valor." "I
valor." hav~ an
"I have an infirmity,"
infirmity," said said another;
another; "I "I amam fond
fond of wealth."""
of wealth." 3

Mencius retired
Mencius retired fromfrom public life, and
public life, and gave
gave hishis declining years to
declining years to the
the in-
in-
struction of
struction of students
students and and thethe composition
composition of of aa work
work in in which
which he he de-
de-
scribed his
scribed his conversations
conversations with with die royalty of
the royalty his time.
of his time. We We cannot
cannot telltell
to what
to extent these
what extent these should
should be be classed
classed with those of
with those of Walter
Walter Savage
Savage Landor;
Landor;
684
684 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.xxm
(CHAP. XXIII

nor do
nor do we know whether this
know whether this composition was
composition was the
the work of Mencius him-
of Mencius him-
self,
self, or
or of his pupils,
of his pupils, oror of
of neither,
neither, or
or of both.los We can
of both.
168
can only
only say
say that
that the
the
Book of
Book of Mencius
Mencius is
is one
one of
of the
the most
most highly
highly honored
honored of
of China's
China's philosophical
philosophical
classics.
classics*

His
His doctrine
doctrine is is as
as severely
severely secular
secular asas that
that of
of Confucius. There is
Confucius. There is little
little

here about
here about logic,
logic,
or
or epistemology,
epistemology, or
or metaphysics;
metaphysics; the
the Confucians
Confucians left
left

such
such subtleties
subtleties toto the
the followers
followers of of Lao-tze,
Lao-tze, and
and confined
confined themselves
themselves to to
moral and
moral political speculation.
and political speculation.
What interests
interests Mencius
Mencius is
is the
the charting
charting
of the good
of the good life,
life, and
and the
the .establishment
.establishment ofof government
government by
by good
good men.
men. His
His
*
basic claim
basic claim is that men are
is that are by
by nature
nature good,1I8
good, and
1
and that
that the
the social
social problem
problem
arises not out
arises not out ofof the
the nature
nature ofof men but
but out
out of the wickedness
of the wickedness of of govem-
govern-
ments. Hence
ments. Hence philosophers
philosophers must
must become
become kings,
kings, or
or the
the kings
kings of
of this
this world
world
must become
must become philosophers.
philosophers.

"Now, if
"Now, if your Majesty will
your Majesty will institute
institute aa government
government whose whose action
action
will be
be benevolent,
benevolent, thisthis will
will cause all the
cause all officers in
the officers the kingdom
in the kingdom
to wish
to wish toto stand
stand inin your
your Majesty's court, and
Majesty's court, and all the farmers
all the farmers to to
wish to
wish plough in
to plough in your Majesty'S fields,
your Majesty's fields, and
and all
all the
the merchants
merchants to
to
wish to
wish to store
store their
their goods in
goods in your Majesty's market-places,
your Majesty's market-places, and
and all'
all
'

traveling strangers
traveling strangers toto wish
wish toto make
make their
their tours
tours on your Majesty~s
on your Majesty's
roads, and
and all
all throughout the the Kingdom who feel aggriev~d by
feel
roads, throughout Kingdom aggrieved by
their rulers
their rulers to
to wish
wish toto come andand complain
complain to
to your Majesty. And
your Majesty.
they are
when they are so bent, who will
so bent, be able
will be able to keep them
to keep them back?"
back?"
King said,
The King said, "I
"I am stupid,
stupid,
and
and not
not able
able to
to advance
advance to this.
to this."
110
"1'10

The good ruler would

good ruler would war not not against
against other
other countries,
countries, butbut against
against the
the
common enemy-poverty, for
for it is
it is out
out of
of poverty and
and ignorance that
that
enemy-poverty, poverty ignorance
crime
crime and disorder
disorder come.
come. To punish punish men for for crimes
crimes committed
committed as as the
the
result of
result of aa lack
lack of
of opportunities
opportunities offered
offered them
them for
for employment
employment is
is a
a dastardly
dastardly
1
trap to
to set
set for
for the
the people. government is
people. 'l1 A government is responsible for the welfare
171

trap responsible for the welfare

of its
of its people, and should regulate economic processes accordingly.1'11 It
179

people, and should regulate economic processes accordingly. It

should
should taxtax chiefly
chiefly the
the ground itself,
ground itself, ra.ther
rather than
than what
what is
is built
built or
or done
done on
on
it;"" it
it;!· should abolish
it should abolish all
all tariffs,
tariffs, andand should
should develop universal and
develop universal and com-
com-
pulsory
pulsory education
education as
as the
the soundest
soundest basis
basis of
of a
a civilized
civilized development;
development; "good "good
laws
laws are Dot equal
equal toto winning
winning the people by good instruction."D'
by good "That
174
are not the people instruction." "That
whereby
whereby man differs
differs from
from the
the lower
lower animals
animals is but
is but small.
small. Most
Most people
people
throw it
throw it away; only superior men preserve it.,n..
mw
away; only superior preserve it.
We perceive
perceive how old old are
are the political problems,
the political problems, attitudes
attitudes andand solutions
solutions
of.'our
of. our enlightened age when we learn
enlightened age learn that
that Mencius
Mencius was
was rejected
rejected by by the
the
CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
THE 68
6855
princes for his radicalism, and was was scorned
scorned forfor his
his conservatism
princes for his radicalism, and conservatism byby the
the
socialists
socialists and communists
and communists of of his
his time.
rime. When the the "shrike-tongued bar- bar-
"shrike-tongued
barian of
barian the south,"
of the south," Hsu Hsing,
Hsing, raised
raised the
the flag
flag
of
of the proletarian dictator-
the proletarian dictator-
ship,
ship, demanding
demanding thatthat workingmen should
workingmen should be be made
made thethe heads
heads of
of the
the state
state
("The magistrates," said
("The magistrates," said Hsu,
Hsu, "should
"should be be laboring men"),
laboring men"),
and
and many
many of of
"The Learned,"
Learned," then
then as
as now, flocked to the new standard, Mencius
now, flocked to the new standard, Mencius re- re-
jected the
jected the idea
idea scornfully, and
scornfully, and argued
argued that
that government should
government should be be in
in the
the
hands of
hands educated men."l'll
of educated men." But But he
178
he denounced
denounced the profit-motive in
the profit-motive human
in human
society,
society, and rebuked Sung
and rebuked K'ang
Sung K'ang for
for proposing
proposing
to
to win
win the
the kings
kings to
to
pacifism by persuading
pacifism by persuading them, them, in
in modem
modern style,
style,
of
of the
the unprofitableness
unprofitableness
of war.
of war.

Your aim
Your aim isis great, but
great,
but your argument is
your argument not good.
is not
good. IfIf you, starting
you, starting
from the
the point
point of of profit,
profit,
offer
offer your persuasive
your persuasive counsels
counsels the kings
to the
to
kings
of
of Ch'in and Ch'~
Ch'in and Ch'i, and
and if
if those
those kings
kings are
are pleased with
with the
the consid-
consid-
pleased
eration
eration of of profit so
profit
so asas to
to stop the movements of their armies,
stop the movements of their armies,
then all
then all belonging to
belonging to those armies will
those armies will rejoice in the cessation (of
rejoice in the cessation (of
war), and
war), will find
and will find their
their pleasures in
pleasures
in (the
(the pursuit of) profit. Min-
pursuit of) profit Min-
isters will serve
isters will serve thethe sovereign
sovereign for
for the
the profit
profit
of
of which
which they cherish
they cherish
the thought;
the sons will
thought; sons will serve
serve their
their fathers,
fathers, and
and younger
younger brothers
brothers will
will
serve their elder
serve their elder brothers,
brothers, from
from the
the same
same consideration;
consideration; and
and the
the is-
is-

sue will be
sue will be that,
that, abandoning
abandoning benevolence
benevolence and righteousness, sovereign
and righteousness, sovereign
and minister,
minister, father
father andand son,
son, younger
younger brother
brother and
and elder,
elder, will
will carry
carry
on all their intercourse
all their intercourse with this thought of
with this thought of profit
profit
cherished
cherished in
in their
their
breasts. But
breasts. But never
never hashas there been such
there been such a a state
state (of society),
(of society), with-
with-
out ruin
out being thethe result
result ofof it.
7
ruin being it*1ft

He recognized
recognized thethe nght
right of
of revolution,
revolution, and preached it
and preached it in the face
in the face of
of
kings. He denounced
kings. denounced war war asas aa crime,
crime, andand shocked
shocked thethe hero-worshipers
hero-worshipers
of
of his time by
his time writing:
by writing: "There
"There are
are men who say:
say:
'I
1 am skilful
skilful at
at marshal-
marshal-
*
ing troops,
ing troops, I
I am skilful
skilful at
at conducting
conducting a
a battle.'
battle.' They
They are
are great
great
criminals."l.
criminals."
1

"There has never

"There has never been
been a a good
good war,"
war," he he said.:L'
said. 18 He condemned
179
condemned the the luxury
luxury
of the courts,
of the courts, and
and sternly
sternly rebuked
rebuked the
the king
king who fed
fed his
his dogs
dogs and
and swine
swine
while famine
while famine was consuming his
was consuming his people.:IIO When a
people." king argued
a king argued thatthat he
he
*
could not prevent
could not prevent famine,
famine, Mencius
Mencius told
told him
him that
that he
he should
should resign.
resign.
2IL
5
"The
"The
people," he taught, "are the
people," he taught, "are
the most
most important
important element
element (in (in a nation); .••
a nation); . . .

*
the sovereign
the sovereign
is
is the
the lighest";-
lighest";
and
3
and the
the people
people have
have the
the right to
right to depose
depose
their rulers,
their rulers, even,
even, now
DOW and
and then,
then, to
to kill
kill them.
them.

The King Hsuan

The King Hsuan asked
asked about
about the
the high ministers. • . • Mencius
high ministers. Mencius . . .

answered: "If
answered: "If the
the princes
princes
have
have great faults, they ought
great faults, they ought
to
to remon-
remon-
686
686 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP.XXIII
XXIII

strate
strate with
with him;
him; andand ififhe
he do
do not
notlisten
listen to to them
them after
after they have
they have done done
so
so again
again and
and again, they ought
again, they ought
to
to dethrone
dethrone him."
him." •. • •
. Mencius
Mencius
. pro-
pro-
ceeded:
ceeded: "Suppose
"Suppose thatthat the
the chief
chief criminal
criminal judgejudge could
could not not regulate
regulate
the officers
the (under him),
officers (under him), howhow would
would you you deal with him?"
deal with him?" The The
King
King said,
said, "Dismiss him." l\1encius
"Dismiss him." Mencius againagain said:
said: "If
"If within
within the
the four
four
borders
borders (of (of your
your kingdom)
kingdom) there there is
is not
not good
good government, what isis
government, what
to be done?"
to be done?" The The King
King looked
looked to
to the
the right
right
and
and left,
left, and
and spoke
spoke of
of
other
other matters.•..
matters. . .The King
The.
King Hsuan
Hsuan asked,
asked, "Was
"Was it
it so
so that
that T'ang
Tang
banished
banished Chieb,
Chieh, and that King
and that King Wu Wu smote
smote ChouChou (Hsin)?"
(Hsin)?" Mencius
Mencius
replied,
replied, "It
"It is so in
is so in the
the records."
records." The The King said, "Maya
King said, "May a minister
minister

put his
put his sovereign to
sovereign to death?"
death?" Mencius
Mencius said:
said: "He
"He who
who outrages
outrages the
the
benevolence
benevolence (proper
(proper to
to his
his nature)
nature) is
is called
called a
a robber;
robber; he
he who
who out-
out-
rages righteousness is
rages righteousness is called
called a a ruffian.
ruffian. The The robber
robber and and thethe ruffian
ruffian
we call
call aa mere fellow.
fellow. II have heard of the cutting off of the fel-
have heard of the cutting off of the fel-
1O'W Chou,
low Chou, but I have
but I have not
not heard
heard ofof putting
putting
a
a sovereign
sovereign to
to death.'"
death."
188

It was brave
Ie brave doctrine,
doctrine, and
and had
had much to to do with the
do with the establishment
establishment of of the
the
principle,
principle, recognized
recognized byby thethe kings
kings as as well as the
well as the people of China, that
people of China, that
aa ruler
ruler who arouses
arouses the
the enmity
enmity of
of his
his people
people
has
has lost
lost the
the "mandate of
"mandate of
Heaven,"
Heaven," and may
may be
be removed.
removed. It
It is not to be marveled
is not to be marveled at thatat that Hung-wu,
Hung-wu,
founder
founder of of the Ming Dynasty,
the Ming having
Dynasty, having read read with great indignation
with great indignation the the
conversations of
conversations of Mencius
Mencius withwith King
King Hsuan,
Hsuan, ordered
ordered Mencius
Mencius to to be
be de-
de-
graded from his
graded from his place in the
place in the temple
temple of Confucius, where
of Confucius, where aa royal
royal edict
edict ofof
had erected
1084 had
1084 his tablet.
erected his tablet. But
But within year the
within aa year the tablet
tablet was
was restored;
restored;
and until
and until the
the Revolution
Revolution of of 1911 Mencius remained
191 I Mencius remained one one of the heroes
of the heroes ofof
China, the
China, the second
second great
great name
name and
and influence
infiuence in in the
the history
history of of Chinese
Chinese
orthodox philosophy. To
orthodox philosophy. To him and to
him and to Chu
Chu Hsi*
Hsi· Confucius
Confucius owed his in-
owed his in-
tellectualleadership
tellectual
leadership of
of China
China for
for more
more than
than two
two thousand
thousand years.
years.

4. Hsiln-tze, Realist
4. Hsiin-tze, Realist

The evil1lature
The evil nature of man-The
of man necessity of
The necessity of law
lfltU)
There were
There many weaknesses
were many wealmesses in Mencius'
in Mencius' philosophy, and his contem-
philosophy, and his contem-
poraries exposed
poraries exposed them
them with
with a a fierce
fierce delight. Was it true that men were
delight. Was it true that men were
by nature good,
by nature good, and were
and were ledled toto evil only by
evil only by wicked
wicked institutions?
institutions?-or
or
was human
was human nature
nature itself
itself responsible
responsible for the ills of
for the of society?
society? Here
ills Here was
was anan
early
early fformulation
ormuktion of
of aa conflict
conflict that
that has raged for some eons between
has raged for some eons between re- re-
[onnenand
formers and conservatives. Does education
conserVatives. Does education diminish
diminish crime,
crime,increase
increase virtue,
virtue,
• Cf.p.p. 731
*Cf. below.
731 below.
CHAP. XXIII)
CHAP.XXIIl) THE AGE OF
OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
P HILOSO P HERS 68 7
687 .
and lead
and lead men
men into
into Utopia?
Utopia? Are
Are philosophers :fit to
philosophers fit to govern
govern states,
states, or
or do
do
their theories worse
their theories worse confound
confound the
the confusion
confusion which
which theythey seek
seek to
to cure?
cure?
The ablest
ablest and most hardheaded
and most hardheaded ofof Mencius'
Mencius' critics
critics was
was aa public
public official
official
seems to
who seems to have
have died
died at
at the
the age
age of
of seventy
seventy about
about the year 235
the year 135 B.C. &
B.C. As
Mencius had
Mencius had believed
believed human
human nature
nature to
to be
be good in all
good in all men,
men, so
so Hsiin-tze
Hsiin-tze
believed
believed it
it to
to be
be bad
bad in
in all
all men;
men; even
even Shun
Shun and
and Yao
Yao were
were savages
savages at
at birth.*
birth.
38*

Hsiin, in the fragment that remains of him, writes like another Hobbes:
Hsiin, in the fragment that remains of him, writes like another Hobbes:
The nature
The nature of
of man
man is evil; the
is evil; the good
good which
which itit shows
sho\vs isis factitious.*
factitious.-
There belongs to
There belongs to even at
it, even
it, his birth,
at his birth, the
the love
love of gain; and
of gain; and as as ac-
ac-
tions are in accQrdance with
tions are in accordance with this,this, contentions
contentions and and robberies
robberies grow grow
up, and self-denial
up, and self-denial and and yielding
yielding to to others
others are are not not to to bebe found
found (by (by
nature); there
nature); there belong belong to
to it
it envy
envy and
and dislike,
dislike, and
and as
as actions
actions are
are in
in
accordance with these, violence and
accordance with these, violence and injuries spring up, injuries spring up, and
and self-
self-

devotedness and
devotedness and faith
faith are
are not
not to to be
be found;
found; there
there belong
belong to to it the de-
it the de-
sires of
sires of thethe ears
ears andand the eyes, leading
the eyes, leading to to thethe love
love of of sounds
sounds and and
beauty, and as the actions are are in accordance with
in accordance these, lewdness
with these, lewdness
beauty, and as the actions
and disorder spring
and disorder spring up,
up, and
and righteousness
righteousness and
and propriety,
propriety, with
with their
their

various orderly displays,

various orderly displays,
are
are not
not to
to be
be found.
found. It
It thus
thus appears
appears that that
to follow
to follow man'sman's nature
nature and and yield obedience
obedience tQ
tq its feelings will
its will as-as-
yield feelings
suredly
suredly
conduct
conduct to
to contentions
contentions and
and robberies,
robberies, ~o
to the
the violation
violation of
of
the duties
the duties belonging
belonging to
to every
every one's
one's lot,
lot, and
and the
the confounding
confounding of
of all
all

distinctions,
distinctions, till till the issue will
die issue will be be a a state
state of savagery; and that
of savagery; that there
there
must
must bebe thethe infiuence
influence of of teachers
teachers and and laws,
laws, and
and the
die guidance
guidance of
of pro-
pro-
priety
priety
and
and righteousness,
righteousness,
from
from which
which will
will spring
spring self-denial,
self-denial, yielding
yielding
to
to others,
others, and and an an observance
observance of of the well-ordered regulations
the well-ordered regulations of of con-
duct, till the
duct, till the issue issue will
will be
be a a state
state of
of good government.
good government. •
. .. . The
.

sage kings of antiquity,

sage kings of antiquity, understanding
understanding that
that the
die nature
nature of
of man was
thus
dius evil,
evil, • ...• • set
set up the
up the principles
principles
of
of righteousness
righteousness and propriety,
and propriety,
and
and framed
framed laws laws andand regulations
regulations
to
to straighten
straighten and ornament the
die
feelings
feelings
of
of that
that nature
nature and and correct
correct them,
them, .... • . soso that
that they might all
they might all

go forth in in the
die wayway of of moral
moral government
government and and in in agreement
agreement with with
go forth
reason. *
18I
1
reason.

Hsiin-tze concluded, like

Hsiin-tze concluded, like Turgeniev,
Turgeniev, that nature is
that nature is not
not aa temple
temple but
but a
a

workshop; she provides the raw

workshop; she provides the
raw material,
material, but
but Intelligence
intelligence must do the
the

rest. By
rest. proper training,
By proper training, he
he thought,
thought, these
these naturally
naturally evil
evil men might
might bebe
1II
tranSformed even into saints,
transformed even into saints, if
if that
that should
should be
be desirable.
desirable. Being
Being also
also a
a poet,
poet,
188

he
he put
put
Francis
Francis Bacon
Bacon into
into doggerel:
doggerel:

•* I.e., the good in man is not born but

I.e^ the good in man is not born
but made-by
made by institutions
institutions and
and education.
education.
688
688 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION ((CHAP. XXIII
XXIII

You glorify Nature and

glorify Nature
and meditate
meditate on on her;
her;
Why
Why not
not domesticate
domesticate her
her and
and regulate her?
regulate her?
You obey
obey Nature
Nature and
and sing
sing her
her praise;
praise;
Why
Why not control her
not control her course and use
course and use it?
it?

You look
look upon
upon the
the seasons
seasons with
with reverence,
reverence, andand await
await them;
them;
Why
Why not
not respond
respond toto them by by seasonly
seasonly
activities?
activities?

You depend
depend onon things
things and
and marvel
marvel atat them;
them;
Why not unfold your own ability and transform "
transform them?-
1

Why not unfold your ability and them?

5.
5. Chuang-tze,
Chuang-tze, Idealist
Idealist

The Return
Return to
to Nature-Governmentless
Nature Governmentless society-The Way of
society The Way of
Nature The limits
Nature-The limits of
of the
the intellect-The
intellect The evolution
evolution of
of man
ma1J,-
The Button-Moulder-The
Button-Moulder-The influence
influence of
of Chinese phi-
Chinese phi-
losophy
losophy in
in Europe
Europe
The "return
"return to to Nature,"
Nature," however,
however, could could not
not be
be so
so readily
readily discouraged;
discouraged;
it found
it voice in
found voice in this
this age as
age as in
in every other,
every other, and
and by
by what
what might
might bebe called
called
aa natural
natural accident
accident itsits exponent was
exponent was the the most
most eloquent
eloquent writer
writer of of his
his time.
time.
Chuang-tze,
Chuang-tze, lovingloving Nature
Nature as
as the
the only
only mistress
mistress who always
always welcomed
him, whatever his
him, whatever his infidelities
infidelities oror his
his age, poured into
age, poured into
his philosophy
his philosophy the the
poetic sensitivity
poetic sensitivity ofof a a Rousseau,
Rousseau, and and yet
yet sharpened
sharpened it with the
it with the satiric
satiric wit
wit
of
of a Voltaire. Who could
a Voltaire. could imagine
imagine Mencius
Mencius so
so far
far forgetting
forgetting himself
himself as
as
to describe
describe a a man as
having "a large
as having "a goitre like an earthenware jar?"181 8

large goitre like an earthenware jar?""

to
Chuang belongs
Chuang belongs to
to literature
literature as
as well
well as
as to philosophy.
to philosophy.
He was born in
was born the province
in the province of of Sung,
Sung, andand held
held minor
minor office
office for
for a time
a time
in the
in the city
city ofof Khi-yiian.
Khi-yiian. He visited visited the
the same courts as
same courts as Mencius,
Mencius, but but
neither,
neither, in
in his
his extant
extant writings,
writings, mentions
mentions the
the other's
other's name; perhaps
name; perhaps they they
loved each
loved each other like contemporaries. Story
other like contemporaries. Story has
has it
it that
that he refused
he refused highhigh
office twice.
office twice. When the the Duke of offered him
of Wei offered him the
the prime ministry he
prime ministry he
dismissed the
dismissed the royal
royal messengers
messengers with with aa curtness
curtness indicative
indicative of of aa writer's
writer's
dreams: "Go away
dreams: away quickly,
quickly, andand dodo not
not soil
soil me with
with your presence. II
your presence.
had rather
had amuse and
rather amuse enjoy myself
and enjoy myself in in aa :filthy ditch than be subject to
filthy ditch than be subject to
the rules
the rules and
and restrictions
restrictions inin the
the court
court of of aa sovereign.'"*
sovereign. ,nil While
While he he was
was
fishing
fishing two
two great
great officers
officers brought
brought him
him aa message
message from
from the
the King of
King of Khu:Khu:
"I wish
"I wish toto trouble
trouble you with the
you with the charge
charge of all my
of all Chuang,
territories." Chuang,
my territories."
Chuang
Chuang tells
tells us,
us, answered
answered without
without turning
turning awayaway from
from his
his fishing:
fishing:

"I have
"I have heard
heard that
that in
in Khu there js aa spirit-like
there is spirit-like tortoise-shell,
tortoise-shell, the
the
wearer of
wearer which died
of which died three
three thousand
thousand years ago, and
years ago, which the
and which the
CHAP. XXIIl)
CHAP. XXIII) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
0 F THE PHI LOS 0 P HER S 689
689
king keeps,
king in
keeps, in his ancestral
his ancestral temple,
temple, in in aa hamper
hamper covered
covered with with aa
cloth. Was
cloth. Was itit better
better forfor the
the tortoise
tortoise to to die
die and
and leave
leave its shell to
its shell to
be thus
be thus honored?
honored? Or Or would
would itit have
have beenbeen better
better for
for itit to
to live,
live, and
and
keep on
keep on dragging
dragging its its tail
tail after
after itit over
over the the mud?"
mud?" The two officers officers
said, "It
said, "It would
would have
have been
been better
better for
for itit to
to live,
live, and
and draw
draw its tail after
its tail after
over the
it over
it the mud."
mud." "Go "Go your ways," said
your ways," said Chuang;
Chuang; "I will keep
"I will keep onon
drawing
drawing my my tail
tail after
after me through
through the
the mud."·
mud."
180

His respect for governments equaled that of his spiritual ancestor,

His respect for governments equaled that of his spiritual ancestor,
Lao-tze. He took delight in pointing out how many' qualities kings and
Lao-tze. He took delight in pointing out how many qualities kings and
governors shared with thieves. H, by some negligence on his part, 'a
1IIt1
governors shared with thieves." If, by some negligence
on his part, a
true philosopher
true philosopher should
should findfind himself
himself in in charge
charge of of aa state,
state, his his proper
preper course
course
would be
would be toto do
do nothing,
nothing, and and allow
allow menmen in in freedom
freedom to to build
build their
their own
organs
organs
of
of self-government.
self-government.
"1
"I have
have heard
heard of
of letting
letting
the
the world
world be, and
be, and
exercising forbearance;
exercising forbearance;
I have not
I have not heardheard of
of governing
governing
the
the world.
world.""
1
,nil The
Golden Age,
Golden Age, which
which preceded
preceded the the earliest kings, had
earliest kings, had no no government;
government; and and
Yao and
Yao and Shun,
Shun, instead
instead of
of being
being so
so honored
honored by
by China
China and
and Confucius,
Confucius,
should
should be be charged
charged with having destroyed
with having destroyed the the primitive
primitive happiness
happiness of man-
of man-
kind by
kind introducing government.
by introducing government. "In
"In the
the age
age of
of perfect
perfect virtue
virtue men lived
lived

in
in common
common with with birds
birds and
and beasts,
beasts, and
and werewere on terms of
on terms equality with all
of equality with all

creatures,
creatures, as as fonning
forming one one family:
family:
how couldcould theythey know amQng among them- them-
"
selves
selves thethe distinctions
distinctions of
of superior
superior
men
men and
and small
small men?
men?"
11
,nee
thinks first sign of
the first
The
The wise
wise man,
man, thinks Chuang, will
Chuang, will take
take toto his
his heels
heels at at the sign of
government, and will live as far
government, and will live as
far as·
as possible from
possible
from both both philosophers
philosophers and
and
kings.
kings.
He will
will court
court the the peace and silence of
peace and silence
of the
the woods (here (here was a a
theme
theme that that a thousand Chinese
a thousand Chinese painters
painters
would
would seek seek to to illustrate),
illustrate), and let let

his
his whole
whole being,
being,
without
without any impe4iment
any impediment of
of artifice
artifice or or thought,
thought, follow
follow
the
the divine jftw-the law
divine Tao-the law and
and flow
flow of of Nature's
Nature's inexplicable
inexplicable life.
life. He would
would
be
be sparing
sparing
of
of words,
words, forfor words
words mislead
mislead as as often
often as as they
they guide,
guide, and the
the
Tao-the Way and
T00-the Way and the Essence the Essence of
of Nature-can
Nature-can never
never Qe
be phrased
phrased in
in words
or formed in
or formed in thought; it can
it can only be
be felt by the
felt the blood.
blood. He would reject
thought; only by reject
the aid of machinery,
the aid of machinery, preferring preferring the
the 'older,
older, more burdensome ways
ways of of
simpler men; for for machinery
machinery makes makes complexity,
complexity, turbulence
turbulence and inequality,
and
simpler men; inequality,
and no
and no, man,man can
can live
live among
among machines
machines and
and achieve
achieve peace.-
peace."* He would
avoid
avoid thethe ownership of property, and would find no use in his life for
and 'would find no use in his life for
ownership of property,
gold; like Timon
Timon he he would
would let let the
the gold hidden in the hills, the pearls
gold lie lie hidden in the hills, and
and the
gold; like pearls
remain unsought in
remain unsought in the deep. the deep. "His
"His distinction
distinction is
is in
in understanding
understanding that that

all things belong

all to
to the
the oneone treasury, and
and that
that death
death and life life should
should be
things belong treasury,
69
6900 THE
TH STORY
EST OR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F CIVIL I ZA T ION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXIII
XXIII

viewed in
viewed in the same way"18G-
the same way" as as harmonious
harmonious measures
measures in in the
the rhythm
rhythm of
1*5
of
Nature,
Nature, waves
waves of
of one
one sea.
sea.

The center
center of of Chuang's
Chuang's thought,
thought, asas of
of the
the thought
thought of that half-legendary
of that half-legendary
Lao-tze
Lao-tze who seemed
seemed to to him
him soso much profounder
prof ounder than
than Confucius,
Confucius, was
was aa
mystic vision
mystic vision of
of an
an impersonal unity,
impersonal unity, so
so strangely
strangely akin
akin to
to the
the doctrines
doctrines
of
of Buddha
Buddha and and the
the Upanishads
Upanishads that
that one
one is
is tempted to
tempted to believe
believe that
that Indian
Indian
metaphysics
metaphysics had
had found
found its
its way into
way into China
China long
long before
before the
the recorded
recorded com-
com-
ing
ing of
of Buddhism
Buddhism four
four hundred
hundred years It is
years later. It is true that Chuang is an
later. true that Chuang is an
agnostic,
agnostic, a
a fatalist,
fatalist, aa detenninist
determinist and
and aa pessimist;
pessimist;
but
but this
this does
does not
not prevent
prevent
him
him from being
being a a kind
kind of of sceptical:
sceptical saint,
saint, a a Tao-intoxicated
T00-intoxicated man. man. He
expresses his
expresses his scepticism characteristically in
scepticism characteristically in a a story:
story:

The Penumbra said said to

to the
the Umbra.:-
Umbra:* "At one one moment you you move,
move,
at another you
at another you are
are at
at rest. At one
rest. one moment you
you sit
sit down,
down, at
at another
another
you
you get up. Why
get up. Why this
this instability of
instability
of purpose?"
purpose?" "I "I depend," replied the
depend," replied the
Umbra, "upon something
Umbra, "upon something which
which causes
causes me to
to do as
as II do;
do; and that that
something depends upon
something depends upon somethingsomething else
else which causes
causes it
it to
to do as
as it
it

does. • • •
does. . . How. can I tell why
can I tell
why I do one thing
I
thing or or do notnot do an- an-
other?" body is decomposed, the mind will
other?" • • • When the
. . the body
. is decomposed, the will bebe de-
de-
composed
composed along along with it;it; must not the the case be pronounced
case be pronounced very very
deplorable?
deplorable? . • . The change-the
change the rise
. . . rise and dissolution of all
and dissolution-of all things
things
(continually) goes
(continually) goes on,
on, but w:ewe do not know who it
not lmow it is
is that
that main-
main-
tains and continues
tains continues the process. How do
the process. do we know when anyone any one
begins?
begins? How do we know when he
he will
will end?
end? We have
have simply
simply to
to
wait for
wait for it,
it, and nothing more.1DI
nothing more. 108

These problems,
These problems, Chuang
Chuang suspects,
suspects, are
are due
due less
less to
to the
the nature
nature of things
of things
than to
than to tie limits of
the limits of our thought; it
our thought; is not
it. is not to be wondered
to be wondered at that the
at that the
effort of our imprisoned brains to understand the cosmos of which they,
effort of our
imprisoned brains to understand the cosmos of which they
are such minute particles should end in contradictions, "antinomies," and
are such minute
particles should end in contradictions, "antinomies," and
befuddlement.
bef This attempt
uddlement. This attempt to explain the
to explain the whole
whole in in terms
terms ofof the
the part has
part has
been a gigantic
been a gigantic immodesty,
immodesty, forgivable
forgivable only
only on on the
the ground
ground of of the
the amuse-
amuse-
ment which it has caused;
it has caused; for humor, like
for humor, philosophy, isis aa view
like philosophy, view ofof the
the
part
part in
in terms
terms of
of the
the whole;
whole, and
and neither
neither is
is possible
possible
without
without the
the other.
other. The
The
intellect, says Chuang-tze,
intellect, says Chuang-tze, can can never
never avail
avail toto understand
understand ultimate things,
ultimate things,
any profound
or any
or profound thing,
thing, such
such as
as the
the growth
growth of of aa child.
child. "Disputation
"Disputation is is aa
proof
proof of
of not
not seeing clearly,"
seeing clearly," and
and in
in order
order to
to understand
understand the
the Tao,
Tao, one
one "must
"must

• In an
*Ih an penumbra isis the
eclipse the penumbra
eclipse the the partly illuminated space
partly illuminated space between
between the
the umbra
umbra (the
(the
complete shadow)
complete shadow) and
and the
the light. Perhaps,
light. Perhaps, in
in Chuang's allegory,
Chuang's allegory, the
the complete
complete
shadow
shadow is
is

the body,
the body, interrogated
interrogated by the pardy
by the illuminated mind.
partly illuminated mind.
CHAP.xxm)
CHAP.XXm) THE AGE OF THE PHILOSOPHERS
THE 691
691

sternly suppress one's

sternly suppress one's knowledge";Utr we have
knowledge"; have toto forget our theories and
forget our theories and
feel the fact.
feel the Education is
fact. Education is of
of nono help
help towards such understanding; sub-
towards such understanding; sub-
mersion in
mersion the flow
in the flow of nature is
of nature is all-imponant.
all-important.
What is the Tao that
is the that the
the rare
rare and
and favored
favored mystic
mystic sees?
sees? ItIt is
is inexpressible
inexpressible
in
in words; weakly and
words; weakly and with
with contradictions
contradictions we describe
describe it it as
as the
the unity
unity of of
all things, their
all their quiet
things, quiet flow
flow from origin to
from origin to fulfilment,
fulfilment, and the law
and the law that
that gov-
gov-
erns
erns that flow. "Before
that :Bow. there were
"Before there were heaven
heaven and and earth,
earth, from
from of
of old
old it was,
it was,
*
securely
securely existing.''''
existing."
1
In
In that
that cosmic unity all
cosmic unity all contradictions
contradictions are are resolved,
resolved,
all
all distinctions fade, all
distinctions fade, all opposites meet;
opposites meet; within within itit and
and from
from its its standpoint
standpoint
there is
there no good
is no
good or
or bad,
bad, no
no white
white or
or black,
black, no
no beautiful
beautiful or
or ugly,·
ugly,* nono great
great
or small. "If
or small. "If one
one only
only knows that
that the
the universe
universe is but
is but (as
(as small
small as)
as) a a tare
tare
seed,
seed, and the tip
and the tip of
of a hair is
a hair as large
is as
large asas aa mountain,
mountain, then then oneone may
may be be said
said
to have seen
to have the relativity
seen the relativity
of
of things."·
things.""
00
In
In that
that vague entirety
vague entirety no
no fonn
form is
is

permanent,
permanent, and
and none
none so
so unique
unique that
that it
it cannot
cannot pass
pass into
into another
another in
in the
the
leisurely cycle
leisurely cycle
of
of evolution.
evolution.

The
The seeds
seeds (of
(of things)
things)
are
are multitudinous
multitudinous and minute. On the
and minute. the sur-
sur-
face of
face of the
the water
water they
they fonn
form a
a membranous texture.
texture. When they
they reach
reach
to where
to where the the land
land andand water join they
water join become the
they become the (lichens
(lichens that
that
form the) clothes
form the) clothes ofof frogs
frogs and
and oysters. Coming to life on mounds
oysters. Coming
to life

and heights, they

and heights, they become
become the
the plantain;
plantain;
and receiving
receiving manure,
manure, ap-ap-
pear
pear
as
as crows'
crows' feet.
feet. The roots
roots ofof the
the craw's
crow's foot become
foot become grubs,
grubs,
and its leaves,
and its leaves, butterflies.
butterflies. This butterBy is
This butterfly is changed into
changed into an an insect,
insect,
and
and comes
comes to to life
life under
under a a furnace.
furnace. Then it it has the form of
has the of aa moth.
moth.
The mother
mother after
after a thousand days
a thousand days becomes
becomes a
a bird.
bird. •
. • .• The
. ying-
ying-
bsi uniting with
hsi uniting with a a bamboo produ~es
produces the
the kbing-ning;
khing-nmg; this,
this, the
the pan-
pan-
ther;
ther; the
the panther,
panther,
the
the horse;
horse; and the
the horse
horse the
the man. Man then en-
en-
ters into
ters the great
into die Machinery (of Evolution),
great Machinery (of Evolution),
from which
which all
all things
things
come
come foah,
forth, and
and which
which they
they enter
enter at
at death.-
death.*
1

It is
It not as
is not as clear
clear as
as Darwin,
Darwin, but it will
but it will serve.
serve.
In this endless cycle
In this endless cycle man himself
himself may pass into
may pass into other forms; his
other forms; his present
present
shape
shape
is transient,
is transient, and
and from
from the
the viewpoint
viewpoint of
of eternity
eternity may
may be
be only
only super-
super-
ficially
ficially
real-part
real part
of
of Maya's deceptive
Maya's deceptive veil
veil of
of difference.
difference.

Once upon aa time

Once upon time I,
I, Chuang-tze,
Chuang-tze, dreamt
dreamt II was
was aa butterfly,
butterfly, :flut-
flut-

tering hither and

tering hither
and thither,
thither, to all intents
to all purposes a butterfly.
intents and purposes butterfly.
was conscious
II was conscious only
only of
of following my
following my fancies as
fancies as a butterfly,
a butterfly, and was
was

•* "Hsi
"Hsi Shih was aa beautiful
Shih was beautiful woman; but when
woman; but her featureS
when her reflected in
features were reflected in the
the water
water
the fish were frightened away.''1f»
the fish were frightened away.""*
69
6922 THE ST OR Y OF elv
STORY CIVILIZATION
IL I ZATION (CHAP.:xxm
(CHAP. XXIH

unconscious of
unconscious of my
my individuality as aa man.
individuality as
man. Suddenly
Suddenly II awoke,
awoke, and
and
there
there II lay, m}7self again.
lay, myself again.
Now I do
I do not whether
not know whether I was then
I
aa man
man dreaming that I was a butterfly, or
dreaming that I was a butterfly,
whether II am now aa
or whether
butterfly dreaming
butterfly dreaming
that
that II am aa man.
man.**
101 .

Death is
Death therefore only
is therefore only a
a change
change of
of fonn, possibly for
form, possibly the better;
for the it is,
better; it is,

as
as Ibsen
Ibsen was to
was to say,
say,
the great
the great Button-Moulder who fuses
fuses us
us again
again in
in the
furnace
furnace of
of change:
change:

fell ill lay gasping

and lay
Tze
Tze LaiLai fell ill and
gasping atat the point of
the point of death, while his
death, while his
wife and children
wife and children stood
stood around
around him weeping.
weeping. Li
Li went
went to
to ask
ask for
for
him, and
him, and said
said toto them:
them: "Hush!
"Hush! Get out out of the way!
of the way! Do not. not. disturb
disturb
him in
him in his process of
his process of transformation."
transformation." ... Then,
. .
Then, leaning
.
leaning against
against the the
door, he spoke
door, he spoke to
to (the
(the dying
dying man).
man). Tze Lai
Lai said:
said: "A man's
man's rela-
rela-

tions with
tions the Yin
with the Yin and the Yang
and the Yang isis more than than that
that toto his
his parents.
parents.
If
If they are
they are hastening
hastening my
my death,
death, and
and I
I dodo not
not obey,
obey, I shall be
I shall be con-
con-
sidered unroly. There
sidered unruly. There is is the
the Great Mass (of
Great Mass Nature),
(of Nature), that
that makes
me carry this body,
carry this labor with
body, labor with this
this life, relax in
life, relax in old
old age,
age, and rest
rest
in
in death.
death. Therefore
Therefore that which has
that which has taken
taken carecare of of my
my birth
birth is
is that
that
which will
which will take
take care of my
care of my death. Here is
death. Here is aa great founder cast-
great founder cast-
ing metal If
his metal
ing his If the
the metal,
metal, dancing
dancing up up and
and down, should say,
down, should say, 'I'I

must be
must be made
made intointo aa Mo Yeh'Yeh' (a(a famous
famous old old sword),
sword), the the great
great
founder would surely
founder would consider this
surely consider this metal
metal an an evil
evil one. So, if,
one. So, if, merely
merely
because one
because one hashas once
once assumed
assumed thethe human form,form, one insists on being
one insists being
aa man,
man, and a a man only,
only, the
the author
author ofof transfonnation
transformation will will be
be sure
sure toto
consider this one
consider this one anan evil
evil being. Let
being. Let us
us now regard
regard heaven
heaven and
and
earth as
as aa great
great melting-pot,
earth melting-pot, andand the
the author
author of transformation as
of transformation as a a
great founder;
great founder; and wherever
wherever we go,
go, shall
shall we not
not be
be at
at home?
Quiet is
Quiet is our
our sleep, and calm is
and calm is our
our awakening.""
8
sleep, awakening.""

When Chuang
Chuang himself
himself was
was about
about toto die his disciples
die his prepared for
disciples prepared
for him
him
aa ceremonious
ceremonious funeral.
funeral. But
But he bade them
he bade them desist.
desist. "With heaven
heaven andand earth
earth
for my coffin
for my and shell,
coffin and with the
shell, with sun, moon and
the sun, stars as
and stars my burial
as my burial regalia,
regalia,
with all
and with all creation
creation toto escort
escort me to the grave-are
to the grave-are not
not my
my funeral
funeral para-
para-
phernalia ready
phernalia ready to
to hand?"
hand?" The disciples protested that, unburied,
disciples protested that, unburied,
he
he
would be eaten by
be eaten by the
the carrion birds of
carrion birds the air.
of the air. To which ChuangChuang
answered, with the
the smiling of all his words: ground
answered, with irony
smiling irony of all his words: "Above ground II shall
shall

be food
be food for kites; below
for kites; below II shall be food
shall be food for
for mole-crickets
mole-crickets and and ants.
ants. Why
Why
rob one
rob to feed
one to the other?
feed the other?" "IN 80*

If have spoken
If we have
spoken at at such
such length
length of
of the
the ancient philosophers of
ancient philosophers of China
China
it is partly because
it is because the
the insoluble
insoluble problems of
of human
human life
life and
and destiny
destiny
partly problems
. CHAP. XXIn)
CHAP.XXm) THE AGE OF THE PHILO
THE PHILOSOPHERS
SOP H E as 693
693
irresistibly
irresistibly attract
attract the the inquisitive mind, and panly because the lore of
inquisitive mind, and partly because the lore of
her philosophers is
her philosophers is the
the most precious portion
most precious portion of China's gift
of China's to the world.
gift to the world.
Long
Long ago ago (in 1697) the
(in 1697) *e cosmic-minded
cosmic-minded Leibnitz,Leibnitz, after after studying Chinese
studying Chinese
philosophy, appealed
philosophy, appealed for
for the
the mingling
mingling and
and cross-fertilization
cross-fertilization of
of East
East and
and
West. "The condition condition of of affairs
affairs among ourselves," he wrote,
among ourselves," he wrote, in terms in tenns
whi~h have
which have been
been useful
useful toto every
every generation, "is
generation, "is such that in
such that in view
view of of the
the
inordinate
inordinate lengths
lengths to
to which
which the
the corruption
corruption of
of morals
morals has
has advanced,
advanced, II
almost think it necessary
almost think it
necessary thatthat Chinese
Chinese missionaries
missionaries shouldshould be be sent
sent to to us
us
to teach
to teach us us the
the aim aim and
and practice
practice of
of national
national theology....
theology. . . .For
For I
I believe
believe
that if
that if a wise man were to
a wise to bebe appointed
appointed judge judge .... . . of the goodness
of the goodness of of
peoples, he
peoples, he would
would award award thethe golden
golden apple
apple to to the
the Chinese.""
Chinese."" He begged
8

begged
Peter
Peter thethe Great
Great to to build
build a a land
land route
route to to China,
China, and and hehe promoted
promoted the the
foundation
foundation of of societies
societies in in Moscow and and Berlin
Berlin for the "opening
for the "opening up of up of
China
China andand thethe interchange
interchange of of civilizations between China
civilizations between China and and Europe."·
Europe.""
8

In
In 172
1721 I Christian
Christian Wolff
Wolff made an
an attempt
attempt in
in this
this direction
direction by lecturing
by lecturing at at
Halle
Halle "On the the Practical
Practical Philosophy
Philosophy of
of the
the Chinese."
Chinese." He was
was accused
accused of
of
atheism,
atheism, and and dismissed;
dismissed; but but when Frederick
Frederick mounted
mounted the the throne
throne he he called
called
him
him toto Prussia,
Prussia, and restored him
and restored him to to honor.-
honor.*
1

I The Enlightenment
Enlightenment took took up up Chinese philosophy at
Chinese philosophy the same
at the same time
time that
that
it carved
it carved out out Chinese
Chinese gardens
gardens and
and adorned
adorned its homes
its homes with
with chinoiseries.
chinoiseries.

The Physiocrats
Physiocrats seem seem toto have been influenced
have been influenced by by Lao-tze
Lao-tze and and Chuang-tze
Chuang-tze
in their doctrine
doctrine of of laissez-faire;- and
and Rousseau
Rousseau at times talked
talked so so like
like the
1"'
in their laissez-faire; at times the
Old
Old Master·
Master* that that we at at once correlate him
once correlate with Lao-tze
him with Lao-tze and and Chuang,
Chuang, as as

we should
should correlate
correlate Voltaire
Voltaire withwith Confucius
Confucius and and Mencius,
Mencius, if
if these
these had
been blessed
been blessed withwith wit.wit. "I "I have
have read
read the books of
the books of Confucius
Confucius with with atten-
atten-
tion,"
tion," said
said Voltaire;
Voltaire; "I
"I have
have made extracts
extracts from them;
them; I
I have
have found
found in
in
them nothing
them nothing but
but the
the purest morality,
purest morality, without
without the
the slightest
slightest tingetinge of
of
charlatanism."1ID
charlatanism."* Goethe Goethe in in 1770 recorded his
1770 recorded resolution to
his resolution to read
read the
the philo-
philo-
sophical
sophical
classics
classics of of China;
China; and
and when the
the guns
guns of
of half
half the
the world
world resounded
resounded
at
at Leipzig forty-three years later, the the oldold sage paid nono attention
attention to to them,
them,
Leipzig forty-three years later, 1I1
1
sage paid
being
being absorbed
absorbed in
in Chinese
Chinese literature.
literature.*

May
May thisthis brief
brief and and superficial
superficial
introduction
introduction lead the reader
lead the reader on to to study
study
the Chinese philosophers
the Chinese philosophers themselves, themselves, as
as Goethe studied
studied them,
them, and V 01-
Vol-
taire, and
taire, and T OIstOL
TolstoL .
•*Kg.:
E.g.: "Luxury, dissoluteness and slavery have
"Luxury, dissoluteness and slavery
have always been the
always been the chastisement
chastisement of
of the
the
ambitious
ambitious efforts
efforts we have
have made to
to emerge
emerge from the
the happy
happy ignorance
ignorance in
in which Eternal
Eternal
Wisdom
Wisdom had had placed
placed us."
us." Professor
Professor (now
(now Senator)
Senator) Elbert
Elbert Thomas,
Thomas, who quotes quotes this
this pass-
pass-
age from
age from
the
the Discourse
Discourse on
on tbe
the Progress of
Progress of the
the Sciences
Sciences tmd
and A.rts,
Arts, considers
considers "Eternal
"Eternal Wis-
dom"
dom" an an excellent
excellent tranSlation
translation ofof Lao-tze's "Eternal Tao.'ttI»
Lao-tze's "Eternal Tao?**
 CHAPTER XXIV
CHAPTER XXIV

The Age
Age of
of the
the Poets
Poets
I.
i. CHINA'S
CHINA'S BISMARCK
BISMARCK

The Period
Period of
of Contending
Contending States - The
States- suicide of
The suicide of Ch'u
CVu P'ing-
P'mg-
Shih Huang-ti
Huang-ti unifies China-The Great Wall-The "Burn-
unifies China-The Great Wall-The "Burn-
ing
ing of
of the failure of
the Books"-The failure Shih Huang-ti
of Shih Huang-ti

RESUMABLY Confucius
Confucius died. an unhappy
died an man, for
for philosophers
P
PRESUMABLY
love
love unity,
unity, and
and the
the nation
nation that
unhappy man,
that he
he had
had sought
sought to
philosophers
to unite
unite under
under some
some
powerful dynasty pe~ed
powerful dynasty persisted inin chaos,
chaos, c9rmption
corruption and
and division.
division. When the the
great
great unifier
unifier :finally appeared,
finally appeared, and
and succeeded,
succeeded, byby his
his military
military and
and admin-
admin-
istrative genius, in
istrative genius, in welding
welding thethe states
states of
of China
China into
into one,
one, he
he ordered
ordered that
that
all
all existing copies of
existing copies of Confucius'
Confucius' books
books should
should be
be burned.
burned.
We may judge the
may judge the atmosphere
atmosphere of of this
this "Period
"Period of of the
the Contending
Contending
States"
States" from the the story
story of of Ch'u
Ch'u P'ing. Having
P'ing. Having risen
risen to
to promise as
promise as a
a poet
poet
and to
to high
high pkce
place asas an
an official,
official, he
he found himself suddenly
found himself suddenly dismissed.
dismissed. He
retired to
retired to the
the countryside,
countryside, and and contemplated
contemplated life
life and
and death
death beside
beside a
a quiet
quiet
brook. Tell
brook. Tell me,
me, he
he asked
asked anan oracle,
oracle,

whether
whether I should
I should steadily
steadily pursue
pursue the
the path
path of
of truth and loyalty,
truth and loyalty, or
or
follow in the
follow in the wake ofof aa corrupt
corrupt generation.
generation. Should
Should II work
work in the
in the
fields with
fields with spade
spade and
and hoe,
hoe, or
or seek
seek advancement
advancement in the retinue
in the retinue of
of aa
grandee?
grandee? Should
Should I court
I court danger with outspoken
danger with outspoken words,
words, or
or fawn
fawn
in false tones
in false tones upon
upon the rich and great?
the rich and great? Should
Should II rest
rest content in the
content in the
cultivation of
cultivation of virtue,
virtue, oror practise
practise the
the art of wheedling
art of wheedling women in in
order to
order to secure
secure success?
success? Should
Should II be
be pure
pure and
and clean-handed in my
clean-handed in my
rectitude, or
rectitude, or an
an oil-mouthed, slippery, time-serving
oil-mouthed, slippery, time-serving sycophant?
sycophant?11

He
He dodged
dodged the
the dilemma
dilemma by by drowning
drowning himself
himself (ca. 3So B.C.);
(ca. 350 and until
B.C.); and until our
our
own day the
own day the Chinese
Chinese people
people celebrated his fame
celebrated his fame annually
annually inin the
the Dragon-
Dragon-
boat Festival,
boat Festival, during
during which they searched
which they searched for his body
for his body inin every
every stream.
stream.
The ':Dan who unified
The man who unified China
ChiDa had
had the
the most
most disreputable
disreputable origin
origin that
that
the Chinese
the Chinese historians
historians could
could devise.
devise. Shih
Shih Huang-ti,
Huang-ti, we we are
are informed,
infonned,
was the
was illegitimate son
the illegitimate son of
of the
the Queen
Queen of Ch'in (one
of Ch'in (one of
of the
the western
western states)
states)
694
694
CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THE AGE OF
OF THE POETS
POETS 69s
695

by
by the n~ble minister
the noble minister Lii, who was
Lii, was wontwont to to hang
hang aa thousand
thousand pieces pieces of of
~old at
gold his gate
at his gate as as aa reward
reward to to any
any man man who should should better
better his his composi-
composi-
tions by
tions by soso much
much as as aa single
single word. word.1 (His
8
(His sonson did did not
not inherit
inherit thesethese literary
literary
tastes.) Shih,
tastes.) Shih, reports
reports Szrana
Szuma Ch'ien, Ch'ien, forced
forced his his father
father toto suicide,
suicide, persecuted
persecuted
his mother,
his mother, and and ascended
ascended the the ducalducal throne
throne when when he he was twelve years
was twelve years of of
age.
age. When he was
he was twenty-five
twenty-five he he began
began to to conquer
conquer and and annex
annex the the petty
petty
states into
states into which
which ChinaChina had had so so long
long beenbeen divided.
divided. In In 230
2. 30 B.C.
B.C. hehe con-
con-
quered Han;
quered Han; in
in 118, Chao;
228, Chao; in
in 215, Wei; in 12.3, Ch'u; in 12.1,
225, Wei; in 223, Ch'u; in 222, Yen; finally, Yen; finally,
in 221,
in the important
121, the important state state of of Ch'i.
Ch'i. For For the first time
the first time in in many
many centuries,
centuries,
perhaps
perhaps for
for the
the first
first time
time in
in history,
history,
China
China was
was under
under one
one rule.
rule. The
The con-
con-
queror took
queror took the the title
title of
of ShihShih Huang-ti,
Huang-ti, and and turned
turned to to thethe task
task of of giving
giving
the new empire
the lasting constitution.
empire aa lasting constitution.
"A man with with aa veryvery prominent
prominent nose, nose, with large eyes,
with large eyes, withwith the the chest
chest
of aa bird
of bird ofof prey,
prey, with
with thethe voice
voice of of aa jackal,
jackal, without
without beneficence,
beneficence, and and with
with
the heart
the heart of of aa tiger
tiger or or aa wolf" wolf"-this is
this is the the only description
only description that
that the
the
Chinese historians
Chinese historians have have left left us us ofof their
their favorite
favorite enemy.enemy" He was
8
\vas aa robust
robust
and obstinate
and obstinate soul,soul, recognizing
recognizing no god but
no god himself, and
but himself, and pledged,
pledged, like like some
some
Nietzschean Bismarck,
Nietzschean Bismarck, to to unify
unify his his country
country by blood and
by blood and iron. Having
iron. Having
forged
forged and
and mounted
mounted the
the throne
throne of
of China,
China, one
one of
of his
his first
first acts
acts was
was to
to pro-
pro-
tect the
tect the country
country from
from the
the barb¢ans
barbarians on
on the
the north
north by piecing
by piecing together together
and
and completing
completing the walls already
the walls already existing along the frontier; and
existing along the frontier;
and hehe found
found
the
the multitude
multitude of. of- his
his domestic
domestic opponents a
a .convenient
.convenient source
source of of recruits
recruits
opponents
for this
for this heroic
heroic symbol
symbol of
of Chinese
Chinese grandeur
grandeur and and patience.
patience. The Great Wall,
Great Wall,
15°0
1500 miles
miles long,
long,
and
and adorned
adorned at
at intervals
intervals with
with massive
massive gateways in
gateways in the
the
Assyrian style, is the largest
Assyrian style, is the largest structure structure ever
ever reared
reared by
by man;man; beside
beside it,it, said
said

Voltaire,
Voltaire, "the "the pyramids
pyramids of
of Egypt
Egypt are
are only
only puerile and
puerile and useless
useless masses.'"
masses."*
It
It took
took tenten years
years and
and countless
countless men;
men; "it
"it was
was the
the ruin
ruin of
of one
one generation,"
generation,"
say
say the
the Chinese,
Chinese, "and
"and the
the salvation
salvation of
of many."
many." It
It did
did not
not quite
quite keep
keep out out
the
the barbarians,
barbarians, as
as we shall
shall see;
see; but
but it
it delayed
delayed and
and reduced
reduced their
their attacks.
attacks.
The
The Huns,
Huns, barred
barred for for a a time
time from from Chinese
Chinese soil, soil, moved west into into Europe
Europe
and
and down into into Italy; ROII1e
Italy; Roiqe
fell
fell because
because China
China built
built aa wall.
wall.

Meanwhile
Meanwhile Shih Shih Huang-ti,
Huang-ti, like like Napoleon,
Napoleon, turned turned with with pleasure
pleasure from from
war
war toto administration,
administration, and and created
created the the outlines
outlines of of the
the future
future Chinese
Chinese state.
state.

He accepted
accepted the
the advice
advice of
of his
his Legalist prime
Legalist prime minister, minister, Li 85ft;
Ssii; and re-
re-
solved
solved to to base
base Chinese
Chinese society not, as heretofore, upon custom
society not, as heretofore, upon
custom and local local

autonomy,
autonomy, but
but upon explicit
upon explicit law
law and
and a
a powerful
powerful central
central government.
government.
He broke
broke the the power
power of
of the
the feudal
feudal barons,
barons, replaced
replaced them
them with
with aa nobility
nobility
of
of functionaries
functionaries appointed
appointed by
by the
the national
national ministry, placed
ministry, placed in
in each
each district
district
696
696 THEE STOR
TH STORYY 0OF CIVILIZATION
F C IVILI ZA T ION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXIV

aa military
military force
force independent
independent of of the
the civil
civil governor, introduced
governor, introduced unifonn uniform
laws
laws and regulations, simplified
and regulations, official ceremonies, issued a state coinage,
simplified official ceremonies, issued a state coinage,
divided
divided mostmost of of the
the feudal
feudal estates, prepared for
estates, prepared for thethe prosperity
prosperity of of China
China
by establishing peasant proprietorship
by establishing peasant proprietorship of the soil, of the soil, and
and paved
paved the
the way
way
for
for aa completer unity by building great
completer unity by building great highways
highways in
in every
every direction
direction from
from
his capital
his at
at Hien-yang. embellished this
Hien-yang. He embellished this city with many
city with many palaces,
palaces,
capital
and persuaded the
and persuaded 120,000 richest
the 110,000 richest and
and most powerful families
most powerful families of the em-
of the em-
pire
pire
to
to live under
five under his
his observant
observant eye. Traveling
eye. Traveling in
in disguise
disguise and
and unarmed,
unarmed,
he made
he made notenote ofof abuses
abuses and
and disorders,
disorders, and
and then
then issued unmistakable orders
issued unmistakable orders
1I
for their correction.
for their correction. He encouraged
encouraged science
science and
and discouraged
discouraged letters.
letters.
8

For
For thethe men of of letters-the
letters the poets, the critics, the philosophers, above
poets, the critics, the philosophers, above
all the Confucian
all the scholars were his
Confucian scholars-were his swom foes. They
sworn foes. They fretted under his
fretted under his

dictatorial
dictatorial authority, and saw in the establishment of one supreme govem-
authority, and saw in the establishment of one supreme govern-
ment an
ment an end
end to to that
that variety
variety and and liberty
liberty
of
of thought
thought and and life
fife which
which had had
made literature
made literature flourish
flourish amid
amid thethe wars
wars and
and divisions
divisions of the Chou Dynasty.
of the Dynasty.
When they protested to
they protested to Shih
Shih Huang-ti against
Huang-ti against his
his ignoring
ignoring of
of ancient
ancient
ceremonies,
ceremonies, he
he sent
sent them
them curtly
curdy about
about their
their business.·
business.* A co~on
commission of
of
mandarins, or
mandarins, or official
official scholars, brought to
scholars, brought to him
him their unanimous suggestion
their 1]nanimous suggestion
that he
that he should
should restore
restore thethe feudal system by
feudal system by giving
giving fiefs to his
fiefs to his relatives;
relatives;
and they added:
and they added: "For "For a a person,
person, in
in any
any matter,
matter, not
not to
to model
model himself
himself on
on
antiquity,
antiquity,
and
and yet
yet to
to achieve
achieve duration-that,
duration-tfrat, to
to our
our knowledge,
knowledge, has
has never
never
happened.'"
happened."*
The prime
prime minister,
minister, Li
Li Ssii,
Ssii, who was
was at that time
at that time engaged
engaged
in reforming the
in reforming the Chinese
Chinese script,
script,
and
and establishing
establishing it approximately in
it approximately in the the
form which it
form which retained till
it retained till our
our own time,time, met these criticisms
met these criticisms with
with an an
historic speech
historic speech that
that did
did no
no service
service to to Chinese
Chinese letters:
letters:

The Five Sovereigns

The Five Sovereigns did
did not
not repeat
repeat each
each other's
other's actions,
actions, thethe Three
Three
Royal Dynasties
Royal Dynasties did
did not
not imitate
imitate each
each other;
other; • •
... • for the
for the times
times had
had
changed.
changed. Now your Majesty
your Majesty has
has for
for the
the first
first time
time accomplished
accomplished
aa great work and
great work
and has
has founded
founded a a glory which will
glory which will last
last for
for ten
ten thou-
thou-
sand
sand generations.
generations.
The stupid
stupid mandarins are incapable
mandarins are incapable of of under-
under-
standing
standing this.
this. • ••
... In
In ancient
ancient days
days China
China w~
waft divided
divided up
up and
and trou-
trou-
bled; there
bled; there was
was nono one could unify
one who could unify her.
her. That
That is
is why all
why all the
the
nobles flourished.
nobles flourished. InIn their
their discoUrses
discourses the mandarins all
the mandarins talk of
all talk of the
the
ancien~ days,
ancient days, in
in order
order to
to blacken
bkcken the
the present.
present . •.. .They encour-
They encour-
.

age the people

age the people toto forge calumnies. This
forge calumnies. being so,
This being so, ifif they are
they are not not
opposed, among
opposed, among the
the upper
upper classes
classes the
the position
position of
of the.
the. sovereign
sovereign will
will
be depreciated,
be depreciated,
while
while among
among the lower classes
the lower associations will
classes associations will
flourish.
flourish. ••• . .
CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THEAGEOFTHEPOETS
THE AGE OF THE POETS 697
697
II suggest
suggest that
that the
the official
official histories, \\''ith the
histories, with the exception of the
exception of the
Memoirs of
Memoirs of Ch'in,
Ch'in, be
be all
all burnt,
burnt, and
and that
that those
those who
who attempt
attempt
to
to !'ride
hide
the Sbi-Ching, the
the Shi-Ching, the Shu-Ching,·
Shu-Ching* and
and the
the Discourses of the Hundred
Discourses of the Hundred
Schools, be
Schools be forced
9forced toto bring
bring them
them toto the
the authorities to be
authorities to be burnt.'
burnt.
8

The Emperor
Emperor liked liked thethe idea
idea considerably, and issued the order; the
considerably, and issued the order; the
books of
books the historians
of the historians werewere everywhere
everywhere broughtbrought to to the Bames, so
the flames, so that
that
the weight ,of
the weight the past
of the past should
should be
be removed
removed from
from the
the present,
present,
and
and the
the his-
his-
of China
tory of might begin
begin with
with Shih
Shih Huang-ti.
tory China might Huang-ti. Scientific books, and
Scientific books, and thethe
works of
works Mencius, seem
of Mencius, seem to to have
have beenbeen excepted
excepted from
from the
the conflagration,
conflagration,
many of
and many the forbidden
of the forbidden booksbooks were preserved in
were preserved the Imp.erial
in the Imperial Library,
Library,
where they
where they might
might be be consulted
consulted by by such
such students
students as
as had
had obtained
obtained official
official

permission.-
permission. Since
9
Since books
books were
were then
then written
written on
on strips
strips
of
of bamboo
bamboo fastened
fastened
with swivel
with pins, and
swivel pins, and a a volume
volume might
might be
be of
of some
some weight, the
weight, the scholars
scholars who
sought
sought to
to evade
evade the
the order
order were
were put
put to
to many
many difficulties.
difficulties. A number
number of of
them were
them were detected; tradition says
detected; tradition that many
says that many of them were
of them were sentsent toto labor
kbor
and sixty
lO
on the Great
on the Great Wall,Wall, andand that
that four
four hundred
hundred and sixty were
were put
put to
to death.
death.
30

Nevertheless some
Nevertheless some of the literati
of the literati memorized
memorized the the complete
complete worksworks of of Con-
Con-
fucius,
fucius, and passed them
and passed them on on byby word
word of of mouth
mouth to to equal memories. Soon
equal memories. Soon
after the Emperor's
after the Emperor's death
death these
these volumes
volumes were
were freely
freely circulated
circukted again,
again,
though many
though many errors,
errors, presumably,
presumably, had
had crept
crept into
into their
their texts.
texts. The only
only
permanent
permanent result
result was
was to
to lend
lend an
an aroma
aroma of
of sanctity
sanctity to
to the
the proscribed
proscribed litera-
litera-

ture, and
ture, and to to make
make ShihShih Huang-ti unpopular with
Huang-ti unpopular with thethe Chinese
Chinese historians.
historians.

For
For generations
generations the the people
people expressed
expressed their judgment of
their judgment of him
him by by befouling
befouling
his grave.:I1
his
grave/
1

destruction of
The destruction of powerful
powerful families,
families, andand of freedom in
of freedom in writing
writing and
speech, left
left Shih
Shih almost
almost friendless
friendless in in his
his declining years.
declining years. Attempts were
Attempts
speech,
made to assassinate
made to assassinate him; hehim; he discovered
discovered them
them in
in time,
time, andand slew
slew thethe assailants
assailants

with his
with his own hand." D
hand. He sat on his
sat on his throne with aa sword
throne with across his
sword across his knees,
knees,
and
and let
let no
no man
man know in
in what
what room of
of his
his many palaces
many palaces he
he would sleep.:II
sleep.
1*

Like Alexander he
Like Alexander he sought
sought to
to strengthen
strengthen his
his dynasty
dynasty by
by spreading
spreading the die
notion that
notion that hehe was
was a a god;
god; but
but as
as the
the cQmparison limped,
comparison limped, he, he, like
like Alex-
Alex-
ander,
ander, failed.
failed. He decreeddecreed that that hishis dynastic
dynastic successors
successors should
should number
themselves from
themselves from him him as as ''First
'Tirst Emperor,"
Emperor," down to
to the
the ten
ten thousandth
thousandth of of
their line; but the
their line; but the line line ended
ended with
with his
his son.
son. In
In his
his old
old age,
age, if
if we credit
credit the
the
historians who
historians who hatedhated him,
him, he he be~e
became superstitious,
superstitious, and went to much
went to
expense
expense to
to find
find an
an elixir
elixir of
of immortality.
immortality. When he
he died, his
died, his body
body was
•*Cf. p. 66s
ef. p. 6 below.
 698
698 STORY
THE S T OR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F CI V IL I ZA T ION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXIV

brought back
brought back secredy to
secretly to
his
his capital; and to, conceal
capital; and to.
conceal its smell it
its smell it was
was con-
con-
voyed by fish. Several hundred maidens
voyed by aa caravan
caravan of of decaying
decaying fish. Several hundred maidens (we (we are
are
told)
told) \vere
were buried
buried alive
alive to
to keep
keep him
him company;
company; and
and his
his successor,
successor, grateful
grateful
for his
for death, lavished
his death, art and
lavished art and money upon the
money upon the tomb.
tomb. The roof roof was
was
studded with constellations,
studded with constellations, and
and aa map
map ofof the
the empire
empire was traced in
was traced in quick-
quick-
silver
silver on the floor
on the floor of
of bronze.
bronze. Machines
Machines werewere erected
erected in the vault
in the vault for
for the
the
lit in
automatic
automatic slaughter
slaughter ofof intruders;
intruders; and huge candles
and huge were lit
candles were in the
the hope
hope
that they would
that they would for
for an
an indefinite
indefinite period illuminate
period illuminate the
the doings
doings p£
of the
the dead
dead
emperor and his
emperor and his queens. The worlanen
queens. workmen who brought brought the the coffin
coffin into
into the
the
tomb were
tomb were buried
buried alive
alive with
with their burden, lest
their burden, lest they should
they should live
live to
to reveal
reveal
u
the secret
the passage to
secret passage to the
the grave.
grave.*

II.
II. EXPERIMENTS IN SOCIALISM

Chaos
Chaos and poverty-The Han
and poverty-The Han Dynasty-The
Dynasty-The reforms
reforms of
of Wu Ti-
7V-
The
The income
income tax-The planned economy
tax The planned of Wang Mtmg
economy of Wang Mang
-Its
Its ()1l}erthrow-Tbe
overthrow The Tatar
Tatar invasion
invasion

Disorder followed his

Disorder followed his death,
death, as as it
it has
has followed
followed thethe passing
passing ofof almost
almost
every
every dictator
dictator in
in history; only
history; only an
an immortal
immortal can
can wisely
wisely take
take all
all power into
power into
his hands. The people
his hands.
people revolted
revolted against his son, killed him soon after he
against his son, killed him soon after he
had killed
had killed LiLi Ssii,
Ssii, and
and put
put an
an end
end to
to the
the Ch'in Dynasty
Ch'in within five
Dynasty within five years
years
after
after its
its founder's
founder's death.
death. Rival princes established
Rival princes rival kingdoms,
established rival kingdoms, and and
disorder ruled again.
disorder ruled again.
Then a
a clever
clever condottiere,
condottiere 9
Kao-tsu,
Kao-tsu, seized
seized the
the throne
throne
and founded
founded the the Han Dynasty,
Dynasty, which,
which, withwith some
some interruptions
interruptions and a
and a
change
change of
of capital,-
capital,* lasted
lasted four
four hundred
hundred years.
years. Wen Ti (179-57 B.C.)
(179-57 B.C.)
restored freedom
restored freedom of of speech
speech and
and writing,
writing, revoked
revoked the
the edict
edict by which
by which ShihShih
Huang-ti
Huang-ti had
had forbidden
forbidden criticism
criticism of
of the
the government, pursued
government, pursued aa policy
policy
of peace, and
of peace, and inaugurated
inaugurated the Chinese custom
the Chinese custom ofof defeating
defeating a a hostile
hostile gen-
gen-
eral with gifts.-
eral with
gifts.
The greatest of the Han emperors
greatest of the emperors was Wu Ti. Ti. InIn a reign of
a reign over half
of over half
aa century B.C.) he
(140-87 B.C.)
century (140-87 pushed back
he pushed back thethe invading barbarians, and,ex-
invading barbarians, and ex-
tended the
tended the rule
rule ofof China
China over
over Korea,
Korea, Manchuria,
Manchuria, Annam,
Annam, Indo-China
Indo-China and
and
Turkestan;
Turkestan; now for the :first
for the first time
time China
China acquired vast dimensions
those vast
acquired those dimensions
which we have
which have been
been wont
wont to associate with
to associate name. Wu Ti experi-
her name.
with her experi-
mented with
mented with socialism
socialism by by establishing
establishing national
national ownership
ownership of of natural
natural re- re-

*
-The "Western Han"
The "Western Han" Dynasty,
Dynasty, 206
206 B.C.-J4
B.C. 24 A.D., had its
AJD., had capital at Lo-yang,now
its capital at
Lo-yang, now Honan-
Honan-
fu; the "Eastern
fu; the Han" Dynasty,
"Eastern Han" Dynasty, 14-22.1 JLD., had
24-221 AJ)., had its capital at Ch'ang-aD.,
its capital at DOW Sian-m.
Ch'ang-an, now Sian-fu. Th~
Ths
Chinese
Chinese still
still call themselves the
call themselves the "Sons
"Sons ofof Han."
Han."
CHA;P.XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THE AGE OF
OF THE POETS
POETS 699
699

sources, to prevent private individuals from "reserving to their sole use

sources, to prevent private individuals from "reserving to their sole use
the riches of the mountains and the sea in order to gain a forrone, and
the riches of the mountains and the sea in order to gain a fortune, and
from putting
from putting the the lower
lower classes
classes into
into subjection
subjection to thems~lves."l1 The
to themselves." 18
The pro-
pro-
duction of
duction of salt
salt and
and iron,
iron, and
and the
the manufacture
manufacture and and sale
sale of of fermented drinks,
fermented drinks,
were made
were made statestate monopolies.
monopolies. To break break the po,ver of
the power of middlemen
middlemen and and
speculators-"those
speculators "those who buy
buy on
on credit
credit and
and make
make loans,
loans, those
those who buy
buy toto
heap up in the towns,
heap up in the towns, those those who accumulate
accumulate all
all sorts of commodities"
sorts of commodities"
as the
as the contemporary
contemporary historian, historian, Szuma
Szuma Ch'ien
Ch'ien expressed
expressed itit-vVu Wu Ti Ti estab-
estab-
lished aa national
lished national systemsystem of of transport
transport and and exchange,
exchange, and and sought
sought to to control
control
trade in
trade in such
such aa way way as as to
to prevent
prevent sudden
sudden variations
variations in in price.
price. State
State work-
work-
ingmen
ingmen made
made all
all the
the means
means of
of transportation
transportation and
and delivery
delivery in
in the
the empire.
empire.
The state
The state stored
stored surplus
surplus goods,
goods, selling
selling them
them when prices prices were rising too
were rising too
rapidly, buying them
rapidly, buying
them when when prices
prices were falling; in
were falling; in this
this way,
way, says
says Szuma
Szuma
Ch'ien,
Ch'ien, "the
"the rich
rich merchants
merchants and
and large shop-keepers
large shop-keepers would
would be
be prevented
prevented
making big
from making
from big profits,
profits, . . . and
. . and prices
. prices would
would be be regulated throughout
regulated throughout
empire. "1' All
the empire."
the
1'
All incomes
incomes had had to be registered
to be registered withwith the the government,
government, and and
had to pay an annual tax
had to pay an annual tax of five per of five per cent.
cent. In
In order
order to
to facilitate
facilitate the
the pur-
pur-
and consumption
chase and
chase consumption of of commodities
commodities the the Emperor enlarged the
Emperor enlarged the supply
supply
of
of currency by issuing coins of
currency by issuing coins
of silver alloyed with
silver alloyed with tin.
tin. Great
Great public
public works
were undertaken
were undertaken in in order
order to provide employment
to provide employment for for thethe millions
millions whom
private industry
private industry
had
had failed to maintain;
failed to bridges
maintain; bridges were
were flung
flung across
across China's
China's
streams, and innumerable
streams, and innumerable canals canals were
were cut
cut to
to bind
bind the
the rivers
rivers and irrigate
irrigate
B
the
the fields.
fields."* •

For
For a a time
time the the new system system fiourished.
flourished. Trade grew grew in in amount,
amount, variety
variety
and
and extent,
extent, and and bound
bound China even with
China even with thethe distant
distant nations
nations of of the
the Near
East.-
East." TheThe capital, La-yang, increased
capital, Lo-yang,
increased in population and wealth,
in population wealth, and the the
with revenue. Scholarship
Scholarship flour-
coffers
coffers ofof the government were
the government swollen with
were swollen revenue. flour-

ished, poetry abounded,

ished, poetry abounded, and
and Chinese
Chinese pottery began
pottery began to
to be beautiful.
beautiful. In In the
the
Imperial Library
Imperial Library
there
there were
were 3,123
3,123 volumes on the
the classics,
classics, 2,705 on
2,705
philosophy,
philosophy, 1,318
1,318 on on poetry,
poetry, 2,5
68 on mathematics,
2,568 mathematics, 868 on medicine, medicine, 790 790
on war,-
on war* Only Only those
those who had
had passed
passed the
the state
state examinations
examinations were eligible
eligible

Emperor Wu had
a
•* "The situation," says
"The situation," Granet, "••• revolutionary. If
was revolutionary. If the
the Fmperor had had
had
says Granet,
. . .

some kindred spirit,

some kindred spirit, he
he might
might have
have been
been able
able to
to profit by
profit by this
this and create,
create, in
in a
a new order
the most urgent
of society,
of the Chinese State••••
society, the Chinese
State. ... But
But the Emperor only
the Emperor only saw the urgent needs.
needs. He

seems only
seems only
to
to have
have thought
thought of using
of using varied
varied expedients
expedients from day
from day to
to day-rejected
day-rejected when
they bad yielded safficient
they had yielded sufficient
to
to appear
appear wom
worn out-and
out-and new men-sacrificed
men-sacrificed as
as soon
soon as
as they
they
had succeeded well
had succeeded well enough
enough to
to assume
assume a
a dangerous
dangerous air
air of
of authority.
authority. The iestlessness
restlessness of of
the despot and the short vision of the
the despot and the short vision of the imperial imperial law-makers
law-makers made China
China miss
miss the
the rarest
rarest
*
opportunity she had had to
opportunity she had had
to become
become aa compact
compact andand organized
organized state.''19
state."
1
 700
700 THE STORY OP
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXIV
(CHAP.XXIV

to public office, and these examinations were

to public office, and these examinations were openopen to to all. China had
all. China had never
never
prospered so before.
prospered so before.
A combination
combination of of natural
natural misfortunes
misfortunes with with human
human deviltry
deviltry put put anan end
end
to this brave
to this brave experiment.
experiment. Floods Floods alternated
alternated with droughts, and
with droughts, and raised
raised
prices beyond
prices beyond control.
control. Harassed
Harassed by by thethe highhigh cost
cost of of food
food and and clothing,
clothing,
the people
the people began
began to to clamor
clamor for for aa return
return to to the
the good
good old old days days of of anan
idealized past,
idealized past, and
and proposed
proposed that the inventor
that the inventor of of the
the new system system should
should
be boiled
be boiled alive.
alive. Business
Business men protestedprotested that that state
state control
control had had diminished
diminished
healthy initiative
healthy initiative andand competition,
competition, and and they they objected
objected to paying, for
to paying, for the
the
support
support of
of these
these experiments,
experiments, the
the high
high taXes
taxes levied
levied upon
upon them
them by the
by the
government.-
government.
81
Women entered
entered the
the conn, acquired
court, acquired a
a secret
secret influence
influence over
over
important functionaries,
important functionaries, and and became
became an an element
element in in aa wave
wave of ~f official
official
corruption
corruption that
that spread
spread
far
far 'and
and wide
wide after
after the
the death
death of
of the
the Emperor.-
Emperor."
Counterfeiters imitated
Counterfeiters imitated the the new currency
currency so so successfully
successfully that that it it had
had toto
be withdrawn.
be withdrawn. The business business of of exploiting the weak was
exploiting the weak
was resumed
resumed under under
a new management,
a management, and and forfor a a century
century the
the reforms
reforms of
of Wu Ti were
were for-
for-
gotten
gotten or
or reviled.
reviled.
At thethe beginning
beginning of of our
our era-eighty-four
era eighty-four years after Wu Ti's
years after Ti's death
death
-another reformer ascended
another reformer ascended the the throne
throne of of China,
China, firstfirst asas regent,
regent, andand
then as
then as emperor. Wang
emperor. Wang Mang Mang was
was of
of the
the highest
highest typetype of
of Chinese
Chinese gentle-
gentle-
man.- Though
man.* Though rich, rich, he he lived
lived temperately,
temperately, even even frugally,
frugally, and and scattered
scattered
his
his income
income among among his his friends
friends and and the poor. Absorbed
the poor. Absorbed in in thethe vital
vital

struggle
struggle to
to reorganize
reorganize the
the economic
economic and
and political
political
life
life ofof his
his country,
country,
he found
he found time time nevertheless
nevertheless not not only
only to to patronize
patronize literature
literature and and scholar-
scholar-
ship,
ship,
but
but toto become
become an accomplished SCAOlar
an accomplished himself. On his
scholar himself. his accession
accession to to
power
power he
he surrounded
surrounded himself
himself not not with
with the
the usual
usual politicians,
politicians, but
but with
with men
trained in
trained in letters
letters andand philosophy; these men his attributed his
philosophy; to to these his enemies
enemies attributed his

failure,
failure, andand his
his friends attributed his'
friends attributed his success.
success.
. Shocked
Shocked by by the
the development
development of
of slavery
slavery on the the large
large estates
estates of of China,
China,
Wang
Wang Mang, Mang, at
at the
the very
very outset
outset of
of his
his reign,
reign, abolished
abolished both
both the
the slavery
slavery
and
and the estates by
the estates by nationalizing
nationalizing the the land.
land. He divided divided the the soil
soil into
into equal
equal
tracts and
tracts and distributed
distributed it it among the
among the peasants;
peasants; and,
and, to
to prevent
prevent the
the renewed
renewed
concentration
concentration of of wealth,
wealth, he he forbade
forbade the the salesale oror purchase
purchase of of land.-
land." He
continued
continued the the state
state monopolies
monopolies of of salt
salt andand iron,
iron, and
and added
added to to them statestate
ownership of
of mines
mines and
and state
state control
control of of the traffic in
the traffic in wine.
wine. Like
Like Wu Ti
Ti
ownership
he tried to protect
he tried to protect the
the cultivator
cultivator and
and the
the consumer
consumer against
against the
the merchant
merchant
by fixing
by fixing the
the prices
prices
of
of commodities.
commodities. The state
state bought
bought agricultural
agricultural sur- sur-

•* Un1esl
Unless there
there is truth in
is truth the rumor circulated
in the the death of
circulated on the die boy
of the emperor, in
boy emperor, in the
the
yog ,J AJ)'1 thac' Wang Mang's family had
AJ>', that Wang Mang's family
tad poisoned
poisoned him....
him.
1*
CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THE AGE OF THE POETS
THE 701
7OI

plUSes in time of plenty, and

pluses in time of plenty, and sold them in
sold them in time
time ofof dearth.
dearth. LoansLoans were were
by the
made by the government, at low
government, at low rates of interest,
rates of interest, for for any productive
any productive
enterp~e~
enterprise.*
.
· Wang
'

Wang had
had conceived
conceived his
his policies
policies
in
in economic
economic tenns,
terms, and
and had
had forgotten
f orgotten
nature of
the nature
the of man.
man. He worked worked long hours, day
long hours, day and night, to
and night, to devise
devise
schemes
schemes that that would
would make the the nation
nation rich
rich and happy; and
and happy; and he he waswas heart-
heart-
broken to
broken to find
find that
that social
social disorder
disorder mounted
mounted during during his
his reign. Natural
reign.
Natural
calamities disrupt his
calamities like like drought and
drought and flood flood continued
continued to to disrupt his planned
planned
economy,
economy, and
and all
all the
the groups
groups whose
whose greed
greed had
had been
been clipped
clipped by
by his
his reforms
reforms
united to
united to plot
plot hishis fall.
fall. Revolts broke out,
Revolts broke apparently
out, apparently among among the
the people,
people,
but probably
but probably financedfinanced from from above;
above; and
and while
while Wang, bewildered by
Wang, bewildered by such
such
ingratitude, struggled
ingratitude, struggled to
to control
control these
these insurrections,
insurrections, subject peoples
subject peoples weak-
weak-
ened his
ened his prestige by throwing off
prestige by throwing off the the Chinese yoke, and
Chinese yoke, and thethe Hsiung-nu
Hsiung-nu
barbarians overran the northem
barbarians overran the northern provinces. provinces. The rich Liu
rich Liu family family" putput
itself
itself at
at thethe head
head of of a a general
general rebellion,
rebellion, captured Chang-an,
captured Chang-an, slew
slew Wang
Wang
Mang,
Mang, and annulled his
and annulled his reforms.
reforms. Everything
Everything was was as before.
as before.
The Han line ended in
line ended in aa succession
succession of of weak emperors,
emperors, and and waswas fol-
fol-
lowed
lowed by by a
a chaos
chaos of
of petty dynasties
petty dynasties and
and divided
divided states.
states. Despite the
Despite the Great
Great
Wall the Tatars
Tatars poured into China,
Wall the poured down into China, and and conquered
conquered large large areas
areas ofof
the north.
the north. And as the
as the Huns broke
broke down the
the organization
organization of the of the Roman
Empire,
Empire, and
and helped
helped to
to plunge Europe
plunge Europe into
into a
a Dark Age Age for for a a hundred
hundred
years,
years,
so
so the
the inroads
inroads of
of these
diese kindred
kindred Tatars
Tatars disordered
disordered the
the life
life ofof China,
China,
and put an
and put an end end for
for a
a while
while to
to the
the growth
growth of
of civilization.
civilization. We may judge
may judge
the strength
the strength of of the
the Chinese
Chinese stock,
stock, character
character and culture
culture from from the the fact
fact that
that
this disturbance was
this disturbance was much briefer briefer andand less
less profound than
profound than that
that which
which
ruined Rome.
ruined Rome. Mter After an an interlude
interlude of of war and and chaos,
chaos, and racial mixture
and racial mixture
with the
with the invaders,
invaders, Chinese
Chinese civilization
civilization recovered,
recovered, and and enjoyed
enjoyed a a brilliant
brilliant

resurrection. The very

resurrection. very blood
blood of
of the
the Tatars
Tatars served,
served, perhaps,
perhaps, to
to reinvig-
reinvig-
orate a nation
orate a nation already already old.
old. The Chinese
Chinese accepted
accepted the
the conquerors,
conquerors, married married .
them, civilized
them, civilized them,them, and and advanced
advanced to to the zenith of
the zenith history.
their history.
of their

m.
m. THE GLORY OF T'ANG
T*ANG
The nerw dynast'J.-T'1li
The new dynasty T'ri Tsung's
Tsungs method
method ofof reducmg
redwing crime-An
crime An
age of prosperity-The
age of prosperity The "Brillimt
"Brillimt Emperor'-The
Emperor" The rO'fflllnce
romance
of
of Ytmg Kwei-fei-The rebellion
Yang KwetfeiThe rebellion of Lu-shtm
of An Lu-shm

The
The great age of China owed its
great age of China
its coming partly to
coming pardy to this
this new biological
biological
mixture,· partly
mixture,* pardy to
to the
the spiritual
spiritual
stimulation
stimulation derived
derived from the
the advent
advent of
of

•* Cf.
Cf. Sir Flinders Petrie.
Sir W. Flinders Petric, The Revolutions
RruolutitmS of
of Ci'Uilization. London, n.d.
Civilization. London, cud.
701
702 STORY
THE S TOR Y 0 CIVILIZATION
OFF C I \7 I LIZ A T ION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXIV

Buddhism, partly
Buddhism, partly
to
to the
the genius of one of China's greatest emperors, T'ai
genius of one of China's greatest emperors,
T'ai
Tsung
Tsung (627-50
(627-50 A.D.) A.D.) At At thethe ageage ofof t'\\renty-one
twenty-one he he was
was raised
raised to to the
the
throne by the abdication of his father,
throne by the abdication of his father, a second Kao-tsu, a second Kao-tsu, who had
had estab-
estab-

lished
lished the
Pang Dynasty
the T'ang Dynasty nine nine years before. He began
years before. unprepossessingly
began unprepossessingly
by murdering the
by murdering the brothers
brothers who threatened
threatened to to displace him; and then he
displace him; and then
he
exercised
exercised his his military
military abilities
abilities by pushing. back
by pushing. back the
die invading
invading barbarians
barbarians
into native haunts,
their native
into their haunts, andand reconquering
reconquering those
those neighboring territories
neighboring territories

which had
which had thrown
thrown off off Chinese
Chinese rule rule after the fall
after the fall of the Han.
of die Han. Suddenly
Suddenly
"
he grew
he grew tired
tired of
of war,
war, and
and returning
returning to
to his
his capital, Ch'ang-an,
capital, Ch'ang-an, gave
gave him-
him-
self the ways
to the
self to ways of of peace.
peace.
He readread and
and re-read
re-read the works of
the works of Confucius,
Confucius,
and
and hadhad themthem published
published in
in a a resplendent
resplendent format,
format, saying: "By
saying: "By using using a a
mirror of
mirror brass you
of brass you maymay see
see to
to adjust your cap; by using
adjust your cap; by using antiquity antiquity as
as aa
mirror you you may learn to
may learn foresee the
to foresee the rise
rise and
and fall
fall of
empires/ He refused
of empires."
7
mirror refused
all
all luxuries,
luxuries, and and sent
sent away the three thousand
away the three thousand ladies ladies who had been chosen
had been chosen
to entertain
to entertain him. him. When his his ministers
ministers recommended
recommended severe severe laws
laws for for thethe
repression of
repression of crime,
crime, he he told them: "If
told them: "If I I diminish
diminish expenses, lighten the
expenses, lighten
the
taxes, employ
taxes, employ only only honest
honest officials,
officials, so
so that
that the
the people
people have
have clothing
clothing
enough,
enough, this will do
this will do more
more to abolish robbery
to abolish robbery than
than the
the employment
employment of of the
the
severest punishments."·
severest punishments."*

One day day he he visited

visited the jails of
the jails of Ch'ang-an,
Ch'ang-an, and and sawsaw two two hundred
hundred and and
ninety
ninety men
men who
who had
had been
been condemned
condemned to
to die.
die. He sent sent them
them out
out to
to till
till

the fields,
the relying solely
fields, relying solely
on
on their
their word
word of honor that
of honor would return.
they would
that they return.
Every
Every man came
came back;
back; and
and T'ai
T'ai Tsung
Tsung was
was so
so well
well please~
pleased that
that he
he set
set

them all
them free. He laid
all free. laid it
it down then that no
then that no emperor
emperor should should ratify
ratify
aa death
death
sentence
sentence untiluntil he he had
had fasted three days.
fasted three
days.
He made
made his his capital
capital
so
so beautiful
beautiful
that tourists
that tourists flocked
flocked to to it from
it from IndiaIndia and
and E-qrope.
Europe.
Buddhist
Buddhist monks
monks arrived
arrived
in
in great numbers from
great numbers from India,
India, and and Chinese
Chinese Buddhists,
Buddhists, like yuan Chwang,
like Yuan Chwang,
traveled freely
traveled freely to
to India
India to
to study
study the
the new religion
religion
of
of China
China at
at its
its source.
source.
Missionaries
Missionaries came to to Ch'ang-an to
Ch'ang-an to preach preach Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism and Nestorian
and Nestorian
Christianity;
Christianity; the
the Emperor,
Emperor, like
like Akbar,
Akbar, welcomed
welcomed them,
them, gavegave them
them pro-
pro-
tection and
tection and freedom,
freedom, and and exempted
exempted their
their temples from
temples from taXation,
taxation, at
at a a time
time
when Europe
when Europe was was sunk
sunk inin poverty, intellectual
poverty, intellectual darkness, darkness, and and theological
theological
strife. himself remained,
strife. He himself without dogma
remained, without dogma or
or prejudice,
prejudice,
a
a simple
simple Con- Con-
fucian.
fucian. "When he he died,"
died," says
says a brilliant historian,
a brilliant historian, "the"the grief of the people
grief of the people
knew no
knew no bounds,
bounds, and and even
even thethe foreign
f envoys
oreign envoys cut
cut themselves
themselves with knives
with knives
and
and lancets
lancets and and sprinkled
sprinkled the the dead
dead emperor's
emperor's bier with their
bier with their self-shed
self-shed
blood."·
blood"
18
 CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THE AGE OF THE POETS 703
703
He hadhad paved
paved the the way
way for for China's
China's most most creative
creative age. Rich with fifty
age. Rich with fifty
years
years of
of comparative
comparative peace peace and
and stable
stable government,
government, she
she began to expon her
began to export her
surplus
surplus of rice,
of rice, com,
corn, silk,
silk, and
and spices,
spices,
and
and spent her pronts on unparalleled.
spent her profits on unparalleled
luxury.
luxury. Her lakes
lakes were
were filled
filled with
with carved
carved and
and painted pleasure-boats; her
painted pleasure-boats; her
rivers and canals were picturesque
rivers and canals were picturesque with with commerce,
commerce, and and fromfrom herher harbors
harbors
ships
ships sailed
sailed toto distant
distant ports
ports on
on the
the Indian
Indian Ocean
Ocean and
and the
the Persian
Persian Gulf.
Gulf.
Never before had China
Never before had China known such such wealch;
wealth; never
never had had sheshe enjoyed
enjoyed such
such
*
abundant
abundant food,food, such
such comfortable
comfortable houses, houses, such
such exquisite clothing.-
exquisite clothing
While
While
silk
silk was selling in
selling
in Europe for
Europe for its
its weight in
weight in gold,"
80
it was a routine article
gold, it was a routine article
of
of dress for half
dress for half the
the population of
of the
the larger cities
cities of
of China,
China, and and furfur coats
coats
population larger
were more frequent
frequent in in eighth-century Ch'ang-an than
eighth-century Ch'ang-an than in in twentieth-century
twentifeth-century
New York.
York. One village village
near
near the
the capital
capital
had
had silk
silk factories
factories employing
employing a
a
IL
hundred thousand
.hundred thousand men. men. "What
81
"What hospitality!"
hospitality!"
exclaimed
exclaimed Li Li Po,
Po, "what
"what
squandering
squandering of
of money!
money! Red jade cups
jade cups and
and rare
rare dainty
dainty
food
food on
on tables
tables in-
in-

laid
laid with
with green gems!" Statues
green gems!"·
88
Statues were were carved
carved out out of of rubies,
rubies, andand pretentious
pretentious
corpses
corpses were
were buried
buried on
on beds
beds of
of pearl.-
pearl.
88
The
The great
great
race
race was
was suddenly
suddenly
enamored
enamored of of beauty,
beauty, and
and lavished
lavished honors
honors on
on those
those who could
could create
create it.
it.

"At
"At this
this age," says a
age," says a Chinese
Chinese critic,
critic, "whoever
"whoever was
was a
a man was
was a
a poet."·
poet."
84

Emperors promoted
Emperors promoted poets poets and
and painters
painters
to
to high
high office,
office, said
said "Sir
"Sir John
John Man-
ville"· would
ville"* would havehave itit that
that no no one
one dared
dared to to address
address the
the Emperor
Emperor save "it be
save "it be
mynstrelles that that singen
singen and tellen gestes."· In
and tellen the eighteenth century of
mynstrelles gestes."* In the eighteenth century of
our
our era Manchu emperors
era Manchu emperors ordered
ordered an
an anthology
anthology to to be be prepared
prepared of of the
the
T'ang poets;
T'ang poets; the
the result
result was
was thirty
thirty volumes,
volumes, containing 48,900 poems by
containing 48,900 poems by
2,300 poets;
2,300 poets; so
so much had
had survived
survived the
the criticism
criticism of time.
of time. The The Imperial
Imperial
Library had
Library had grown
grown to 5~OOO volumes.
to 54,000 volumes. "At "At this this time,"
time," says says Murdoch,
Murdoch,
"China undoubtedly stood
"China undoubtedly stood in in the
the very
very forefront
forefront of of civilization.
civilization. She was
She was
then the
then the most
most powerful,
powerful, the the most
most enlightened,
enlightened, the the most
most progressive,
progressive, and and
the best-governed,
the best-governed, empire empire on on the the face
face of of the
the globe.
globe.- "It
88
"It was
was thethe most
niost
polished epoch that
polished epoch
that the
the world
world had had ever
ever seen."t
seen."t
At the
At ~ead and
the head and height
height of of it was Ming
it was Huang-i.e., "The
Ming Huang-i.e., Brilliant Em-
"The Brilliant
peror"-who
peror"-who ruled
ruled China,
China, with
with certain
certain intermissions,
intermissions, for
for some
some years
forty years
forty
(7 13-5 6 A.D.).
(713-56 A.D.). He was was a a man full of
full of human contradictions: he wrote
contradictions: he wrote
poetry
poetry
and.
and made
made war
war upon
upon distant
distant lands,
lands, exacting
exacting tribute
tribute from
from Turkey,
Turkey,

• The
*
The assumed
assumed name name of
of aa French
French physician
physician who in in the
the fourteenth
fourteenth century
century composed
composed aa
volume of
volume of travels, mostly
travels, imaginary, occasionally
mostly imaginary, occasionally illuminating,
illuminating, always fascinating.
always fascinating.
t Arthur
t Arthur Waley."
Waley." Cf. ~. the
~e Encyclopedia
Enc:yclOfJ~dia Britcmwca
Britannic~. JI¢t ed., xviii,
(i^th ed., 361 ): "In
xviii, 361): "In the
the Tang
T'aJ;lg
Ofnasty ~1/:J'dihiS. -waS without
)ynasty. -rCbinaVas
without doubt
doubt the greatest and
the greatest and most
most civilized
civilized power
power inin the
the world."
world."
704
704 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXIV
(CHAP.XXIV

Persia
Persia and
and Samarkand;
Samarkand; he he abolished
abolished capital punishment and
capital punishment
and reformed
reformed the the
administration of prisons and courts; he levied
administration of prisons and courts; he levied taxes mercilessly, sufferedtaxes mercilessly, suffered
poets, artists
poets, artists andand scholars
scholars gladly, and established a college of
gladly, and established a college music in
of music in his
his

"Pear
"Pear Tree
Tree Garden."
Garden." He began began his
his reign
reign like
like a a Puritan, closing
Puritan, closing the
the silk
silk

factories
factories andand forbidding
forbidding the
the ladies
ladies of
of the
the palace
palace to
to wear jewelry
wear jewelry or or em-
em-
broidery;
broidery; he
he ended
ended it like
it like anan epicurean, enjoying
epicurean, enjoying every every art
art and
and every
every
luxury,
luxury, and
and at
at last sacrificing his
last sacrificing
his throne
throne for
for the
die smiles
smiles of
of Yang
Yang Kwei-fei.
Kwei-f eL
When he he met
met her
her hehe was
was sixty
sixty
and
and she
she was
was twenty-seven;
twenty-seven; for
for ten
ten years
years
she had been
she had been the the con~bine
concubine of of his
his eighteenth
eighteenth son.
son. She
She was
was corpulent
corpulent and and
wore false
wore hair, but
false hair, the Emperor
but the Emperor loved
loved her
her because
because she
she was
was obstinate,
obstinate,
capricious, ·domineering and insolent. She accepted his
capricious, 'domineering and insolent. She accepted
his admiration
admiration gra- gra-
ciously,
ciously,
introduced
introduced him
him to
to five
five families
families of
of her
her relatives,
relatives, and
and permitted
permitted
him
him toto find
find sinecures
sinecures for for them
them at court. Ming
the court.
at the called his
Ming called his lady "The
lady "The
Great Pure
Great Pure One,"
One," and and learned
learned fromfrom her her thethe gentle
gentle art art of
of dissipation.
dissipation.
The
Son
Son ofof Heaven
Heaven thought little now of
little of the
the state
state and
and its affairs;
its he
he placed
thought affairs; placed
all the powers
all the powers of of government
government in
in the
the hands
hands of
of the
the Pure
Pure One's·
One's brother,
brother, the
the
corrupt
corrupt and
and incapable Yang Kuo-chung;
incapable Yang Kuo-chung; and
and while
while destruction
destruction gathered
gathered
under him
under him he reveled through
he reveled through the the days
days and nights.
and nights.
An Lu-shan,
Lu-shan, a a Tatar
Tatar courtier,
courtier, also also loved
loved Yang Yang Kwei-fei.
Kwei-fei. He won the the
confidence
confidence of the Emperor,
of the Emperor, who promoted promoted him him to to the
the post
post of of provincial
provincial
governor
governor in
in the
the north,
north, and
and placed
placed under
under his
his command the
the finest
finest armies
armies
in the realm. Suddenly
in the realm. Suddenly An Lu-shan proclaimed
Lu-shan proclaimed himself himself emperor,
emperor, and and
turned his
turned his armies
armies toward
toward Ch'ang-an.
Ch'ang-an. The long-neglected
long-neglected defenses
defenses fell,
fell, and
and
Ming
Ming deserted
deserted his
his capital.
capital.
The soldiers
soldiers who escorted
escorted him
him rebelled,
rebelled, slew
slew
Yang Kuo-chung
Yang Kuo-chung and
and all
all the
the five
five families,
families, and,
and, snatching
snatching Yang Kwei-fei
Yang Kwei-fei
from the monarch's
from the monarch's hands,hands, killed
killed her
her before
before his
his eyes.
eyes.
Old
Old and
and beaten,
beaten, the the
Emperor abdicated. An Lu-shan's.
Emperor abdicated. barbaric hordes
Lu-shan's barbaric hordes sacked
sacked Ch'ang-an,
Ch'ang-an, and and
slaughtered
slaughtered the
the population indiscriminately.-
population indiscriminately.* Thirty-six Thirty-six million
million people
people
are
are said to have
said to have lost
lost their lives in
their lives in the
the rebellion.-
rebellion.
89
In the end
In die end it failed; An
it failed;

Lu-shan
Lu-shan was killed by
was killed by his
his son,
son, who was killed killed by a
by a general,
general,
who was was
killed by
killed by his
his son.
son. By
By the
the year
year 762 762 A.D.
A.D. the
the turmoil
turmoil had
had worn
worn itseH
itself out,
out,
and Ming
and Huang
Ming Huang returned,
returned, heart-broken,
heart-broken, to
to his ruined
his ruined capital.
capital.
There,
There, aa
few months later,
few months later, he
he died.
died. In
In this
this framework
framework of
of romance
romance and
and tragedy
tragedy
the poetry
the poetry of of China
China flourished
flourished as as never before.
never before.

•* "When
When the Tatars overthrew Ming
the Taws Ming Huang sacked Chang-an,"
Huang and sacked Chang-an," says Arthur Wa!ey,
says Arthur
*

Waley,
"it was as
"it was as if
if Turks
Turks had
had ravaged Versailles in
ravaged Versailles in the
the time of Louis
time of XIV.""
Louis XIV."*
CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THEAGEOFTHEPOETS
THE AGE OF THE POETS 705

IV.
IV. THE BANISHED ANGEL

An tmecdote
anecdote of Li PoHis
of Li youth, prowess
Po-His youth, prO'Wess tmd lovesOn the
and loves-On the
imperial barge
imperial barge
-
- The gospel of the grape
The gospel of the grape -
- War -
- The
The
Wanderings
Wanderings of Li Po-ln
of Li Po-In prison-"Deathless
prison-"De/lthless Poetry"
Poetry"
One day,
day, atat the
the height
Height of of his
his reign, Ming Huang received
reign, Ming Huang
received ambassadors
ambassadors
from Korea,
Korea, who brought him
brought him important messages written in
important messages written in aa dialect
dialect
which none
which none of of his
his ministers
ministers could understand. ''"What!''
could understand. 'What!" exclaimedexclaimed the the
Emperor,
Emperor, "among"among so
so many magistrates, so many -scholars
many magistrates, so many scholars and warriors, and warriors,
cannot there be
cannot there be found
found a a single
single one
one who knowsknows enoughenough to to relieve
relieve 'us us ofof
vexation in
vexation in this affair? If
this affair? If in three days
in three days no
no one
one is
is able
able to
to decipher
decipher
this
this

letter,
letter, every
every one one ofof your
your appointments
appointments shall
shall be
be suspended."
suspended."
For
For aa day
day thethe ministers
ministers consulted
consulted and fretted, fearing
and fretted, fearing for for their
their offices
offices

and
and their heads. nen
their heads. Then Minister
Minister Ho Chi-chang
Chi-chang approached
approached the the throne
throne and and
said:
said: "Your subject presumes to
subject presumes to announce
announce to
to your Majesty
your Majesty that
that there
there is
is

aa poet
poet of
of great
great merit, called L~
merit, called Li, atat his house, who is
his house, is profoundly acquainted
profoundly acquainted
with more
with than one
more than one science;
science; command him
him to
to read
read this
this letter,
letter, forfor there
there
is
is nothing of which he is not
nothing of which he is not capable." capable." The Emperor
Emperor ordered
ordered Li
Li to
to present
present
himself at
himself court immediately.
at court immediately. But
But Li
Li refused
refused to
to come,
come, saying
saying that
that he
he could
could
not possibly
not possibly be be worthy
worthy of
of the
the task
task assigned him,
assigned him, since
since his
his essay
essay had
had been
been
rejected by
rejected by the mandarins at
the mandarins the last
at the last examination
examination for public office.
for public office. The

Emperor
Emperor soothed
soothed him
him by conferring
by conferring upon upon him
him the
the title
ride and
and robes
robes of of
doctor
doctor of the :first
of the first rank.
rank. Li Li came, found his
came, found lus examiners
examiners among among the the ministers,
ministers,
forced them to
forced them to take off his
take off his boots,
boots, andand then
then translated
translated the the document,
document, which which
announced
announced that
that Korea
Korea proposed
proposed to
to make war for
for the
the recovery of its free-
recovery of its free-
dom.
dom. Having
Having read rea~ the
the message,
message, Li Li dictated
dictated a a learned
learned and terrifying reply,
and terrifying reply,
which the Emperor
which the Emperor signed signed without
without hesitation,
hesitation, almost
almost believing
believing what Ho

whispered to
him-that Li
whispered to him-that Li was
was an an angel banished from
angel banished heaven for
from heaven for some
*
impish deviltry.··
impish deviltry.
40
The Koreans
Koreans sent
sent apologies
apologies and
and tribute,
tribute, and
and the
the Em-
peror sent part of of the
the tribute
tribute to Li. Li
to Li. Li gave
peror sent part gave it to the
it to the innkeeper,
innkeeper, for for hehe
loved wine.
loved wine.
On the
the night
night of of the
the poet's
poet's
birth his
birth his mother-of
mother of the the family
family of of Li-had
Li had
dreamed of
dreamed of Tai-po Hsing,
Tai-po Hsing, the
the Great
Great White Star,
Star, which
which in the West is
in the is

called Venus. So
called Venus. So the
the child
child waswas named L~ meaning
Li, meaning plum, plum, and sur-
and sur-
named Tai-po,
named Tai-po,
which
which is to say,
is to
say, The White Star.
Star. At ten ten he hadhad mas-mas-
tered all the
tered all the booksbooks of
of Confucius,
Confucius, and
and was composing
composing ·immortal
immortal poetry..
poetry.

•* It
It is
is a pretty tale,
a pretty tale, perhaps
perhaps CQDlposed
composed by U Po.
by Li Po. . ;
706
706 THEE STOR
TH STORY CIVILIZATION
Y OF CIVIL I ZATION (CHAP. XXIV
(CHAP.XXIV

At twelve
At twelve he
he went
went to
to live
live like
like a philosopher in
a philosopher the mountains,
in the mountains, and stayed
stayed
there for
there many years.
for many years. grew in
He grew in health
health and
and strength, practised swords-
strength, practised swords-
manship,
manship, and
and then
then announced
announced his
his abilities
abilities to
to the
the world:
world: "Though
"Though less than
lesS than
seven (Chinese) feet in height,
seven (Chinese) feet in height, I I am strong enough to meet ten thousand
strong enough to meet ten thousand
men."'! ("Ten
men."
41
("Ten thousand"
thousand" is
is Chinese
Chinese for
for many.)
many.) Then he he wandered
wandered leis-leis-

urely
urely about
about the
the earth, drinking
earth, drinking the
the lore of
lore of love
love from
from varied
varied li~.
lips.
He sang
sang
aa song
song to
to the
the "Maid
"Maid of
of Wu":

Wine of the grapes,

of the grapes,
Goblets of
Goblets of gold-
gold
And aa pretty
pretty maid
maid of
of Wu-
She
She comes
comes onon pony-back;
pony-back; she is fifteen.
she is fifteen.

Blue-painted eyebrows-
Blue-painted eyebrows-
Shoes of pink
Shoes of pink brocade-
brocade-
Inarticulate speech-
Inarticulate speech
But she sings
But she bewitchingly welL
sings bewitchingly well
So,
So, feasting
feasting
at
at the
the table,
table,
Inlaid with tortoise-shell,
Inlaid with tortoise-shell,
She gets
She gets drunk
drunk in my lap.
in my
lap.
Ah, child, what
Ah, child, what caresses
caresses
Behind
Behind lily-broidered curtains!-
lily-broidered curtains!
48

He married,
married, but
but earned
earned so
so little money that his
little money that wife left
his wife him, taking
left him,
taking the
the
children with her.
children with her. Was itit to
to her,
her, or
or to
to some
some less-wonted
less-wonted ilame,
flame, that
that he
he
wrote his
wrote wistful lines?-
his wistful lines?

Fair
Fair one, when you
one, when you were
were here,
here, II filled
filled the with flowers.
house with
the house Howers.
Fair
Fair one,
one, now you
you are
are gone-only
gone-only an empty
empty couch is
is left.
left
the couch
On the the embroi~ered
couch the quilt is
embroidered quilt up; II cannot
rolled up;
is rolled cannot sleep.
sleep.
It
It is three years
is three
years since
since you
you went.
went. The perfume
perfume you you left
left behind
behind
haunts me still.
haunts still.

perfume strays
The perfume strays
about
about me forever; but where
forever; but where are you, Beloved?
are you, Beloved? .
II sigh-the
sigh the yellow
yellow leaves
leaves fall
fall from thethe branch;
branch;
II weep
weep-tl'\e
d\e dew twinkles
twinkles white
white on thethe green mosses."*
green mosses.
4

consoled himself
He consoled himself with
with wine,
wine, and became one
and became one of the "Six
of the "Six Idlers
Idlers of
of
the
the Bamboo Grove,"
Grove," who took
took life
life without
without haste,
haste, and
and let
let their
their songs
songs and
and
po~ms
poems, t:heir tJ.P.c;e~iJl
eafll.their
earn uncertain bread.
bread. Hearing
Hearing the
the wine
wine of
of Niauchung highly
Niauchung highly
commended,
commended, Li
Li set
set out
out at
at once.
once, for
for that
that city,
city,
three
three hundred
hundred miles
miles away."
away.
44
caAP. XXIV) . THE
TH AGE 0OF
E AGE THE POE
F THE POETS
TS 707
707
In
In his
his wanderings he
wanderings he met met Tu
Tu Fu,
Fu, who
who waswas to
to bebe his
his rival
rival for
for China's
China's
poetic
poetic crown;
crown; they
they exchanged
exchanged lyrics,
lyrics,
went
went hand
hand in
in hand
hand like
like brothers,
brothers, and
and
slept
slept under
under the
the same
same coverlet
coverlet until
until fame
fame divided
divided them.
them. Everybody
Everybody
loved
loved
them,
them, for
for they
they were
were asas harmless
harmless as saints, and
as saints, and spoke
spoke
with
with the
the same
same pride
pride
apd
and friendliness
friendliness to
to paupers and
paupers and kings. Finally
kings. Finally they
they entered
entered Ch'ang-an;
Ch'ang-an;
and
and the
the jolly
jolly minister
minister Ho loved
loved Li's
Li's poetry so well that
poetry so well that he
he sold
sold gold orna-
gold orna-
ments to buy him drinks.
to buy describes him:
drinks. Tu Fu describes him:

As for
for Li
Li Po,
Po, give him aa jugfuI,
give him jugful,
He will
will write
write one
one hundred
hundred poems.
poems.
He dozes
dozes in
in aa wine-shop
wine-shop
city-street of
On aa city-street of Chang-an;
Chang-an;
~d though his
And though his Sovereign calls,
Sovereign calls,

He will
will not board
board the
the Imperial
Imperial barge.
barge.
"Please,
"Please, your Majesty," says
your Majesty," says he,
he,
"I am a
"I a god
god of
of wine."
wine."

Those were
were merry
merry days
days when thethe Emperor befriended him,
Emperor befriended him, and
and show-
show-
ered him
ered with gifts
him with gifts for
for singing
singing the
the praises
praises of
of the
the Pure
Pure One, Yang Kwei-
One, Yang Kwei-
fei.
fei. Once Ming held
Ming held a a royal
royal Feast of the
Feast of Peoni~ in
the Peonies the Pavilion
in the Pavilion of
of Aloes,
Aloes,
and sent
and for Li
sent for Li Po toto come and make verses
and make verses in
in honor
honor of his mistress.
of his mistress. Li
Li
came, but too drunk
came, but too drunk forfor poetry;
poetry; court
court attendants
attendants threw
threw cold
cold water ~pon
water upon
his amiable
his amiable face,
face, and
and soon
soon the
the poet
poet burst
burst into
into song,
song, celebrating
celebrating the
the rivalry
rivalry
of the
of the peonies
peonies with Lady Yang:
with Lady Yang:
glory of
The glory of trailing
trailing" clouds
clouds is in her
is in her garments,
garments,
the radiance
And the radiance ofof aa flowed
Hower' on
on her
her face.
face.
o heavenly
O heavenly apparition,
apparition, found only far
found only far above
above
the top
On the top of
of the Mountain of
the Mountain Many Jewels,
of Many Jewels,
Or in the
Or in fairy Palace
the fairy Palace of Crystal when the
of Crystal the moon isis up!
up!
Yet I .see her here in the
Yet I see her here in the earth's
earth's garden
garden-
spring wind
The spring
The wind softly
softly sweeps
sweeps the
the balustrade,
balustrade,
And die
And dew-drops glisten
the dew-drops glisten thickly.
thickly. • . •
. . .

Vanquished are
Vanquished are the
the endless
endless longings
longings ofof love
love
Bome into
Borne into the
the heart
heart on
on the winds of
the winds spring.-
of spring. 46

Who would
Who would not
not have
have been
been pleased
pleased to
to be
be the
the object
object of
of such
such song?
song? And
And
yet the
yet Lady Yang
the Lady Yang was
was persuaded
persuaded that
that the
the poet
poet had
had subtly
subtly satirized
satirized her;
her;
and from
and from that
that moment
moment she
she bred
bred suspicion
suspicion of
of him in the
him in the heart
heart of
of the King.
the King.
 7708
08 THE SSTORY
TOR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F CIVIL I Z ATI ON (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXIV

He presented Li Po with a purse, and let let him

him go.
presented Li Po with a purse, and go. Once
Once again
again the
the poet
poet
took
took toto the
the open road,
road, and
and consoled
consoled himself with
himseH with wine.
wine. He joined those
those
open joined
"Eight
"Eight Immortals
Immortals of of the
the Wine Cup" Cup" whose
whose drinkings
drinkings were the talk
were the talk of
of
Ch'ang-an.
Ch'ang-an. He accepted
accepted the
the view
view of
of Liu
Liu Ling,
Ling, who desired
desired always
always to
to be
be
followed by
followed by two
two servants,
servants, oneone with
with wine,
wine, the other with
the other with aa spade to bury
spade to bury
him
him where
where hehe fell;
fell; for,
for, said
said Liu,
Liu, "the
"the affairs
affairs of
of this
this world
world are
are no
no more
more
than duckweed in
than duckweed in the
the river.""
river." The poets of
poets of China were resolv~d
China were resolved to
to atone
48
atone
for
for the
the Puritanism
Puritanism ofof Chinese
Chinese philosophy.
philosophy. "To
"To wash
wash and
and rinse
rinse our
our souls
souls
of
of their
their age-old sorrows,u said Li
said Li Po,
Po, "we
"we drained
drained a a hundred
hundred jugs of
age-old sorrows," jugs of
wine.""
wine." And he
47
he intones
intones like
like Omar thethe gospel
gospel of
of the
the grape:
grape:

The swift
The swift stream
stream pours
pours into
into the
the sea
sea and
and returns
returns never
never more.
more,
Do you
you not
not see
see high on
high on yonder
yonder tower
tower .
A white-haired
white-haired oneone sorrowing before his
sorrowing before his bright mirror?
bright mirror?
In
In the
the morning
morning those
those locks
locks were
were like
like black
black silk,
silk,

In
In the
the evening they
evening they are
are all
all like'
like snow.
snow.
Let
Let us, while we may,
us, while may, taste
taste the
the old
old delights,
delights,
And leave
leave not
not the
the golden
golden cask
cask of
of wine
wine
To stand alone in
stand alone in the
the moonlight.
moonlight • . • . . .

desire only the

II desire long
only the long ecstasy of' wine, .
ecstasy of wine,
And desire
desire not
not toto awaken.
awaken. •••. . .

Now let you and me buy

let you and wine today!
buy wine today!
Why say
Why say we have
have not
not the
the price?
price?
My horse spotted
My horse spotted with
with fine
fine flowers,
flowers,

My fur coat worth

My fur coat worth a thousand
a pieces of
thousand pieces of gold,
gold,
These II will
These take out,
will take out, and my boy
call my
and call boy
barter them
To barter them for sweet wine,
for sweet wine,
you twain,
with you
And with let me forget
twain, let forget
sorrow~ of
The sorrow' of ten
ten thousand ages!-
thousand ages! 41

were these
What were these sorrows?
sorrows? The agony of
The agony of despised
despised love?
love? Hardly;
Hardly; for
for
though the
though the Chinese
Chinese take
take love
love as
as much
much to
to heart
heart as
as we do,
do, their
their poets
poets do
do not
not
so frequently intone its pains. It was war and exile,
so frequently intone its
pains.
Lu-shan and
It was war and exile, An Lu-shan and

the taking of the capital, the flight of the Emperor and the death of
the taking of the
capital,
the flight of the Emperor and the death of
~ Yang, the return of Ming Huang to his desolated halls, that gave Li the
Yang, the return of Ming Huang to his desolated halls, that gave Li the
taste of
taste of human
human tragedy.
tragedy. "There
"There isis no
no end
end to
to war!"
war!;' he
he mourns;
mourns; and
and then
then
his heart
his heart goes
goes out
out to the women who have
to the have lost
lost their
their husbands
husbands to Mars.
to Mars.
CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THE AGE OF THE POETS
THE 709
709
'Tis December. Lo,
Tis December. Lo, tne
tne pensive maid of Yu-chow!
pensive maid of Yu-chow!
She
She will not sing,
will not sing, she
she will
will not smile; her
not smile; moth eyebrows
her moth are di-
eyebrows are di-
. sheveled.
sheveled
She stands by the
She stands by the gate and watches
gate and watches the wayfarers pass,
the wayfarers pass,
Remembering
Remembering him who snatched
snatched his
his sword and went
sword and went to to save
save the
the
border-land,
border-land,
Him who suffered
suffered bitterly in
bitterly
in the
the cold beyond the
cold beyond the Great Wall,
Great Wall,
Him who fellfell in
in the
the battle,
battle, and
and will
will never
never come
come back.
back,

In the tiger-striped gold case

In the for her keeping
tiger-striped gold case for her keeping
There remains aa pair
There remains of white-feathered arrows
pair of white-feathered arrows
the cobwebs
Amid the cobwebs and
and dust
dust gathered of long years-
gathered of long years-
o empty
empty dreams
dreams of
of love,
love, too
too sad
sad to
to look upon!
look upon!
She takes
takes them
them out
out and burns them to ashes.
and burns them to ashes.

By building aa dam one

By building one may
may stop the flow of
stop the flow
the Yellow
of the Yellow River,
River,
But who can
can assuage the grief of her heart when it snows, and
assuage the grief of her heart when it snows,
and
the north
the north wind
wind blows?"
blows?
48

picture him
We picture him now wandering
wandering from
from city
city
to
to city,
city,
from state to
from state to state,
state,

much
much as Tsui
as Tsui Tsung-chi described
Tsung-chi described him:him: "A knapsack
knapsack on
on your
your back
back filled
filled

with books,
with you go
books, you go aa thousand
thousand miles
miles and
and more,
more, a Under your
pilgrim. U&der
a pilgrim. your
sleeves there isis aa dagger,
sleeves there
dagger, and
and in
in your pocket a
your pocket a collection
collection of poems.'" In
of poems."
80
In
these long
these wanderings his
long wanderings his old
old friendship with nature
friendship with
nature gave him solace
gave him sokce and
and
an unnamable peace;
an unnamable peace; and through his
and through his lines we see
lines we his land
see his land ofof Bowers,
flowers,
and
and feel that urban
feel that urban civilization
civilization already lay heavy
already lay heavy on
on the
the Chinese
Chinese soul:
soul:

Why do
Why do II live
live among the
among the green
green mountains?
mountains?
I1 laugh
laugh
and
and answer
answer not, my
not, my soul
soul is serene;
is serene;
It dwells in another heaven
It dwells in another heaven and
and earth
earth belonging to
belonging to no
no man.
man.
. The peach trees
The peach are in
trees are in flower,
flower, and
and the
the water
water flows
flows on.
on.*
11

Or again:
again:

II saw the moonlight

saw the before my
moonlight before my couch,
couch,
And wondered if
And wondered it were
if it were not
not the
the frost
frost on
on the
the ground.
ground.
raised my
II raised my head
head and
and looked
looked out
out on
on the
the mountain-moon;
mountain-moon;
bowed my
II bowed my head
head and
and thought of my
thought of my far-off home.-*
far-off home
 7710
10 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXIV
(CHAP.XXIV

Now,
Now, as his hair
as his hair grew white, his
grew white, his heart was flooded
heart was with longing
flooded with longing for
for
the scenes
the scenes of his youth. How many
of his youth. times, in
many times, the artificial
in the artificial life of the
life of the
capital,
capital,
he
he had
had pined
pined
for the
for natural simplicity
the namral simplicity of
of parentage
parentage and home!
home!

In the land
In the land of
of Wu the the mulberry
mulberry leaves
leaves are
are green,
green,
And thrice
And the silkworms
thrice the silkworms have
have gone
gone to
to sleep.
sleep.
In East
In where my
Luh, where
East Luh, my family
family stays,
stays,
II wonder
wonder who
who is sowing those
is sowing those fields of ours.
fields of ours.

II cannot
cannot be back in
be back in time
time for the spring
for the spring doings,
doings,
Yet II can
Yet can help nothing, traveling
help nothing, traveling
on the
the river.
river.

The
The south
south wind,
wind, blowing, wafts my
blowing, wafts homesick spirit
my homesick spirit
And carries
And it up to
carries it up to the
the front
front of
of our
our familiar tavern.
familiar tavern.

There II see
There see aa peach-tree on the east
peach-tree on the
east side
side of the house,
of the house,
With thick
With thick leaves
leaves and branches waving
and branches waving in
in the
the blue
blue mist.
mist
It is
It the tree
is the tree II planted before
planted before my parting
my parting three
three years
years ago.
ago.
The peach-tree has
The peach-tree has grown
grown now as tall as
as tall as the
the tavem-roof,
tavern-roof,
While II have
While have wandered
wandered about
about without returning.
without returning.

Ping-yang,
Kng-yang, my
my pretty see you stand
daughter, II see
pretty daughter, you stand
By the peach-tree,
By the peach-tree, and pluck aa flowering
and pluck branch.
flowering branch.
You pluck
You pluck thethe :flowers,
flowers, but
but II am not
not there-
there-
your tears
How your tears flow
flow like
like a
a stream
stream of water!
of water!
My
My little
little son, Po-chin, grown
son, Po-chin, grown up up to
to your
your sister's
sister's shoulders,
shoulders,
You come
You come out out with
with her
her under
under the peach-tree;
the peach-tree;
But who is
But is there
there to
to pat you on the
pat you on
back?
the back?

When II think
think of these things
of these things my
my senses·
senses fail,
fail,

And aa sharp
sharp pain cuts my
pain cuts my heart every day.
heart every day.
Now II tear
tear off
off a
a piece
piece
of white silk
of white silk to write this
to write this letter,
letter,
And send it to
send it to you
you with
with my
my love
love a
a long way up
long way up the
the river.·
river.
88

His last
His last years were
years were bitter,
bitter, for
for hehe had never stooped
had never to make money,
stooped to money,
and
and in the chaos
in the chaos of
of war
war and
and revolution
revolution he he found
found nono long
king to
to keep
keep him from
Gladly he
starvation. Gladly
starvation. accepted the
he accepted the offer
offer of
of Li-ling,
Li-ling,
Prince of
Prince of Yung,
Yung, to to
join
join his
his staff;
staff; but
but Li-ling
Li-ling
revolted
revolted against
against
the
the successor
successor of
of Ming Huang,
Ming Huang,
and when the
and when the revolt
revolt was
was suppressed,
suppressed, Li Li Po
Po found himself in
found .elf jail, con-
in jail, con-
demned
demned to to death
death as
as a
a traitor
traitor to
to the
the state.
state. Then
Then Kuo Tsi-i,
Tsi-i, the
the general
general
who hadhad put
put down the the rebellion
rebellion of of An Lu-shan, begged that
Lu-shan, begged that Li
Li Po's
Po's
. life
life might be
might be ransomed
ransomed by by the
the forfeit
forfeit of his own rank
of his rank and
and title.
tide. The

Emperor
Emperor commuted
commuted the
the sentence
sentence to
to perpetual
perpetual banishment.,
banishment. Soon
Soon there-
there-
CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THE AGE OF THE POETS
THE 711
711

after
after aa general
general amnesty
amnesty was
was declared,
declared, and and the turned his
poet turned
the poet his faltering
faltering
steps homeward. Three
steps homeward. Three years
years later
later he
he sickened
sickened andand died;
died; and
and legend, dis-
legend, dis-
content with an
content with an ordinary
ordinary end
end for
for so
so rare
rare a
a soul,
soul, told
told how he
he was
was drowned
drowned
in
in a river while
a river
attempting, in
while attempting, in hilarious
hilarious intoxication,
intoxication, toto embrace
embrace thethe
water's reflection of
water's reflection of the
the moon.
moon.
All in
All in all, the thirty
all, the thirty volumes
volumes of of delicate
delicate andand kindly verse which
kindly verse which hehe left
left

behind him
behind him warrant
warrant his
his reputation as
reputation as the
the greatest poet
greatest poet of
of China.
China. "He
"He
is the lofty
is the peak of
lofty peak of Tai,"
Tai," exclaims
exclaims a a Chinese
Chinese critic, utowering above
critic, "towering above the
the
thousand mountains
thousand mountains andand hills;
hills; hehe is
is the sun in
the sun whose presence
in whose presence aa million
million
stars
stars of heaven lose
of heaven lose their
their scintillating
scintillating
brilliance."1&
brilliance."* Ming Huang
Ming Huang and
and Lady
Lady
Yang
Yang are
are dead,
dead, but
but Li
Li Po still
still sings.
sings.

My
My ship
ship
is
is built
built of
of spice-wood
spice-wood and and has
has a rudder of
a rudder rnulan;·
of mulan;*
Musicians
Musicians sit sit at
at the
the two endsends with jeweled bamboo
with jeweled bamboo :Butes
flutes and
and pipes
pipes
of
of gold.
gold.
What aa pleasure
pleasure it it is,
is, with
with a a cask
cask of
of sweet wine
sweet wine

^singing girls
And ,singing girls
beside
beside me,me,
To drifr
drift onon the
the water
water hither
hither and
and thither with the
thither with the waves!
waves!
II am happier
happier than the fairy
than the fairy of
of the
the air,
air,

Who roderode on on his

his yellow
yellow crane,
crane,
And free
free as
as the
the merman who followedfollowed thethe sea-gulls aimlessly.
sea-gulls aimlessly.
Now with the strokes
with the of my inspired pen
strokes of my inspired pen shake I
I shake the
the Five Mountains.
Five Mountains.

My poem is
My poem is done.
done. I laugh, and my
I laugh, and
delight is
my delight vaster than
is vaster than the
the sea.
sea.

o
O deathless
deathless poetry! The songs of
poetry! songs of Ch'u
Ch'u P'ingt
Pingt are
are ever
ever glorious
glorious as
as
the sun
the sun and
and moon,
moon,
While the
While the palaces
palaces and
and towers
towers of
of the
the Chou kings have
Chou kings have vanished
vanished from
the hills.-
the hills."

v.
V. QUALITIES OF CHINESE POETRY
SOME QUALITIES

"Free
"Free verse" "Imagism" - "Every
verse" - "Imagism" picture and every
poem aa picture
"Every poem every
picture aa poem"
picture poem" - Sentimentality
Sentimentality - Perfection
Perfection of form
of form

It is
It is impossible to judge Chinese poetry from
from LiLi alone; to feel
alone; to it (which
feel it
impossible to judge Chinese poetry (which
is better than
is better than judging)
judging) one
one must
must surrender himself unhurriedly
surrender himself unhurriedly to many
to many
Chinese po~ts, and
Chinese po.ets, and to
to the
the unique
unique methods
methods of
of their poetry.
their poetry. Certain
Certain subtle
subtle
qualities of it
of it are
are hidden
hidden from us in
from us in translation:
translation: we do not see
do not see the
the pic-
pic-
qualities
turesque
turesque
written
written characters,
characters, each
each aa monosyllable,
monosyllable, and yet
yet expressing
expressing a
•*A
A precious
precious wood.
wood.
ttCf. p. 694
Cf. p. 694 above.
above.
712
712 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXIV

complex
complex idea;idea; we do do not not seesee thethe lines,
lines, running
running from from top top to to bottom
bottom and and
from
from right
right to to left;
left; we do do not
not catch
catch the the meter
meter and and the the rhyme,
rhyme, which which adhereadhere
with
with proud rigidity
proud rigidity to
to ancient
ancient precedents
precedents and
and laws;
laws; we do
do not
not hear
hear the
the
tones-the
tones-the flats flats and
and sharps-that
sharps-that give give a
a beat
beat to
to Chinese
Chinese verse;
verse; at
at least
least half
half
the art of
the art of the
the Far
Far Eastern
Eastern poet poet is
is lost
lost when he he is,
is read
read by what
by what we should should
call
call aa "foreigner."
"foreigner." In
In the
the original
original a
a Chinese
Chinese poem
poem at
at its
its best
best is
is aa form
form as
as
polished
polished and and precious
precious as as a hawthorn vase;
a hawthom vase; to to usus itit is
is only a
only a bit bit ofof decep-
decep-
tively
tively "free"
"free" or
or "imagist"
"imagist" verse, verse, half
half caught
caught and
and weakly
weakly rendered
rendered by
by some
some
earnest but
earnest but alien
alien mind.
mind.
What we do do seesee is, above
is, above all, all, brevity.
brevity. We are are aptapt to to think
think thesethese
poems
poems too
too slight,
slight,
and
and feel
feel an
an unreal
unreal disappointment
disappointment at
at missing
missing the
the majesty
majesty
and
and boredom
boredom of of Milton
Milton and and Homer.
Homer. But But thethe Chinese
Chinese believebelieve that that all
all

poetry
poetry must
must be
be brief;
brief; that
that a
a long
long poem poem is
is a
a contradiction
contradiction in
in terms-since
terms-since
poetry,
poetry, to
to them,
them, is
is a
a moment's
moment's ecstasy, and dies when dragged
ecstasy, and dies dragged out out in in epic
epic
reams. Its
reams. mission is
Its mission is to see and
to see and paint a
a picture with
with a
a stroke,
stroke, and
and write
write aa
paint picture
philosophy in
philosophy in aa dozen
dozen lines;lines; its ideal is
its ideal infinite meaning in
is infinite
meaning in a a little
little rhythm.
rhythm.
Since
Since pictures
pictures are
are of
of the
the essence
essence of
of poetry,
poetry, and
and the
the essence
essence of
of Chinese
Chinese
writing
writing is
is pictography, the
pictography, the written
written language
language of
of China
China is
is spontaneously
spontaneously
poetic;
poetic; it
it lends
lends itself
itself to to writing
writing in
in pictures,
pictures,
and
and shuns
shuns abstractions
abstractions that
that
cannot
cannot be be phrased
phrased as as things seen.
things seen. Since
Since abstractions
abstractions multiply
multiply with
with civili-
civili-

zation, the Chinese

zation, the language, in
Chinese language, in itsits written
written form,form, has has become
become aa secret secret code
code
of
of subtle
subtle suggestions;
suggestions; and
and in
in like
like manner,
manner, and
and perhaps
perhaps for
for a
a like
like reason,
reason,
Chinese poetry combines
Chinese poetry combines suggestion
suggestion with with concentration,
concentration, and and aims aims to to re-
re-
veal, through
veal, through the the picture
picture it it draws,
draws, some thing invisible.
deeper thing
some deeper invisible. It It does
does notnot
diScuss, it
discuss, intimates; it
it intimates; it leaves
leaves out out moremore than than it it says;
says; and and only
only an an Oriental
Oriental
can :fill it
can fillit in.
in. "The men of old," say
of old," say the
the Chinese,
Chinese, "reckoned
"reckoned it the
it the highest
highest
excellence in
excellence poetry that
in poetry that thethe meaning
meaning should should be be beyond
beyond the words, and
the words, and
the reader
that the
that reader should
should have have to think it
to think it out for himself."
out for himself."" Like
88
Chinese
Like Chinese
manners and
manners and art, Chinese poetry
art, Chinese poetry is is aa matter
matter of of infinite
infinite gracegrace concealed
concealed
in aa placid
in placid simplicity.
simplicity. It It foregoes
foregoes metaphor,
metaphor, comparison
comparison and and allusion,
allusion, but but
relies on
relies on showing
showing the thing itself,
the thing itself, withwith aa hinthint ofof its
its implications.
implications. It It avoids
avoids
exaggeratiox;t and
exaggeration and passion,
passion, but but appeals
appeals to th~ mature
to the mature mind mind by understate-
by understate-
ment and
ment and restraint;
restraint; it is seldom
it is seldom romantically
romantically excited excited in in form,
form, but but knows
knows
how to express intense
to express intense feeling
feeling in in its quietly classic
its own quietly way. ,
classic way. <

pass their
Men pass lives apart
their lives apart like
like stars that move
stars that move but
but never
never meet
meet.
eye,
This eye,
This bl~ it
how blest that the
is that
it is the same lamp gives
same lamp gives light
light to both
to both
of us!
of us!
CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THE AGE OF THE
AGE OF THE POETS
POETS 713
Brief isis youth's
Brief day.
youth's day.
Our
Our temples already
temples already tell tell of
of waning
waning life.
life.
Even now
Even half of
now half of those
those we know
know are spirits.
are spirits.
II am moved
moved in in the
the depths
depths of my soul.
of my soul.

We may
may tire,
tire, at
at rimes,
times, of
of aa certain
certain sentimentality in these
sentimentality in these poems,
poems, aa
vainly wistful mood
vainly wistful mood of of regret
regret that
that rime will not
time will stop in
not stop in its
its flight
flight and
and let
let
and
men and states be
states be young
young forever.
forever. We perceive
perceive that the civilization
that the civilization of of
China was
China already old
was already old and weary in
and weary in the days of
the days Ming Huang,
of Ming Huang, and and that
that
its poets,
its poets, like
like the artists of
the artists of the Orient in
the Orient in general,
general, were
were fond
fond of of repeating
repeating
old themes,
old themes, and
and ofof spending
spending their
their artistry
artistry on on flawless
flawless form.
form. But But there
there is is
nothing quite
nothing quite like this poetry
like this poetry elsewhere,
elsewhere, nothing
nothing to to match
match itit in
in delicacy
delicacy
of expression,
of expression, inin tenderness
tenderness andand yet moderation of
yet moderation of feeling,
feeling, inin simplicity
simplicity
~d brevity
and brevity of
of phrase
phrase clothing
clothing the
the most
most considered thought. We are
considered thought. are told
told
that the
that the poetry
poetry written
written under
under the
the Tang
T'ang emperors plays aa large
emperors plays large part
part inin
the training
the training of
of every
every Chinese
Chinese youth,
youth, andand that one cannot
that one cannot meet
meet anan intelli-
intelli-
gent
gent Chinese
Chinese who does
does not
not know
know much
much of
of that
that poetry
poetry by by heart.
heart. If this
If this

is so,
is so, then
then Li
Li Po
Po and
and Tu Fu Fu are part of
are part of the
the answer
answer that
that we must must give
give
to the
to the question
question why
why almost
almost every
every educated
educated Chinese
Chinese is an
is an artist
artist and
and aa
philosopher.
philosopher.
VI.
VI. TUFU

T'ao
Tao Ch'ien-Po
Ctfien-Po Chu-.i-Poems
Chu-i-Poew forfor malllria-Tu
malaria-Tu Fu Fu and Li Po-
and Li
A vision
vision of
of wllT-Prospero1JS
'warProsperous dtl'J's-Destitfl,tion-Death
days-Destitution-Death

Li Po is
Li Po is the
the Keats
Keats of of China,
China, but
but there
there areare other singers almost as
other singers almost as
fondly cherished by
fondly cherished by his
his countrymen.
countrymen. There There is is the
the simple
simple and
and stoic
stoic T'ao
Tao
Ch'ien,
Ch'ien, who
who left
left a
a government position
government position because,because, as
as he
he said,
said, he
he was'
was un-
un-
able any
able any longer to "crook the hinges of
longer to "crook the hinges
of his
his back
back for
for five
five pecks of
pecks of rice
rice

aa day"-that
day" that is,
is,
kfYW-to'W·
kow-tow* for his
for his salary.
salary.
Lilce
Like many
many another
another public
public man .
disgusted with the commercialism
disgusted with the
commercialism of of official life, he went to live in the
official life, he went to live in the
woods, seeking
woods, seeking there
there ''length
'length
of
of years
years and
and depth
depth of of wine,"
wine," and
and finding
finding the
the
same solace and delight
same sokce and delight in
in the
the streams
streams and
and mountains
mountains of
of China
China that
that her
her
painters
painters
would
would later
later express
express on on silk.
silk.

II pluck chrysanthemums under

pluck chrysanthemums
under the
the eastern
eastern hedge,
hedge,
Then gaze
Then long
gaze long
at
at the
the distant
distant summer hills.
hills.

The
The mountain
mountain air is fresh
air is fresh at
at the
the dawn of of day;
day;

•* From
From the
the Chinese
Chinese X'o Pw-to knock
K?o Tori-to knock the
the head on the
head on ground in
die ground in homage.
homage.
 714
714 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXIV
(CHAP.XXIV
The fiying
flying
birds
birds two by
by two return.
return.
In these things
In these things there
there lies
lies a a deep
deep meaning;
meaning;
Yet when
Yet when we would express express it, suddenly fail
it, words suddenly fail us.
us. • • •
...
What folly
folly
to
to spend
spend one's
one's life
life like
like a a dropped
dropped leaf
leaf
Snared under the
Snared under dust of
the dust of streets!
streets!

But for thirteen years

for thirteen years it
it was so so II lived.
lived. ....
. •
For
For aa long
long time
time I I have lived in
have lived in a a cage;
cage;
have returned.
Now II have returned.
For
For one must return
one must return
To fulfil
fulfil one's
one's nature.
nature."
1f

Po Chii-i took the

Chii-i took the other
other road,
road, choosing public office
office and life in
and life in the
the
choosing public
capital;
capital;
he
he rose
rose from
from place
place to
to place
place until
until he
he was
was governor
governor of
of the
the great
great
city of
city of Hangchow,
Hangchow, and and President
President of of the Board of
the Board of War. Nevertheless he
War. Nevertheless he
lived
lived toto the
the ageage ofof seventy-two,
seventy-two, wrote wrote four
four thousand poems, and
thousand poems, and tasted
tasted
Nature to
Nature to his heart's content
his heart's content in in interludes
interludes of of exile.·
exile.* He knew
8
knew the the secret
secret ofof
mingling ,solitude
mingling .solitude with
with crowds,
crowds, and
and repose with an
repose with an active active life.
life. He made
not too
not many friends,
too many friends, being,being, as
as he
he said,
said, of accomplishment in
middling accomplishment
of middling in
"calligraphy, painting,
"calligraphy, painting, chess
chess and
and gambling,
gambling, which
which tend
tend to
to bring
bring men to-
to-

gether in
gether pleasurable intercourse."·
in pleasurable intercourse."* He liked liked to to talk with simple
talk with simple people,
people,
and
and story
story has
has it
it that
that he
he would read
read his
his poems
poems to
to an
an old
old peasant woman,
peasant woman,
and simplify anything that
simplify anything that she
she could
could not understand. Hence he
not understand. he became
became
the best-loved
the best-loved of of the
the Chinese poets among
Chinese poets among the
the common people;
people;
his
his poetry
poetry
was inscribed
was everywhere, on
inscribed everywhere, the walls
on the walls of schools and
of schools temples, and
and temples, and thethe
cabins of ships.
cabins of ships.
''You must
"You must notnot think,"
think," said
said a a "sing-song"
"sing-song" girl to a cap-
girl to a cap-
tain whom she
tain she waswas entertaining,
entertaining, "that
"that I
I am an an ordinary dancing
ordinary dancing girl; girl;
II
can Master Po's
recite Master
can recite Po's ''Everlasting Wrong."··
'Everlasting Wrong."
80 *

We havehave kept
kept for for thethe last
last the profound and
the profound and lovable
lovable Tu Fu. Fu. ''English
"English
writers on
writers on Chinese
Chinese literature,"
literature," sayssays Arthur
Arthur Waley,
Waley, "are
"are fond
fond of
of announc-
announc-
ing that Li
ing that Li T'ai-po
Tai-po is is China's
China's greatest poet; the
greatest poet; the Chinese themselves, how-
Chinese themselves, how-
ever,
ever, award
award thisthis place
pkce to
to Tu Fu.'·
Fu."*
1
We first hear
first hear of
of him
him at
at Chang-an;
Chang-an; he he
had come up
had up toto take
take the the examinations
examinations for for office,
office, ~d
and had
had failed.
failed. He was
was
not dismayed,
not dismayed, even though his
even though his failure
failure had been specifically
had been specifically
in
in the
the subject
subject
of poetry; he he announced
announced to to the that his
public that his poems were were a good
of poetry; the public poems a good curecure
for malarial fever,
for malarial fever, and
and seems
seems to
to have
have tried
tried the
the cure
cure himself.·
himself.*
1
Ming Huang
Ming Huang
read some
read some of of hishis verses,
verses, gave
gave him,
him, personally,
personally,
another
another examination,
examination,

,
,
•* The most
most famous
famous of China's many
of China's many renditions
renditions of the infataation
of the of Ming
infatuation of Ming Huang
Huang with
with
·Yang Kwei-fei, her
Tang Kwei-fei, death in
her death in revolution,
revolution, and
and ,Ming's misery in
Ming's misery restoration. The poem"
in restoration.
poem' is
is

Dot
not quite everlasting,
quite everlasting,
but
but too
too long
long for
for quotation
quotation here.
here.
CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THE AGE OF THE POETS 7I S
71$
marked him
marked him successful, and
successful, and appointed him secretary
appointed him secretary toto General
General Tsoa.
Tsoa.
Emboldened, and
Emboldened, and forgetting
forgetting for
for aa moment his wife
moment his ,vife and
and children in their
children in their
distant village,
distant village, Tu Fu settled
settled down
down inin the
the capital,
capital, exchanged
exchanged songs
songs with
with
Li Po,
Li Po, and
and studied
studied the
the taverns,
taverns, paying
paying for his wine
for his wine with
with poetry.
poetry. He He
writes of
writes Li:
of Li:

I love my Lord
I love my as younger
Lord as younger brother
brother loves
loves elder
elder brother,
brother,
In autumn, exhilarated
In autumn, exhilarated by wine,
by wine, we sleep under a single quilt;
sleep under a single quilt;
Hand inin hand,
hand, we daily
daily walk
walk together."
together.-

Those were
Those were the days of
the days of the
the love
love of
of Ming
Ming for
for Yang
Yang Kwei-f
Kwei-fei.
ei. Tu
celebrated it
celebrated like the
it like the other
other poets;
poets; but revolution burst
but when revolution forth, and
burst forth, and
rival ambitions
rival drenched China
ambitions drenched in blood,
China in blood, he
he turned
turned his muse to
his muse to sadder
sadder
themes, and
themes, and pictured
pictured the
the human
human side
side of
of war:
war:

Last night
Last night a government order came
a government order came
enlist boys
To enlist had reached
boys who had reached eighteen.
eighteen.
They must
They must help
help defend the capital.
defend the capital. • • •.. .

o Mother!
Mother! 0O Children,
Children, do
do not
not 'Weep so!
weep so!
Shedding
Shedding such tears will
such tears will injure you.
injure you.
When tears stop flowing
tears stop flowing then bones come through,
then bones through,
Nor Heaven nor Earth
Heaven nor Earth has
has compassion
compassion then.
then. ...
...

Do you
you know
know thatthat in
in Shantung
Shantung there
there are
are two hundred counties
counties
turned
turned to
to the desert forlorn,
the desert forlorn,
Thousands
Thousands ofof villages, farms, covered
villages, farms,
covered only
only with bushes,
bushes, the
the thorn?
thorn?
Men are
are slain
slain like
like dogs,
dogs,
women driven
driven like
like hens
hens along.
along. ..• •. .

If
If I had only
I had only known
known how bad is the
bad is the fate of boys
fate of boys
I1 would
would have had my
have had children
children all girls. • • •
all
my girls.
. . .

Boys are only tall grass.

beneath tall
Boys are only bom
born to
to be
be buried
buried beneath grass.
Still
Still the
the bones
bones of
of the
the war-dead
war-dead of
of long
long ago
ago are
are beside
beside the
the Blue
Blue Sea
Sea
when you pass.
you pass.

They are wildly

They are wildly white and they
white and lie exposed on the
they lie exposed the sand,
sand,
Both
Both the little young gh~sts and
the little the old ghosts to cry
here to
young ghosts and the old ghosts gather here
gather cry
in
in a
a band.
band.
the rains
When the rains sweep autumn, and winds that chill,
winds that
sweep down,
down, and
and the
the autumn, chill,

Their
Their voices
voices are
are loud,
loud, so
so loud
loud that
that I
I learn
learn how grief
grief can
can kilL
kill ••• .
716 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXIV
( CHAP. XXIV

Birds
Birds make love in
make love in their
their dreams
dreams while
while they
they drift
drift on the
the tide,
tide,
For the dusk's path
For the dusk's path the
the fireflies
fireflies must
must make their
their own light.
light.
Why should
Why should man kill kill man just in
just
in order
order to
to live?
live?

In vain II sigh
In vain sigh
in
in the
the passing night....
passing night"
4

Fol:" two
Fot years, during
two years, the revolutionary interlude, he
during the revolutionary interlude,
he wandered
wandered about
about
China, sharing
China, sharing his
his destitution
destitution with
with his
his wife
wife and
and children,
children, so
so poor
poor that
that he
he
begged for
begged bread, and
for bread, and so
so humbled
humbled that
that he
he knelt pray for
to pray
knelt to blessings upon
for blessings upon
the man
the man who
who took his family
took his family in
in and
and fed
fed them
them for
for awhile.·
a while.* He was savedsaved
by
by the
the kindly general
kindly general Yen
Yen Wu,
Wu, who made him him his
his secretary,
secretary, put
put up
up with
with
his moods and
his moods and pranks, established him
pranks, established
him inin a cottage by
a cottage Washing Flower
by Washing Flower
Stream, and required
Stream, and required nothing nothing more
more of
of him
him than
than that
that he
he should
should write
write
poetry.· He
poetry.*
was happy
He. was happy now,
now, and sang blissfully
and sang blissfully of rain and flowers,
of rain flowers,
mountains and
mountains and the
the moon.
moon.

Of
Of what use is
what use is aa phrase or aa fine
phrase or
fine stanza?
stanza?
Before
Before meme but
but mountains, deep
mountains, deep forests,
forests, too black.
too black.
II think
think II shall sell my art
shall sell art objects, my books,
my objects, my books,
And drink just of
drink just of nature
nature when pure
pure atat the
the source.
source. • • •
. . .

When aa pkce place isis so

so lovely
lovely
II walk slow. II long
walk slow. in my
long toto let
let loveliness
loveliness drown in my soul.
soul.

II like to touch
like to touch bird-feathers.
bird-feathers.
II blow
blow deep
deep into
into them
them toto find
find the soft hairs
the soft beneath.
hairs beneath.
II like to count
like to count stamens,
stamens, too,
too,
And even weigh their
even weigh their pollen-gold.
pollen-gold.
The grass
grass is
is aa delight
delight toto sit
sit on.
OIL
II do not need
do not need wine
wine here
here because
because the
the :B.owers
flowers intoxicate
intoxicate me so.
so. ....
••
the deep
To the deep of
of my
my bones
bones I
I love
love old
old trees,
trees, and
and the
the jade-blue
jade-blue
waves
waves
of the sea.·
of the
68
sea. .

The good general liked him so that he disturbed his peace, raising
The good general liked him so that he disturbed his peace, raising him
him
to high office as a Censor in
to high offic.e as a Censor Ch'ang-an. Then suddenly the general died,
in Ch'ang-an. Then suddenly the
general died,
war raged around the poet, and, left only with his genius, he soon found
war raged around the poet, and, left only with his genius, he soon found
himself penniless
himself penniless again. His children, savage with
again. His children, savage
with hunger,
hunger, sneered at him.
sneered at him
for
for his helplessness. He passed
his helplessness. passed into
into a
a bitter
bitter and
and lonely
lonely old
old age,
age, "an
"an ugly
ugly
thing
thing now to
to the
the eye";
eye"; the
the roof
roof of
of his
his cabin
cabin was
was tom
torn a~ay by
away by the
the wind,
wind,

•* A famous
famous Chinese
Chinese painting Poet Tu Fu in
pictures "The Poet
painting pictures in the Cottage." It
the Thatched Cottage." It
may
may bebe seen
seen at the Metropolitan
at the Metropolitan Museum of of Art, York.
Art, New York.
 CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THE AGE OF THE POETS
THE 717
717

and
and urchins robbed him
urchins robbed him ofof the
the stra\V of his
straw of bed while
his bed while hehe looked
looked on,
on, too
too
fIr
physically weak
physically weak toto resist.
resist." Worst
Worst of of all, he lost
all, he his taste
lost his taste for
for wine,
wine, and
and
could
could no no longer
longer solve
solve the
the problems
problems of
of life
life in
in the
the fashion
fashion of
of Li
Li Po.
Po. At
At
last he turned
last he turned to
to religion,
religion, and
and sought solace in Buddhism. Prematurely
sought solace in Buddhism. Prematurely
.senile
penile atat fifty-nine,
fifty-nine, he
he made a
a pilgrimage
pilgrimage to the Holy
to the Holy Huen Mountain
Mountain toto
visit aa famous
visit famous temple.
temple* There
There he
he was
was discovered
discovered by a
a magistrate
by magistrate who had
had
read his
read his poetry. The official
poetry. official took
took the
the poet
poet home,
home, and
and ordered
ordered a
a banquet
banquet
to be
to be served in his
served in his honor;
honor; hot beef smoked,
hot beef smoked, and and sweet wine abounded;
sweet wine abounded;
Tu Fu had had not
not for many years
for many years seen
seen such
such a a feast.
feast. He ate ate hungrily. Then
hungrily.
at his
at host's request,
request, hehe tried
tried toto compose and sing; but he fell down
sing; but he fell down
his host's
compose and
exhausted.
exhausted. The next next day
day hehe died.-
died."

VB.
vn. PROSE

The
The abundtmce
abundance of
of Chinese
Chinese literature - Romances
literature - History --
Romances - History
Szuma Ch'ien-Essays-Han
Szurna CWien Essays Han YilYii on
on the
the bone
bone of Buddha
of Buddha

The
The Tang
Tang poetspoets are are but
but a part of
a part of Chinese poetry, and
Chinese poetry, poetry is
and poetry is a a small
small
part of China's
part of Giina's
literature.
literature. It
It is
is hard
hard for
for us
us to
to realize
realize the
the age
age and
and abund-
abund-
ance
ance of this literature,
of this literature, or or its
its wide
wide circulation
circulation among the'
among the" people. people. Lack
Lack of of
copyright
copyright
laws
kws helped
helped other
other factors
factors to to make printing
printing cheap;
cheap; and
and it
it was
was
nothing unusual,
nothing unusual, before
before the the advent
advent of of western
western ideas,
ideas, toto find
find bound
bound sets sets of of
twenty
twenty volumes
volumes selling
selling
new at
at one
one dollar,
dollar, encyclopedias
encyclopedias in
in twenty
twenty volumes
volumes
selling
selling
new at
new at four
four dollars,
dollars, andand allall the
the Chinese
Chinese Classics together obtainable
Classics together obtainable
for two.·· It is
for two.*- It is harder harder still
still for
for us
us to
to appreciate
appreciate this
this literature,
literature, for for the the
Chinese value form
form and and style far
far above contents in
above contents in judging a
Chinese value style judging a book, book, and and
form
form 'and
and style
style
are
are betrayed by
betrayed by every every translation.
translation. The Chinese Chinese pardonably
pardonably
consider
consider their
their literature
literature superior
superior to to any
any other
other thanthan that
that of of Greece;
Greece; and and
perhaps
perhaps
the
the exception
exception is due
is due to Oriental courtesy.
to Oriental courtesy.
Fiction, through which
Fiction, through which Occidental
Occidental authors
authors most readly rise
most readly rise to
to fame,
fame, is is not
not
ranked as
ranked literature by the
as literature
by the Chinese.
Chinese. It hardly existe~
It hardly existed in China
in China before
before the
the
Mongols brought
Mongols brought it
it in;"
in;
TO
and
and even
even today
today the
the best
best of
of Chinese
Chinese novels
novels are are
classed by
cIassed by the
the literati as
literlZti as popular amusements
popular amusements unworthy
unworthy of
of mention
mention in
in a
a his-
his-

tory of
tory of Chinese
Chinese letters.
letters. The simple folk
simple folk of of the
the cities
cities dodo notnot mind these these
distinctions, but
distinctions, but turn turn without
without prejudice
prejudice from
from the
the songs
songs of
of Po Chii-i
Chii-i and
and Li
Li
Po
Po to the anonymous
to the anonymous interminable
interminable romances
romances that,
that, like the theatre,
like the theatre, use
use the
the col-
col*
loquial
loquial
dialects
dialects of of the people,
the people,
and
and bring
bring back
back to
to them
them vividly
vividly the
the dramatic
dramatic
events
events of their histo~c
of their historic past. For
past.
For almost
almost all
all the
the famous novels of
famous novels of China
China take take
the form of
the form historical fiction;
of historical fiction; few
few of
of them
them aim
aim at
at realism,
realism, and
and fewer
fewer still
still

attempt such
such psychological or
or social analysis as
social as lift
lift The Brothe1's
"Brothers KIl'rIl11lllZO'V
Karamazov
attempt psychological analysis
718
718 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXIV
(CHAP. XXIV

and The
and Magic Mountain,
The Magic Mountain, War and Peace and
and Peace and LesLes Miserables,
Miserables, to to the
the level
level
of
of great
great
literature.
literature. One of of the
the earliest
earliest Chinese
Chinese novels
novels is the
is the Shui
Shut Hu Cbutm,
Chuan,
or
or "Tale
"Tale of of thethe Water
Water Margins," composed by
Margins," composed by a bevy of
a bevy authors in
of authors in the
the
fourteenth century;- one
fourteenth century;* one of the vastest of the vastest is
is the Hung
the Hung Lou Men (ca. 1650), a
(CL 1650), a
twenty-four-volume "Dream
twenty-four-volume "Dream of the Red Chamber";
of the Chamber"; one one of of the
the best
best is is the
the
Liao Cbai
Liao Choi Chib
Chih 1 I (ca. 1660), or
(ca. 1660), or "Strange
"Strange Stories,"
Stories," much honored honored for for the
the
beauty
beauty and
and terseness
terseness of
of its
its style; the
style;
the most
most famous
famous is the
is the San
San Kuo Chih
Chih Yen
Yen
1,
7, or
or "Romance of of the
the Three
Three Kingdoms,"
Kingdoms," a a twelve-hoodred-page
twelve-hundred-page embellish- embellish-
ment, by
ment, by La
Lo .Kuan-chung (1260-1341),
Kuan-chung (1260-1341), of
of the
the wars
wars and
and intrigues
intrigues thatthat fol-
fol-
lowed die the fallfall of the Han.
of the Han.t t These
These expansive
expansive stories
stories correspond to
correspond to the
the
picaresque
picaresque novels
novels of
of eighteenth-century
eighteenth-century Europe; Europe; often
often (if
(if one
one may report
may report
mere hearsay in
mere hearsay in these
these matters)
matters) theythey combine
combine the jolly portrayal
the jolly portrayal of of character
character
of Tom Jones
of Jones with with thethe lively
lively
narrative
narrative of
of Gil
Gil Blas.
Bias. They
They are
are recommended
recommended
to the
to reader's leisurely
the reader's old age.
leisurely old age.
The most
most respectable
respectable form form of of literature
literature in in China
China is is history; and
history; and of all the
of all the
accepted forms
forms it
it is also the
is also the most
most popular. No other nation
other nation has
has had so many
so many
accepted popular.
historians, certainly
historians, no other nation has' written such
certainly no other nation has written
such extensive
extensive histories.
histories.
Even thethe early
early courts
courts had
had their
their official
official scribes,
scribes, who chronicled
chronicled the
the achieve-
achieve-
ments of
ments their sovereigns
of their sovereigns and
and the
the portents
portents of
of the
the time;
time; and
and this
this office
office of
of
court historian, carried
court historian, carried down to to our
our own generation,
generation, has
has raised
raised up
up in
in China
China
aa mass
mass of historical literature
of historical unequaled in
literature unequaled in length
length or or dullness
dullness anywhere else
anywhere else
on the earth. The twenty-four
the earth.. twenty-four official "Dynastic Histo~es" published
official "Dynastic Histories"
published in in
1747
1747 ran
ran to
to 219 large
219 large volumes.'I1
volumes.
71
From the
the Shu-Ching,
Shu^Ching, or
or "Book of
of History,"
History,"
so
so edifyingly bowdlerized by
edifyingly bowdlerized by Confucius,
Confucius, and and the the Tso-cbutm,
Tso-chuan, a a commentary
commentary
written aa century illustrate and vivify the the Mast~,
written century later to illustrate
later to
vivify the book book of of the Master, and and
the Annals of
the Annals of the
the BlDnboo
Bamboo Books,
Books, found
found in
in the
the tomb
tomb of
of a
a king
king of
of Wei,
Wei, his-his-
toriography advanced
toriography advanced rapidly
rapidly in in China until, in
China until, the second
in the second century
century beforebefore
Christ, it
Christ, produced a cbef-d'fEU'l11'e
it produced a chef-foeuvre in in the Historical Record
the Historical Record painstakingly
painstakingly
together by
put together
put by Szuma Ch'ien.Ch'ien.

Succeeding
Succeeding to to hishis father
father as as court
astrologer, Szuma first
court astrologer, first reformed
reformed the the
calendar,
calendar, andand then devoted his
then devoted his life
life toto aa task which his
task which his father
father had had begun,
begun, of of
narrating
narrating the
the history
history of
of ~
China from the
the first
first mythical dynasty to
mythical dynasty to his
his own
day.
day. He had had no penchant for
no penchant beauty of
for beauty of style,
style,
but aimed
but merely to
aimed merely to make
make
his record
his record complete.
complete. He divided
divided his
his book
book into
into five
five parts:
parts: (i)
(I) Annals
Annals of
of the
the
Emperors; (2) Chronological Tables;
Emperors; (2) Chronological Tables; (3) Eight chapters (3) Eight chapters on rites, music,
rites, music, the
the
pitch-pipes, die
pitch-pipes, the calendar,
calendar, astrology,
astrology, imperial
imperial sacrifices,
sacrifices, waterwater courses,
courses, and and
political economy;
political economy; (4) (4) Annals
Annals of
of the
the Feudal
Feudal Nobles;
Nobles; and
and (5) Biographies
(5) Biographies

•* It
It has well translated
been well
has been by Mrs. Pearl
translated by Pearl Buck under
under the
the tide, All Men
title, All Mm Are
Are Brothers,
Brotbers,
New York,
York, 1933.
1933.
tTranslated
t by C.
Translated by C. H. Brewitt-Taylor, ·vols., Shanghai;
Brewitt-Taylor, 22'vds^ 1925.
Shanghai, 1925.
CHAP. XXIV)
XXIV) THE AGE OF THE POETS
THE 7719
19

of Eminent Men.
Men. The whole covered covered a period of
a period nearly three
of nearly three thousand
thousand
years,
years, and took
took the form of
of 526,000
526,000 Chinese
Chinese characters
characters patiendy scratched
patiently scratched
Q
upon bamboo tablets
tablets with aa style. Then Szuma
Then Szuma Ch'ien, having given his life
18
upon style. Ch'ien, having given his life
to his book, sent his volumes to
to his book, sent his volumes to his
his emperor and the world with this
world with this modest
emperor and the modest
preface:
preface:

servant's physical strength is

Your servant's his eyes
physical strength is now relaxed;
relaxed; his are short-
Your
eyes are short-
sighted
sighted and dim;
dim; of
of his
his teeth
teeth but
but a
a few
few remain.
remain. His
His memory
memory is is so
so
impaired
impaired that
that the
the events
events of
of the the
moment are forgotten as
moment are forgotten as he turns he turns
away
away from them, his
from them, his energies having been
energies having been wholly exhausted in
\vholly exhausted in pro-
pro-
of this
duction your Majesty may
duction of this book.
book. He therefore
therefore hopes that
that your Majesty
hopes may
pardon his
pardon his vain
vain attempt for
attempt for the the sake
sake of his loyal
of his intention, and in
loyal intention, and in
moments of of leisure will deign to
leisure will
deign to cast
cast aa sacred
sacred glance over this work,
glance over this work,
so
so as to learn
as to learn from thethe rise and fall
rise and fall of
of former
former dynasties the secret
dynasties the secret
of the successes
of the successes and
and failures of
failures of the the present hour. Then
present hour. Then if such
if such
knowledge shall
knowledge shall be
be applied
applied forfor the
the advantage
advantage of the Empire,
of the Empire, even
even
though your servant
though your servant may lay his
may lay his bones
bones in
in the
the Yellow
Yellow Springs,
Springs, the
the
aim
aim and
and ambition
ambition ofof his
his life
life will be fulfilled."
will be fulfilled.
78

We shall
shall find
find none
none of
of the
the brilliance
brilliance of Taine in
of Taine the pages
in the pages of
of Szuma Ch'ien,
Ch'ien,
no charming
no gossip
charming gossip and
and anecdotes
anecdotes in
in ~e
the style
style
of
of Herodotus,
Herodotus, no
no sober
sober con-
con-
catenation
catenation ofof cause
cause and
and effect as in
effect as in Thucydides,
Thucydides, no
no continental
continental vision
vision
pictured in music as as in
in Gibbon;
Gibbon; forfor history rises, in China, from
pictured in music history seldom
seldom rises, in China, from anan
industty
industry to
to an
an art.
art From Szuma
Szuma Ch'ien
Ch'ien to
to his namesake
his namesake Szuma
Szuma Kuang, who,
Kuang, who,
eleven hundred years
eleven hundred years later,
later, attempted
attempted againagain a universal history
a universal history of of China,
China, the
the
Chinese historians have
Chinese historians have labored
labored to record faithfully-sometimes
to record faithfully-sometimes at at the
the cost
cost
of their income
of their income or or their
their lives-the
lives-the events
events of of a a dynasty
dynasty or or a. reign; they
a reign; they have
have
spent
spent their
their energies
energies upon upon truth,
truth, and
and have
have left
left nothing for
nothing for beauty. Perhaps
beauty. Perhaps
they were
they were right,
right, andand history
history should
should be be aa science rather than
science rather than an art; perhaps
an art; perhaps
the facts
the facts of the past
of the past are
are obscured
obscured when they
they come to
to us
us in
in the
the purple
purple ofof
Gibbon
Gibbon or or thethe sermons
sermons of of Carlyle.
Carlyle.
But
But we, too,
we, too, have
have dull
dull historians,
historians, and
and
can match any
can match any nation
nation in in volumes
volumes dedicated
dedicated to record-and
to record and gather-dust.
gather dust
Livelier is
Livelier is die Chinese essay;
the Chinese essay; for
for here
here artart is not forbidden,
is not forbidden, and and eloquence
eloquence
has loose
has rein. Famous beyond
loose rein. beyond the
the rest
rest inin this field is
this field the
is the great
great Han Yii,Yii,
whose books
whose books are are soso valued
valued thatthat tradition
tradition requires the
requires the reader
reader to to wash
wash his
his
hands in
hands rose-water before
in rose-water before touching
touching them.
them. Born among
among the
the humblest,
humblest, Han
Yii reached
Yii reached to to the
the highest ranks in
highest ranks in the
the service
service of the state,
of the state, andand fell
fell from
from
grace' only
grace only because
because he protested
protested too
too intelligtbly against
intelligibly against
~e
the imperial con-
imperial con-
cessions
cessions to to Buddhism.
Buddhism. To Han the the new religion
religion was
was merely
merely a
a Hindu
Hindu super-
super-
stition;
stition; and
and it it offended
offended him to his Confucian
to his Confucian soul that the
the Emperor
soul that
Emperor should
should
lend his
lend his sanction
sanction to to the
the intoxication
intoxication of of his people with this
his people with this enervating dream.
enervating dream.
7720
10 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.xxr
(CHAP. XXT

Therefore
Therefore he he submitted A.D.) a
(803 A.D.)
submitted (803 a memorial
memorial to
to the
the Emperor,
Emperor, from
from whicl
whicl
these. lines may serve
these. lines serve as
as an
an example of
of Chinese
Chinese prose discolored
discolored even
even bJ
may example prose bj
honest
honest translation:
translation:

Your
Your servant
servant has
has now
now heard
heard that
that instructions
instructions have
have been
been issued
issued to
to
the priestly
the community
priestly community
to
to proceed
proceed to
to Feng-hsiang
Feng-hsiang and
and receive
receive aa
bone of
bone of Buddha,
Buddha, and
and that
that from
from a
a high
high tower
tower your Ma.jesty
your Majesty will
will
view its introduction
view its introduction into
into the
the Imperial Palace; also that orders have
Imperial Palace; also that orders have
been
been sent
sent to to the various temples,
the various
temples, commanding the relic
commanding that that the relic be be re-
re-
ceived
ceived with with the the proper ceremonies.
ceremonies. Now,
Now, foolish
foolish though your
proper though your
servant
servant may may be, be, he he is is well
well aware
aware that that your
your Majesty
Majesty does does not not do do
this in
this in the
the vain
vain hope of
of deriving advantages therefrom; but
but that
that in
in
hope deriving advantages therefrom;
the fuIness
the fulness of of our
our present plenty,
present plenty, and
and in
in the
the joy
joy which
which reigns
reigns
in
in the
the
heart
heart of of all, there is
all, there is a desire to
a desire fall in
to fall in with
with thethe wishes
wishes of of thethe people
people
in
in the celebration
the celebration at at the
the capital of this delusive mummery. For
capital of this delusive mummery. For
how couldcould the the wisdom of of your
your Majesty
Majesty stoop stoop to to participate
participate in
in
such ridiculous
ridiculous beliefs?
beliefs? Still Still the
the people
people are
are slow
slow of
of perception
perception
and
and
easily
easily beguiled;
beguiled; and and should
should they behold your
they behold your Majesty
Majesty thus thus earnestly
earnestly
worshiping
worshiping at
at the
the feet
feet of
of Buddha,
Buddha, they they would
would cry
cry out, "See!
out, "See! the the
Son of of Heaven,
Heaven, the
the All-Wise, is a fervent
All-Wise, is a fervent believer; believer; who are we, his
are we, his
people, that
people, that we should should spare spare our
our bodies?"
bodies?" Then would
would ensue
ensue aa
scorching
scorching of
of heads
heads and
and burning
burning of
of fingers;
fingers;
crowds
crowds would
would collect
collect
together, and
together, and tearing
tearing off their clothes
off their clothes and and scattering their money,
scattering their money,
would spend
would spend theirtheir timetime fromfrom morn mom to to eve
eve in in imitation
irititation of of your
your
Majesty's example.
Majesty's example. The result
result would
would be
be that
that by
by and
and by young
by young and and
old,
old, seized
seized with
with the
the same
same enthusiasm, would totally neglect
enthusiasm, would totally neglect the busi- the busi-
ness of
ness of their
their lives;
lives; andand should
should your Majesty not
your Majesty not prohibit
prohibit it, it, they
they
would be
would be found
found flocking
flocking to to the
the temples,
temples, ready ready to to cut
cut offoff an an arm
arm
or slice
or slice their
their bodies
bodies as as an an offering
offering to to diethe god.
god. ThusThus would would our our
traditions and
traditions and customs
customs be be seriously
seriously injured,
injured, and and ourselves
ourselves becomebecome aa
laughing-stock on the
laughing-stock the face
face of of the
the earth.
earth. • . .
. . .

Therefore your
Therefore your servant,
servant, overwhelmed
overwhelmed with with shameshame for for the the Cen-
Cen-
sors,· implores
sors,* implores your your Majesty
Majesty that that these
these bones
bones be be handed
handed over over forfor
destmetion by by firefire and
and water,
water, whereby
whereby the the root
root of this great
of this great evil
evil .
'

destruction
may be
may be exterminated
exterminated for for allall time,
time, and and the the people
people knowknow how how much much
the wisdom
the wisdom of of your
your Majesty
Majesty surpasses
surpasses that that of ordinary men.
of ordinary men. The The
glory
glory of
of such
such aa deed
deed will
will be
be beyond
beyond all
all praise.
praise.
And should
And should the the
Lord Buddha have power
Lord Buddha have power to to avenge
avenge this this insult
insult by by the
the infliction
infliction of of
some misfortune,
some misfortune, then then letlet the vials of
the vials of his
his wrath
wrath be be poured
poured out out upon
upon
.. On the function
On the function of
of .the Censors cf.
the Censors p. 798
cf. p. below. Not
798 below. Not one
one ofof them, Han Yu
them, Han implies,
Yii implies,
hadprotested
had againstthe
protestedagainst plansof
theplans ofthe
the Emperor
EmperorTe Te Tsungto his approvalto
to give his
Tsung Buddhism..
toBuddhism.
give approval
CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THE AG
THE AGEE 0OFF THE POE
POETS
TS 721
721
the person
the person of
of your
your servant,
servant, who now calls
calls Heaven to witness
Heaven to witness that
that
he will
will not repent him
not repent him of his oath."
his 7*
he of oath.

In
In a a conflict
conflict between superstition and philosophy one
superstition and philosophy may safely
one may wager
safely wager
on
on thethe victory
victory of superstition,
superstition, for
for the
the world
world wisely prefers happiness
wisely prefers happiness to
to
wisdom. Han was
wisdom. was exiled
exiled to
to aa village
village
in
in Kuang-tung,
Kuang-tung,
where
where the
the people
people
were
were
still simple barbarians.
still simple barbarians. He did did not
not complain, but set himself, after the teach-
complain, but set himself, after the teach-
ing
ing of of Confucius,
Confucius, to to civilize
civilize them
them with
with hishis example; and he succeeded so
example; and he succeeded so
well that his picture
well that his picture today
today often bears the
often bears the legend: "Wherever he passed,
legend: 'Wherever he passed,
purified."'11 He was finally
he purified." served his
75
he
finally
recalled
recalled "to
to the
the capital,
capital,
served his state
state well,
well,
and
and died loaded with
died loaded with honors.
honors. HisHis memorial
memorial tablet placed in
was placed
tablet was in the
the Temple
Temple
of Confucius-a place usually reserved
of place usually reserved for for thethe disciples
disciples
or
or greatest
greatest
ex-
ex-
ponents
ponents of the
the Master-because
Master-because he
he had
had defended
defended the
the doctrines
doctrines of
of Confucian-
Confucian-
ism
ism so so recklessly against the
recklessly against the invasion
invasion ofof a a once
once noble but now corrupted
noble but corrupted
faith.
faith.

VIn.
Vin. THE STAGE

Its lo'UJ
Its low repute in Chinll-
repute in China Origins
Origtw - The play - The
The play The audience-
audience
The actOTs-Music
actors Music

It is difficult
It is difficult toto classify
classify Chinese
Chinese drama,
drama, for it is
for it recognized by
not recognized
is not
by China
China
as
as either
either literature
literature or art. Like
or art. Like many
many other
other elements
elements of
of human
human life,
life, its
its

repute
repute is not
is not proportioned
proportioned to
to its
its popularity. The names
popularity.
names of
of the
the dramatists
dramatists
are
are seldom
seldom heard;heard; andand the the actors,
actors, though
though they they may may give
give a a lifetime
lifetime to to
preparation
preparation and
and accomplishment,
accomplishment, and
and rise
rise to
to a
a hectic
hectic fame,
fame, are
are looked
looked
upon as
upon members of
as members of anan inferior
inferior order.
order. Something
Something of of this
this odor,
odor, no no doubt,
doubt,
attached
attached to to actors
actors inin every civilization,
every civilization, above
above all
all in
in those
those medieval
medieval days
days
when dramadrama was was rebelliously differentia~g
rebelliously differentiating itself
itself from the the religious pan-
religious pan-
tomimes that
tomimes had given
that had given it it birth..
birth. .

A similar origin is
A similar origin assigned to
is assigned to the
the Chinese theatre. Under
Chinese theatre. Under the the Chou
Dynasty religious ritual
Dynasty religious ritual included
included certain
certain dances performed with
dances performed with wands.
wands.
Tradition says
Tradition says that
that these
these dances
dances were
were later
later forbidden,
forbidden, on
on the
the score
score that
that
they had
they had become
become licentious;
licentious; and and it it was
was apparently
apparently from from this this cleavage
cleavage
that secular
that secular drama
drama began." Ming Huang,
began." Ming Huang, patron patron of
of so
so many
many arts,
arts, helped
helped
the development
the development of of an independent drama by
an independent drama gathering about him
by gathering about him a a
company
company of male and
of male and female
female actors
actors whom he he called
called "The Young Young FolkFolk of of
the Pear
the Pear Garden";
Garden"; but
but it
it was
was not
not till
till the
the reign
reign of
of Kublai
Kublai Khan that
that the
the
Chinese theaue took
Chinese theatre took on on thethe scope
scope of
of a
a national
national institution. In
institution. the year
In the year
1°3 1 K'ung
103 K'ung Tao-fu,
1 Tao-fu, a.
a descendant
descendant of
of Confucius,
Confucius, was
was sent
sent as
as Chinese
Chinese envoy
envoy
 721,
722 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXIV
( CHAP. XXIV

to
to the
the Mongol
Mongol Kitans, Kitans, and and waswas welcomed
welcomed with with a a celebration
celebration that that included
included
aa play.
play. The buffoon, buffoon, however,
however, represented
represented Confucius.
Confucius. K'ung K'ung Tao-fu Tao-fu
walked
walked out out inin a a huff,
huff, butbut when he he and
and other
other Chinese
Chinese travelers
travelers among the
among the
Mongols
Mongols returned
returned to
to China
China they brought
they brought reports reports of
of a
a form
form of
of drama
drama
more advanced
advanced than than any any that
that China
China had
had yet known.
known. When the
the Mongols
yet Mongols
conquered
conquered China China they they introduced
introduced to to itit both
both the the novel
novel andand the the theatre;
theatre;
and
and thethe classic
classic examples of
examples of Chinese
Chinese drama
drama are
are still
still the
the plays
pkys that
that were
were
written
written under under the the Mongol
Mongol sway." sway.""
The art art developed
developed slowly, slowly, for for neither
neither thethe church
church nor nor the
the state
state would
would
support
support it. For
it. For the
the most
most part
part it was
it was practised by
practised by strolling players, who
strolling players, who
set up a
set before a a village
up a pladorm
platform in in some
some vacant
vacant field
field and
and performed
performed before village
audience
audience standing
standing under
under the
the open sky. Occasionally
open sky. Occasionally mandarins
mandarins engaged
engaged
actors
actors to to perform
perform at at private dinner-parties, and
private dinner-parties, and sometiIr.es sometimes a a guild
guild would
would
produce
produce a
a play.
play. Theatres
Theatres became
became more
more numerous
numerous during
during the
the nineteenth
nineteenth
century,
century, but but even even at at its
its close
close there
there were
were onlyonly two two in in the
die large city of
large city of
Nanking."
Nanking." The drama drama was was a a mixture
mixture of of history,
history, poetry
poetry and music; usually
and music; usually
some episode
episode from
from an
an historical
historical romance
romance was
was the
the center
center of
of the
the plot;
plot; or
or
scenes
scenes might
might be be played
played from different dramas
from different dramas on on the
the same
same evening.
evening. There
There
was no
was no limit
limit to to the
the length
length of
of the
the performance;
performance; it might be
it might be brief,
brief, or
or last
last

several days;
several days; ordinarily
ordinarily it tookit took sixsix or
or seven hours, as
seven hours, with the
as with the best
best of of con-
con-
temporary
temporary American
American plays.
pkys. There
There was
was much
much swashbuckling
swashbuckling and
and oratory,
oratory,
violence of
much violence blood and
of blood and speech;
speech; but but the denouement did
the denouement did its best to
its best to
atone for
atone reality by
for reality making virtue
by making triumph in
virtue triumph the end.
in the end. TheThe drama
drama be- be-
came an
came an educational
educational and and ethical
ethical instrument,
instrument, teaching
teaching the the people
people some-some-
thing about
thing about their their history,
history, and and inculcating
inculcating the the Confucian
Confucian virtues-above
virtues-above
all, filial
all, filial piety-with
piety-with aa demoralizing
demoralizing regularity.
regularity.
The stagestage had had little furnishing or
little furnishing or scenery,
scenery, and and no no exits; all the
exits; all the actors
actors
in the
in the cast, along with
cast, along with theirtheir supernumeraries,
supernumeraries, sat sat onon thethe stage
stage throughout
throughout
the play, rising
the pky, rising when their roles demanded;
their roles demanded; occasionally
occasionally attendants
attendants servedserved
them tea.
them tea. Other
Other functionaries
functionaries passed passed about
about among
among the the audience
audience selling
selling to-to-
bacco,
bacco, tea
tea and
and refreshments,
refreshments, and
and providing
providing hot
hot towels
towels for for the
the wiping
wiping of of
faces during summer
faces during summer evenings;
evenings; drinking,
drinking, eating
eating and and conversation
conversation were were
now ,and and thenthen interrupted
interrupted by some exceptionally
by some exceptionally fine :fine or
or loud
loud acting
acting on on
the stage.
the stage. The actors actors had had often
often to to shout
sliout inin order
or:der to to bebe heard;
heard; and and they
they
wore masks
wore masks in in order
order that their roles
that their roles might
might be be readily
readily understood.
understood. As As the
the
result of Ch'ien Lung's
result of Ch'ien Lung's prohibition
prohibition of of woman pkyers,players, female
female partsparts were
were
acted by
acted by men,
men, and and so well that
so well that when
when women were were in in our
our time
time again
again ad-ad-
mitted to
mitted to thethe stage,
stage, theythey had had to to imitate
imitate their
their imitators
imitators in in order
order to to sue-
suc-
CHAP. XXIV)
CHAP.XXIV) THE AGE
THE AGE OF THE POETS
OF THE POETS 723
723
ceed.
ceed. The
The actors
actors were
were required
required to to be
be experts in acrobatics and the dance,
experts in acrobatics and the dance,
for their parts
for their often called
parts often called forfor skilful
skilful manipulation of the limbs, and al-
manipulation of the limbs, and al-
most
most every
every action
action had
had to
to be
be perfonned according
performed according to
to some
some ritual
ritual of
of grace
grace
in hannony
in harmony with the music
with the music thatthat accompanied the
accompanied the stage.
stage.
Gestures
Gestures were
were
symbolic,
symbolic, and
and had
had to
to be
be precise
precise and
and true
true to
to old
old conventions; in
conventions; in suchsuch
accomplished
accomplished actors
actors asas Mei
Mei Lan-fang
Lan-fang the the artistry of
of hands
hands and
and body con..
artistry body con-
stituted half
stituted half the
the poetry of
poetry of the
the play.
play. It
It was
was not
not completely theatre,
completely theatre, not
not
quite
quite opera,
opera, not predominantly
not
predominantly dance; dance; it it was
was aa mixture
mixture almost
almost medieval
medieval
in
in quality,
quality, but as
as perfect
perfect in
in its
its kind
kind as
as Palestrina's
Palestrina's music,
music, or
or stained
stained
glass.-
glass.
79

Music was seldom seldom an an independent

independent art, art, but
but belonged
belonged as as aa handmaiden
handmaiden
to religion and the stage. Tradition ascribed its origin, like so much else,
to religion and the
stage. Tradition ascribed its origin, like so much else,
to the legendary emperor Fu Hsi. The Li-Cbi, or "Book of Rites," dating
to the legendary
emperor Fu Hsi. The Li-Chi, or "Book of Rites," dating
from
from before
before Confucius,
Confucius, contained
contained or or recorded
recorded several
several treatises
treatises onon music;
music;
and thethe Tso-ch1J4n,
Tso-chucm, a a century after
after Confucius, described
described eloquently the
century Confucius, eloquently the
music to to which the the odes
odes ofof Wei were were sung. Already, by Kung-fu-tze's
sung. Already, by Kung-fu-tze's
time,
time, .musical
,
musical standards
standards were ancient,ancient, and and innovations
innovations were were disturbing
disturbing
quiet souls;
quiet souls; the
the sage complained
sage complained of
of the
the lascivious airs
lascivious airs that were
that were in in his
his day
day
supplanting supposedly mo~
the supposedly moral tunestunes of of the past.- Greco-Bactrian
Greco-Bactrian and
80
supplanting the the past. and
Mongolian
Mongolian influences
influences entered,
entered, and
and left
left their
their mark
mark upon the simple
upon the simple Chin- Chin-
ese scale.
ese scale. The ChineseChinese knew of of the
the division
division of
of the
the octave
octave into
into twelve
twelve
semi-tones,
semi-tones, but
but they preferred
they preferred to
to write
write their
their music
music in
in a
a pentatonic scale,
pentatonic scale,
corresponding roughly
corresponding roughly to to our
our F,F, G,G, A,
A, C,C, and
and D;D; to
to these
these whole
whole tones
tones they
they
gave
gave the
the names
names "Emperor,"
"Emperor," "Prime
"Prime Minister," "Subject People,"
Minister," "Subject People," "State "State
Affairs," and
Affairs," and "Picture
"PictUre of of the
the Universe."
Universe." HarmonyHarmony was was understood,
understood, but but
was seldom
was seldom used except for
used except for tuning
tuning instruments.
instruments. The The latter
latter included
included
such wind
such wind instruments
instruments as as flutes,
flutes, trumpets,
trumpets, oboes,
oboes, whistles
whistles andand gourds;
gourds;
such string
such string instruments
instruments as as viols
viols and
and lutes;
lutes; and
and such
such percussion
percussion instruments
instruments
as tambourines
as tambourines and drums, bells
and drums, bells and
and gongs, cymbals and
gongs, cymbals and castanets,
castanets, andand
musical pktes
musical plates of of agate
agate or jade.1L The
or jade. tt
The effects
effects were
were as as weird
weird and startling
and startling
to an
to an Occidental
Occidental ear ear as
as the Sonata Appassionata
the Sonata Appassionata mightmight seem
seem to the Chinese;
to the Chinese;
nevertheless they
nevertheless they lifted
lifted Confucius
Confucius to to aa vegetarian ecstasy, and
vegetarian ecstasy, and brought
brought to to
many
many hearers
hearers that
that escape
escape from
from the
the strife
strife of
of wills
wills and
and ideas
ideas which
which comes
comes
with the
with the surrender
surrender to to music
music wellwell composed.
composed. The The sages,
sages, said
said Han
Han Yii,
Vii,
"taught
"taught man
man music
music in
in order
order to
to dissipate
dissipate
the
tie melancholy
melancholy of
of his
his soul."·
soul."
8*
They
They
agreed
agreed with
with Nietzsche
Nietzsche that
that life
life without
without music
music would
would be
be aa mistake.
mistake.
 CHAPTER XXV
CHAPTER XXV

The
The Age
Age of
of the
the Artists
Artists
THE SUNG
I.I. THE SUNG RENAISSANCE
RENAISSANCE

1.
1. The
The Socialism
Socialism of
of Wang
Wang An-shih
An-shih

The
The Sung Dynasty A radical
Sung Dynasty-A radical premier-His
premier His cure for unemploy-
cure for unemploy
ment-The
mentThe regulation of industry-Codes
regulation of industry Codes of wages and prices
of 'wages and prices
- The nationalization of
The nationalization of commerce
commerce - State
State insurrmce
insurance
against
against unemployment,
unemployment, poverty and old
poverty and old age-Ez-
age Ex-
trminations
aminations for public office-The
for public office The defeat
defeat ofof
. Wang
Wang An-shih
An-shih

T HE T'ang
JL Lu-shan.
Lu-shan.
restore the
restore
Tang Dynasty

the imperial
Dynasty never
The emperors
emperors
imperial authority
never recovered
who
recovered from
followed
throughout
authority throughout the
the
from the the revolution

Empire;
Empire;
revolution of
followed Ming Huang were unable to
Ming Huang
and
and
were
after
after
of An
unable
a
a
to
cen-
cen-
of senile
tury of
tury senile debility
debility thethe dynasty
dynasty camecame·'to
to anan end.
end. FiveFive dynasties
dynasties fol- fol-
lowed in
lowed fifty-three years,
in fifty-three years, butbut they
they were
were asas feeble
feeble as as they
they were
were brief.
brief.
always in
As always such cases
in such cases aa strong
stro:p.g and
and brutal
brutal hand
hand waswas needed
needed to to reestablish
reestablish
order. One soldier
order. soldier emerged
emerged aboveabove thethe chaos,
chaos, and
and set
set up
up the
the Sung
Sung Dynasty,
Dynasty,
with himself
with himself as as its first emperor
its first emperor under
under thethe name
name of T'ai Tsu.
of Tai Tsu. The The bu-bu-
reaucraCy of Confucian
reaucracy of Confucian officials
officials was
was renewed,
renewed, examinations
examinations for for office
office
were resumed,
were resumed, and and an an attempt
attempt was was made
made byby an an imperial
imperial councillor
councillor to to
solve the
solve the problems
problems of of exploitation
exploitation and and poverty
poverty by by an almost socialist
an almost socialist con-
con-
trol over
trol over the
the nation's
nation's economic
economic life.life.
Wang An~shih (1021-86)
Wang An-shih (1011-86) is is one
one of of the
the many
many fascinating
fascinating individuals
individuals
who
who enliven
enliven the
the lengthy annals of
lengthy annals of Chinese history. ItIt isis part
Chinese history. part ofof the
the bathos
bathos
of distance that
of distance our long
that our long removal
removal fromfrom alien
alien scenes
scenes obscures
obscures variety
variety in in
places and men,
places and men, andand submerges
submerges the the most
most diverse
diverse personalities
personalities in in aa dull
dull
lUliformity
uniformity of
of appearance
appearance and
and character.
character. But
But even
even in
in the
the judgment
judgment of hisof his
enemies-whose very
enemies-whose very number
number distinguished
distinguished him him-Wang
Wang stood out as aa
stood out as
man
man different from
different from thethe rest,
rest, absorbed
absorbed conscientiously
conscientiously in in the
the enterprise
enterprise of of
government, devoted
government, devoted recklessly
recklessly to to the
the welfare
welfare of of the
the people,
people, leaving
leaving
himself no
himself no time
time for
for the
the care
care of his person
of his person or his clothes,
or his clothes, rivaling
rivaling the the great
great
72 4
724
 CHAP. XXV)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS 715
725

scholars of his age in learning and style, and fighting with mad courage
scholars of his age in
learning and style, and fighting with mad courage
the rich and powerful conservatives of his age. By a trick of chance the
the rich and powerful conservatives of his
age. By
a trick of chance the
only great figure in the records of his country who resembled him was
only great figure in the records of his country who resembled him was
his namesake
his namesake Wang Wang Mang; Mang; already
already the the turbid stream of
turbid stream of history
history had had trav-
trav-
eled aa thousand
eled thousand years years since China~s last
since China's last outstanding
outstanding experiment
experiment with social-
with social-
istideas.
ist ideas. .
On receiving
receiving the highest office
the highest office inin the
the command of of the
the Emperor,
Emperor, Wang Wang
An-shih laid
An-shih laid itit down
down as as aa general
general principle
principle that that the
the government
government must must holdhold
itself responsible
itself responsible for for thethe welfare
welfare of all its
of all its citizens.
citizens. "The"The state,"
state," he he said,
said,
"should take
"should take the the entire
entire management
management of of commerce,
commerce, industry
industry and and agricul-
agricul-
ture into
ture into itsits own hands, hands, with with aa view view to to succoring
succoring the the working
working classes classes
and preventing them from being ground into the dust by the rich/' He
and preventing them from being ground into the dust by the rich."l1

began by
began by abolishing
abolishing the the forced
forced labor
labor thatthat had
had from
from time
time immemorial
immemorial been been
exacted from
exacted from the the Chinese
Chinese people
people by by thethe government,
government, and and had
had often
often taken
taken
men from
men from the the fields
fields at the very
at the very timetime whenwhen the the sowing
sowing or or the harvesting
the harvesting
needed them;
needed them; and nevertheless he
and nevertheless he carried
carried out out great engineering works
great engineering works for for
the prevention
the prevention of of Hoods.
floods. He rescuedrescued the the peasants
peasants fromfrom thethe money-lenders
money-lenders
who had
who had enslaved
enslaved them, them, and lent them,
and lent them, at at what
what werewere thenthen low rates of
low rates of
interest,
interest, funds
funds for
for the
the planting
planting
of
of their
their crops.
crops.
To the
the unemployed
unemployed he
he
gave free
free seed
seed and
and other
other aid in
aid in setting
setting up
up homesteads,
homesteads, on
on condition
condition that that
gave
they
they would
would repay
repay the
the state
state outout of
of the
the yield
yield of
of their
their land.
land. Boards
Boards were
appointed
appointed
in
in every
every district
district to to regulate
regulate the wages of
die wages of labor
kbor and and thethe prices
prices
.of the necessaries
of the necessaries of of life.
life. Commerce
Commerce was nationalized; the
was nationalized; produce of
the produce of
each locality
each locality was
was bought
bought by by the
the government,
government, part part of
of it
it was
was stored
stored for
for
future local needs,
future local needs, and and thethe rest
rest was
was transported
transported to to be sold in
be sold in state
state depots
depots
throughout
throughout the
the realm.
realm. A budget budget systemsystem was
was ~stablished,
established, a
a budget
budget com-
mission
mission submitted
submitted proposals and estimates of of expenditure,
expenditure, and these esti.
and these esti-.
proposals and estimates
mates
mates werewere so so strictly
strictly
adhered
adhered to to inin administration
administration that that the the state
state was

save4 considerable
saved considerable sums
sums which
which had
had previoUsly
previoiisly
fallen
fallen into
into those
those secret
secret and
spacious pockets that
spacious pockets
that cross
cross thethe path
path of of every
every governmental
governmental dollar. dollar. Pen-

sions
sions were
were provided
provided
for
for thethe aged,
aged, the
the unemployed
unemployed and
and the
the poor.
poor. Educa-
tion
tion and
and the the examination
examination system system were were reformed;
reformed; the tests were
the tests were devised
devised
to
to reveal
reveal acquaintance with facts
facts rather
rather than than withwith words,
words, and to to shift
acquaintance with
shift

the
the emphasis
emphasis
from literary
from style to the application
literary style
to the application of Confucian principles
of Confucian principles
to current
to current tasks;
tasks; the
the role
role of
of formalism
formalism and rote
rote memory
memory in
in the
the training
training
of children was
of children was reduced, reduced, and
and for
for a
a time, says
time, says a
a Chinese
Chinese historian,
historian, "even "even
the
the pupils
pupils
at
at village
village
schools
schools threwthrew away away theirtheir text-books
text-books of of rhetoric
rhetoric and
began to
to study primers of history,
of geography,
history, geography, and
and political economy."·
political economy."*
began study primers
726
J26 THE STORY
THE OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION XXV
(CHAP.XXV
(CHAP.

Why did
Why did this
this noble
noble experiment
experiment fail?
fail? First,
First, perhaps,
perhaps, because
because of
of certain
certain
elements in itit that
elements in that were more practical
were more practical than Utopian. Though
than Utopian. most of
Though most of
the taxes
the taxes were
were taken from the
taken from the incomes
incomes ofof the
the rich, part of
rich, part of the
the heavy
heavy
revenue needed
revenue needed for for the
the enlarged
enlarged expenses
expenses of the state
of the state was
was secured
secured by ap-
by ap-
propriating a portion of
propriating a portion of
the produce
the produce of
of every
every field. Soon
Soon the field.
the poor joined
joined poor
with the rich in
complaining
with the rich in complaining that
that taxes
taxes were
were too high; men are
are too high;
always
always
readier to
readier to extend
extend governmental
functions than
functions
governmental than to pay for them. to pay for
them. Further,
Funher,
Wang An-shih
Wang An-shih had had reduced
reduced the
the standing
standing army anny as
as a drain on
a drain on the
the resources
resources
of the
of the people,
people, but had, as
but had, as aa means
means of of replacing decreed the
replacing it, decreed
it, universal
the universal
liability
liability
of
of every family
every family of
of more
more than
than one
one male
male to
to provide
provide a
a soldier
soldier in
in

time of
time of war.
war. He had had presented
presented many families with horses and fodder,
many families with horses and fodder,
but on
but on condition
condition that that the animals should
the animals should be be properly
properly caredcared for,
for, andand bebe
placed at the service of the
placed at the service of the government
government in
in its
its military
military need.
need. When it
it

turned out
turned out that
that invasion
invasion and and revolution
revolution were were multiplying
multiplying the the occasions
occasions
of war, these
of war, these measures
measures brought
brought Wang Wang An-shih's
An-shih's popularity
popularity to
to a rapid
a rapid
end. Again,
end. Again, he he had
had found
found it it difficult
difficult to to secure
secure honest
honest men to to administer
administer
his measures;
his measures; corruption
corruption spread throughout
spread throughout the
the mammoth bureaucracy,
bureaucracy,
and China,
and China, like many nations
like many nations since,
since, saw itself faced
saw itself faced with the ancient
with the ancient and and
bitter choice
bitter between private
choice between plunder and public "graft."
private plunder and public "graft."
Conservatives,
Conservatives, led led by by Wang's own
Wang's own brother brother and and by the historian
by the historian SzumaSzuma
Kuang,
Kuang, denounced
denounced the experiment as
the experiment as inherendy
inherently unsound;
unsound; theythey argued
argued
that h~
that human corroptibility
corruptibility
and
and incompetence
incompetence made governmental
governmental control control
of
of industry
industry impracticable, and that the best
impracticable, and that the
best form of of government
government was a a
laissez-flliTe
laissez-faire which
which would
would rely
rely on
on the
the natural
natural economic
economic impulses
impulses of
of men
for
for the
the production
production
of
of services
services and and goods.
goods. The rich,
rich, stung
stung by.
by. thethe high
high
taxation
taxation of of their
their fonunes
fortunes and and thethe monopoly
monopoly of
of commerce by
by the
tie govern-
govern-
ment,
ment, poured
poured out out their resources in
their resources in the resolve to
the resolve to discredit
discredit the
the measures
measures
of
of Wang
Wang An-shih,
An-shih, to obstruct their
to obstruct their enforcement,
enforcement, and and to bring them to
to bring to aa
disgraceful
disgraceful
end.
end. The opposition,
opposition, well
well organized,
organized, exerted
exerted pressure
pressure on the
the
Emperor;
Emperor; and
and when a
a succession
succession of of Hoods
floods andand droughts
droughts was capped
was capped by by
the
the appearance
appearance of
of a
a terrifying
terrifying comet
comet in
in the
the sky,
sky, the
the Son of
of Heaven dis-
dis-

missed
missed Wang
Wang from from office, revoked his
office, revoked his decrees,
decrees, and called his
and called his enemies
enemies to to
power.
power. OnceOnce again
again everything
everything was was as as before.'
8
before.
CHAP. xxv)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE
THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS
OF THE ARTISTS 727

2.
2. The
The Revival
Revival of
of Learning
Learning
The
The growth
growth of
of scholarship-Paper
scholarship-Paper tmd ink in
and ink in China-Steps
China-Steps in
in the
the
invention
invention of printing
of printing - The
-The oldest
oldest book
book - Paper money-
-Paper money -
Movable
Movable type-Anthologies,
type-Anthologies, dicti01laries,
dictionaries, encyclopedillS
encyclopedias

Meanwhile, through all

Meanwhile, through all wars
wars andand revolutions,
revolutions, through
through all all administra-
administra-
tions
tions and experiments, the
experiments, the life
life of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese people
people flowed
flowed evenly
evenly on,on,
not disturbed by
not much disturbed by events
events too to be heard
too distant to be heard of until long since
distant of until long since

past. The Sung

past. Sung rule overthrown in
rule was ovenhrown the north,
in the but reestablished
north, but reestablished itself
itself

in
in the
the south;
south; the
the capital
capital was
was moved
moved from Pien Liang (now K'aifeng) to
from Pien Liang (now K'aifeng) to
Lin-an
Lin-an (now(now Hangchow);
Hangchow); in
in the
the new capital,
capital,
as
as in
in the
the old,
old, luxury
luxury and
and
rennement grew, and traders
refinement grew, came from
traders came from manymany parts of the world to buy
parts of the world to buy
the
the unmatched produet8 of
products of Chinese
Chinese industry
industry and art. Emperor Hui
and art. Emperor Hui Tsung Tsung
( 101-25) set
(1101-25)
1 se* the
the fashion
fashion atat Pien
Pien Liang by being an
an first and
artist:first
artist and aa ruler
ruler
Liang by being
afterward: he painted
afterward: he painted pictures
pictures while
while thethe barbarians
barbarians marched
marched upon upon his
his
capital,
capital, and
and founded
founded an
an art
art academy
academy that
that stimulated
stimulated with
with exhibitions
exhibitions and
and
prizes
prizes the arts that were to
the arts that to be
be the
the chief
chief claim
claim of of the
the Sung
Sung eraera toto the
the re-
re-
membrance of
membrance of mankind.
mankind. Inspiring
Inspiring collections
collections were were mademade of of Chinese
Chinese
bronzes, paintings, manuscripts
bronzes, paintings, manuscripts and
and jades; great
jades; great
libraries
libraries were
were collected,
collected,
and
and some of them survived
of them survived the glories of
the glories war. Scholars
of war. Scholars andand artists
artists crowded
crowded
the northern
the northern and and southem
southern capitals.
capitals.
It was
It was in this dynasty
in this that printing
dynasty that printing entered like an
entered like imperceptibly com-
an imperceptibly
pleted revolution
pleted
revolution intointo the literary life
the literary life of
of the
the Chinese.
Chinese. It It had
had grown
grown step
step
by step through many
by step through many centuries; centuries; now it
it was ready
ready in
in both
both its
its phases-
phases-
blocks to
blocks to print
print whole
whole pages,
pages, andand movable
movable type type cast of metal
cast of metal inin matrices
matrices-
as aa thoroughly
as thoroughly Chinese
Chinese invention,
invention,' the
4
the greatest,
greatest, after writing, in
after writing, in the
the his-
his-
tory of
tory of our
our race.
race.

The :first step

The first in the
step in the development
development had
had toto be
be die
the discovery
discovery of
of some
some more
more
convenient writing
convenient writing material
material than
than the
the silk or
silk or bamboo that
that had
had contented
contented the
the
ancient Chinese. Silk was expensive, and
ancient Chinese. Silk was expensive, and bamboo
bamboo waswas heavy; Mo Ti
heavy; Ti needed
needed
three carts
three carts to carry him, in
with him,
to carry with his travels,
in his travels, the books that
the bamboo books that were
his chief
his chief possession; and Shih Huang-ti had
possession; and Shih Huang-ti had to to go over
go over one
one hundred
hundred and
and
twenty pounds of
twenty pounds
of state
state documents
docmnents every day.1
every day." About 105 one Ts'ai
A.D. one
105 A.D. Ts'ai Lun
informed the
informed Emperor that
the Emperor that he
he had
had invented cheaper and
invented aa cheaper writing
lighter writing
and lighter
material,
material, made
made of
of tree
tree bark,
bark, hemp, rags
hemp, rags and
and fish-nets.
fish-nets. Ts'ai
Ts'ai was
was given aa high
given high
tide and
title and office by the
office by the Emperor,
Emperor, was
was involved
involved inin an
an intrigue
intrigue with
with the
the Empress,
Empress,
,was detected,
was detected,.."went
"went home,
home, took b~th, combed
took aa. bath, combed hishis hair,
hair, put
put on his best
on his best
 72.8 THE STORY
THE STORY OF OF CIVILIZATION
CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXV
(CHAP.XXV

robes, and drank poison."e The

robes, and drank poison.'"
The new new art art spread rapidly and
spread rapidly and far,
far, forfor thethe
oldest existing paper, found by Sir Aurel Stein in aspur
oldest existing paper, found by Sir Aurel
Stein in a spur of the Great Wall,
of the Great Wall,
is in the form of state documents pertaining toto occurrences
is in the form of state documents pertaining
occurrences inin the the years
years
21-137
21-137 A.D.,
and
A.D., and apparently contemporary
apparently contemporary
with
with the
the latest
latest ofof those
those events;
events; it
it

is dated, therefore,
is dated, therefore,
about
about 150 A.D.,
150 A.D., only only half
half a a century
century after
after Ts'ai
Ts'ai Loo's
Lun's
report of of his invention.' These
his invention.' These earlyearly papers
papers were were of of pure pure rag,rag, essentially
essentially
report
like the paper
like the paper used in our
used in our own
own day
day when
when durability
durability
isis desired.
desired. The
The Chinese
Chinese
developed paper paper almost
almost toto perfection
perfection by using aa "sizing"
by using "sizing" of of glue
glue or or gelatin,
gelatin,
developed
and a base of starchy paste,
and a base of starchy paste, to strengthen to strengthen the
the fibres
fibres and
and accelerate
accelerate their
their

absorption of ink. ink. When

When the the art was taught
art was taught by by the Chinese to the Arabs
the Chinese to the Arabs
absorption of
in
in the
the eighth century, and
and byby the
the Arabs
Arabs to
to Europe
Europe in the
in the thirteenth,
thirteenth, itit was was
eighth century,
already complete.
already complete. .

Ink, too, came from the East; for

Ink, too, came from the East;
for though
though the the Egyptian
Egyptian had had made
made both both inkink
and paper in what
and paper in what might be might be caIled
called the
the most
most ancient
ancient antiquity,
antiquity, it
it was
was from
from
China that
China that Europe
Europe learned
learned the the trick
trick of of mixing
mixing itit out out of of lamp
lamp black; "India
black; "India
ink" was
ink" originally Chinese.'
was originally Chinese.' Red Red ink, ink, mademade of sulphide
of sulphide of mercury,
of mercury, had had
been
been I used
.used in
in China
China as
as far
far back
back as
as the
the Han Dynasty;
Dynasty; black
black ink
ink appeared
appeared
there in
there in the
the fourth
fourth century,
century, and and henceforth
henceforth the the useuse ofof red red inkink was
was mademade an an
imperial privilege.
imperial privilege.
Black
Black ink
ink encouraged
encouraged printing, printing, for
for it
it was
was especially
especially
adapted for use on wooden blocks, and and enjoyed
enjoyed almost almost complete ~delibility.
complete indelibility.
adapted for use on wooden blocks,
Blocks of paper have
Blocks of paper have been found, been found, in
in Central
Central Asia,
Asia, which
which had
had lain under
lain under
still be
water so long as to become
water so long as to become petrified; petrified; but
but the
the writing,
writing, in
in ink,
ink, could
could still be
clearly read.'
read.'
clearly
The
The use of
use seals in
of seals in signatures was
was the the unconscious
unconscious origin origin of print;
of print; the the
signatures
Chinese
Chinese word word for for print
print
isis stilI
still the same as
the same as the
the word for for seal.
seal At At first
first these
these

seals, as in the Near

seals, as in the Near East,
East, were impressed
were impressed upon day; upon clay; about
about the
the fifth
fifth century
century
they were were moistened with
moistened with ink. Meanwhile, in
ink. Meanwhile, in the
the second
second century,century, the the text
text
they
of
of the the Classics
Classics had had been
been cut cut in in stone;
stone; and and soonsoon thereafter the custom arose
thereafter the custom arose
we
of
of making inked robbing'S from these inscriptions. In the sixth century
these inscriptions.
inked from In the sixth century we
making rubbings
find
find large
large
wooden seaIs
wooden seals used
used by by the
the Taoists
Taoists to to print charms; aa century
print charms; century later later

the Buddhist
the Buddhist missionaries
missionaries experimented
experimented
with
with various
various methods
methods of
of duplication,
duplication,
through seals, rubbings,
through seals, rubbings, stencils,
stencils, and
and textile
textile prints-the
prints-the last
last an an art of
art of Indian
Indian
derivation. The earliest
derivation. The earliest extant extant block
block prints
prints are
are aa million
million charms
charms printed in
printed in

Japan about
Japan about 770 A.D.,
770 A.D., in the Sanskrit
in the Sanskrit language language and
and the
the Chinese
Chinese charaeter-
character-
anan excellent
excellentinstance
instance of ofcultural interactionin
culturalinteraction in Asia.
Asia. ManyMany block block prints
prints were
were
made
made during the T'ang Dynasty, but
during the Tang Dynasty,
butthey they werewereapparently
apparently destroyeddestroyed or lost
or lost

the chaos
chaos of ofrevolution
revolutionthat followed Ming
thatfollowed Ming Huang.
1O
inin the Huang."
InIn 1907 Sir Aurel Stein persuaded the
1907 Sir Aurel Stein persuaded
theTaoist priests
Taoist priests of Chinese Turkestan
of Chinese Turkestan
totolet lethim
himexamine
examinethe the"Caves
"Cavesof ofthetheThousand
ThousandBuddhas" Buddhas" atatTun-huang.Tun-huang. In In
oneone of of these
these chambers,
chambers, which which had had apparently
apparently been walled up
been walled up about the about the
year 1035
year 103$
A.D.
A.D. andand not
not opened
opened againagain until
until1900,1900, lay 1130bundles,
lay 1130 bundles, each eachcon-con-
CHAP. xxv)
CHAP.XXV) THE
TH E AGE 0 F THE
AGE OF T HE ARTISTS
All TI STS 72 9
729
taining aa dozen
taining dozen or or moremore manuscript
manuscript rolls; rolls; thethe whole
whole formedformed aa library
library of of
15,000
15,000 books,
books, written
written on
on paper,
paper,
and
and as
as well
well preserved
preserved
as
as if
if they
they
had
had been
been
inscribed the
inscribed the day day before
before theirtheir modern
modem discovery.
discovery. It was among
It was among thesethese manu-
manu-
scripts
scripts
that
that the
the world's
world's oldest
oldest printed book was found-the
printed book was found-the "Diamond Sutra"
"Diamond Sutta"
-a
- I roll ending with
roll ending with these
these words:
words: "Printed
"Printed on (the equivalent
on (the equivalent of) May n,
of) May 868,
1 I, 868,
by
by Wang
Wang Chieh,
Chieh, for
for free
free general
general
distrIbution,
distribution, in
in order
order in
in deep
deep
reverence
reverence to
to
perpetuate
perpetuate the
the memory
memory of
of his
his parents.''11
parents."*
Three
Three other
other printed
printed
books
books were
were
found in
found in the
the massmass of manuscripts; one
of manuscripts; one of them marked
of them marked aa new new development,
development,
for was not
for itit was not aa roll, like the
roll, like the "Diamond
"Diamond Sutra," Sutra," but but aa tiny
tiny folded
folded book,
book, the the
first known
first known of of its
its now multitudinous
multitucImous kind. kind. As As in in late
late medieval
medieval EuropeEurope and and
among primitive
among primitive peoples peoples in in recent times, the
recent times, the first
first stimulus
stimulus to to printing
printing came came
from religion,
from religion, whichwhich sought sought to to spread
spread itsits doctrines
doctrines by by sight
sight as as well
well as as sound,
sound,
and to
and to put
put its its charms
charms and and prayers
prayers and legends into
and legends into every
every hand.hand. Almost
Almost as as
old as
old as these
these pious pious formsforms of of print,
print, however,
however, are are playing
playing cards cards-which
which ap- ap-
peared in
peared China in
in China in 969 969 or or sooner,
sooner, and and werewere introduced
introduced from China into
from China into
Europe
Europe near
near the
the end
end of
of the
the fourteenth
fourteenth century.21
century"
These early
These early
volumes
volumes had
had been
been printed
printed
with wooden
with wooden blocks.blocks. In In aa Chinese
Chinese
letter written
letter written about about 870 870 A.D.
A.D. we find
find the
the oldest
oldest known
known .mention
.mention of
of such
such
work: "Once
work: "Once when when II was was in in Szechuan examined in
Szechuan II examined in a a bookshop
bookshop aa school-school-
book printed
book printed from from wood."
wood.'n8 Already,
38
Already, it it seems,
seems, the the artart ofof printing
printing had had been
been
developed;
developed; and
and it
it is
is interesting
interesting
to
to observe
observe that
that this
this development
development seems
seems to
to
have come
have come first first in in western
western provinces
provinces
like
like Szechuan
Szechuan and and Turkestan,
Turkestan, which which
had
had been
been prodded on
on to civilization by·-Buddhist
to civilization Buddhist missionaries
missionaries from from India,
India,
prodded by
and
and hadhad forfor a a time
time enjoyed
enjoyed
aa culture
culture independent
independent of
of the
the eastern
eastern capitals.
capitals.
Block-printing
Block-printing was
was introduced
introduced to eastern China
to eastern China earlyearly in the tenth century
in the tenth century

when
when a a prime minister, Feng Tao, persuaded the
prime minister, Feng Tao, persuaded
the Emperor
Emperor to to provide
provide funds
funds
for
for the
the printing
printing
of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese Classics.
Classics. The work took
took twenty years
twenty years and
filled one hundred
filled one hundred and and thirty volumes,
thirty volumes,
for
for it
it included
included not
not only
only the texts but
the texts
the
the most famous commentaries.
most famous commentaries. When it it was
completed it
was completed it gave the Classics
gave the Classics

aa circulation
circulation that contributed vigorously
that contnDuted vigorously to
to the revival of
the revival of learning
learning and. the
and. the
strengthening
strengthening
of
of Confucianism
Confucianism under
under the
the Sung kings.
Sung kings.
One
One of of the the earliest
earliest formsforms of of block
block printing
printing
was
was the manufacture of
the manufacture of
paper money. Appearing first in
first in Szechuan
Szechuan in
in the tenth century,
the tenth century, it became a
it a
paper money. Appearing
favorite
favorite occupation of Chinese governments, and
occupation of Chinese governments,
and led within a century
led within a century to to
experiments in
in inflation.
inflation. In In 1294
1294 Persia imitated this
Persia imitated this new mode of of creating
creating
experiments
wealth;
wealth; in
in 1297
1297 Marco
Marco Polo
Polo described
described with
with wonder the
the respect
respect which the
the
Chinese
Chinese showed
showed for for these
these curious
curious scraps of
of paper. It
It was not not till
till 1656
1656 that
that
scraps paper.
Europe learned the trick, and issued issued itsits first
first paper currency.u
1*

Europe learned the trick, and paper currency.

Movable
Movable type was
was also
also a a Chinese
Chinese invention,
invention, but
but thethe absence
absence of of anan al- al-
type
phabet,
phabet,
and
and the
the presence
presence
of
of 40,000
40,000 characters
characters in
in written
written Chinese,
Chinese, made its
its

use
use an an impossible
impossible luxury
luxury in
in the
the Far
Far East.
East Pi
Pi Sheng formed
Sheng formed movable
movable type
type of of
 730
730 STORY
THE STOR CIVILIZATION
Y OF CIVIL I ZA TI ON (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXV

earthenware
earthenware as as early as as 1°41
1041 A.D., but little
A.D., but use was
little use was found for for the invention.
invention.
early
In
In 1403
1403 the
the Koreans
Koreans produced
produced
the
the first
first metal
metal type
type known to
to history: models
history:
were engraved in
were engraved in hard wood, hard wood, moulds
moulds of
of porcelain
porcelain paste
paste were
were made from
these models, and from these moulds,
these models, and from these moulds, baked in an oven, baked in an oven, the
the metal
metal type
type was
emperors, T'ai
cast.
cast. TheThe greatest of
of Korean
Korean emperors, T'ai Tsung, at once
greatest Tsung, at once adopted
adopted the the
invention as
invention as anan aidaid to to government
government and and the preservation of
the preservation of civilization.
civilization.

"Whoever is
"Whoever is desirous
desirous of of governing,"
governing,"
said
said that
that enlightened
enlightened monarch,
monarch, "must
"must
have aa wide
have wide acquaintance with
with the
the laws
laws and
and the Classics. Then he
the Classics. he will
will be be
acquaintance
able
able to to aet righteously without,
act righteously without, and
and to
to maintain
maintain an
an upright
upright character
character within,
within,
and
and thusthus to to bring
bring peace and order to the- land. Our eastern country lies
peace and order to the land. Our eastern country lies
beyond the
beyond the seas,
seas, and
and the the number of books reaching
of books reaching us us from China China is is small.
small.

The booksbooks printed

printed from from blocks
blocks are are often
often imperfect, and and moreover
moreover it is
it is
imperfect,
difficult
difficult to print in
to print in their
their entirety all
entirety all the
the books
books that
that exist.
exist I I ordain
ordain there-
there-
fore
fore that characters be
that characters be formed
formed of bronze, and
of bronze, and thatthat everything
everything withoutwithout ex- ex-
ception
ception upon upon which
which I
I can
can lay
lay mymy hands
hands be
be printed,
printed,
in
in order
order to
to pass
pass
on the
the
tradition of
tradition what these
of what these works
works contain.
contain. That That will will be blessing to
be aa blessing to us
us to to all
all

eternity_ However, the

eternity. However,
the costs
costs shall
shall notnot be be taken
taken from from the people- in
the people* in taxes.
taxes.

II and
and my my family,
family, and and those
those ministers
ministers who so wish, will
so wish, will privately
privately bear bear the the
expense.
expense.""
''21

From KoreaKorea the the casting

casting
of
of movable
movable type type spread
spread to to Japan
Japan and and back
back again
again
to China,
to China, but
but not, apparently,
not, apparently, until
until after
after Gutenberg's
Gutenberg's belated
belated discovery in
discovery in

Europe. In
Europe. Korea the
In Korea the use
use ofof movable
movable type type continued
continued for two centuries
for two centuries and and
then decayed;
then decayed; in
in China
China its
its use
use was
was only.
only, occasional
occasional until
until merchants
merchants and mis-
mis-
sionaries
sionaries from from the the West,
West, as as ifif returning an
returning an ancient
ancient gift, brought
gift, brought
to
to the
the East
East .
the methods
the methods of of European typography.
European typography. From the
the days
days of
of Feng
Feng Tao to
to those
those
of
of Li Hung-chang the
Li Hung-chang the Chinese
Chinese clung clung to block-printing as
to block-printing as thethe most
most feasible
feasible

form for their language.

for their language. Despite Despite this
this limitation
limitation Chinese
Chinese printers poured
printers poured
out
out a great
a great massmass of of books
books upon upon the people.. Dynastic
the people. histories in
Dynastic histories in hQIldreds
hundreds
of volumes were
of volumes were issued
issued between
between 994 994 andand 1063; th~ entire
1063; thei Buddhist canoIl;
entire Buddhist canon*
in
in five thousand volumes,
five thousand volumes, was completed completed by 972." by 972.'JA Writers
Writers found
found them-
them-
selves armed with
selves with aa weapon which they had
had never
never had
had before;
before; J:heir
.their audi-
audi-
weapon they
ence was was widened
widened from the the .nstocracy
aristocracy to
to the
the middle,
middle, even
even to
to part of
of the
the
part
lower, classes;
lower, classes; litemture
literature took
took on a
a more democratic tinge,
democratic tinge, and a more and a more varied
varied
form.
form. The art art of of block-printing
block-printing was was one one of of the sources pf
the sources of the
the SungSung
Renaissance.
Renaissance*

Stimulated with this

Stimulated with this liberating invention,
liberating invention, Chinese
Chinese literature
literature now became
became
an unprecedented
unprecedented flood.
flood. All the glory
All the glory of
of the
the Hwnanist
Humanist revival
revival in
in Italy
Italy
was anticipated
was by
anticipated by two
two hundred
hundred years.
years. The ancient
ancient classics
classics were
were honored
honored
with aa hundred
with hundred editions
editions and
and aa thousand
thousand commentaries;
commentaries; thethe life
life of the past
of the past
was captured
was by scholarly historians,
captured by scholarly historians, and
and put
put down for
for millions
millions of
of readers
readers
 CHAP. XXV)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS
THE 731
731

in the new marvel

in the marvel of of type;
type; vast
vast anthologies of literature were collected,
anthologies of literature were collected,
great
great dictionaries were compiled,
dictionaries were and encyclopedias
compiled, and like mastodons made
encyclopedias like mastodons made
their way through
their way through thethe land.
land. The first of any
first of
any moment
moment was that
was that ofof Wu
Shu (947- 1001
(947-1002);); for
for lack
kck of
of an
an alphabet
alphabet it
it was
was arranged
arranged
under
under categories,
categories,
covering
covering chiefly the physical world.
chiefly the physical world. In In 977 the Sung
A.D. the
977 A.D. Sung Emperor T'ai
Emperor T'ai
Tsung
Tsung ordered
ordered the
the compilation
compilation of
of a
a larger encyclopedia;
larger encyclopedia;
it
it ran
ran to
to thirty-
thirty-
volumes, and consisted
two volumes, for the
consisted for the most of selections
part of
most part selections from
from 1,69
1,6900 pre-
pre-
existing books. Later,
existing books. Later, under thethe Ming
Ming Emperor Yung Lo (14°3-15),
Emperor Yung (1403-25), an an
encyclopedia
encyclopedia was
was written
written in
in ten
ten thousand
thousand volumes,
volumes, and
and proved
proved too
too ex-
ex-
pensive to
pensive to be
be printed;
printed; ofof the one copy
the one
copy handed
handed down to to posterity
posterity all
all but
but
hundred and sixty
one hundred sixty volumes
volumes were
were consumed
consumed by
by fire
fire in
in the
the Boxer
Boxer riots
riots
of Never before
1900." Never
of 1900.1' before had
had scholars
scholars soso dominated
dominated a a civilization.
civilization.

3.
3. The Rebirth of
The Rebirth Philosophy
of Philosophy

ChuRsi-Wang
Chu HsL-Wmg Yang-ming-Beyond and evil
good and
Yang-ming Beyond good evil

These
These scholars
scholars were not all
were not all Confucians,
Confucians, for rival schools
for rival schools of thought had
of thought had
grown
grown up up in
in the
the course
course of
of fifteen
fifteen centuries,
centuries, and and now the
the intellectual
intellectual life
life

of the exuberant
of the exuberant race was stirred
race was stirred with
with much argument
argument about about it it and
and about.
about.
The seepage
seepage of
of Buddhism
Buddhism into
into the
the Chinese
Chinese soul
soul had
had reached
reached even
even the
the
philosophers.
philosophers. Most of them
of them now affected a habit of solitary
affected a habit of solitary meditation;meditation;
some of them went
of them went so
so far
far as
as toto scorn
scorn Confucius
Confucius for for scorning
scorning metaphysics,
metaphysics,
and
and toto reject
reject his method of
his method of approach
approach to
to the
the problems of
problems of life
life and
and mind
mind as as
too external
too external and and crude.
crude. Introspection
Introspection becamebecame an an accepted
accepted method
method of of ex-
ex-
ploring
ploring the
the universe,
universe, and
and epistemology
epistemology made its first
its first appearance
appearance among among
the Chinese.
the Chinese. Emperors
Emperors took took up up Buddhism
Buddhism or or Taoism
Taoism as ways of
as ways of promot-
promot-
ing popularity or
their popularity
ing their or of
of disciplining
disciplining the
the people;
people; and
and at
at times
times it seemed
it seemed
that the reign
that the reign ofof Confucius
Confucius over over the
the Chinese
Chinese mindmind was was to to end.
end.
His saviour
saviour was Chu Hsi. HsL JustJust as Shankara, in
as Shankara, in eighth-century
eighth-century India, India,
had brought
had brought intointo an
an intellectual
intellectual system
system the
the scattered
scattered insights
insights of
of the
the Upani-
Upani-
shads,
shads, and
and hadhad made thethe Vedtmta philosophy supreme;
Vedanta philosophy supreme; and just as
and just as Aquinas,
Aquinas,
in thirteenth-century Europe,
in thirteenth-century Europe, was soon soon to weave Aristode
to weave Aristode and and St.St. Paul
Paul
into
into the victorious Scholastic
the victorious philosophy; so
Scholastic philosophy; so Chu Hsi, Hsi, in in twelfth-
twelfth-

century China,
century China, took
took the
the loose
loose apothegms
apothegms of of Confucius
Confucius and built built upon
upon
them aa system
them system of
of philosophy orderly
philosophy orderly enough enough to
to satisfy
satisfy the
the taste
taste of
of aa
.s~~~larly
scholarly age, age, and
and strong enough
strong enough to
to preserve
preserve for
for seven
seven centuries
centuries the
the lead-
lead-
ership
ership
of
of the
the Confucians
Confucians in
in the
the political
political
and
and intelleetuallife
intellectual life of of the
the Chinese.
Chinese.
73~
73* CIVILIZATION
THE STORY OF CIviLIZATION (CHAP.xxv
(CHAP.XXV

The
The essential
essential philosophic controversy
philosophic controversy
of
of the
the timetime centered
centered upon upon the the
interpretation of a passage in the
interpretation of a passage in
the Great
Great Learning,
Learning, attributed
attributed by by both Chu
both
Hsi and his
Hsi and his opponents to
opponents to Confucius.·
Confucius.* What was
was meant
meant by
by the
the astonishing
astonishing
demand
demand that that the
the ordering
ordering of
of states
states should
should be
be based
based upon
upon the
the proper
proper reg-reg-
ulation
ulation of the family,
of the family,
that
that the
the regulation
regulation of
of the
the family
family should
should be
be based
based
upon
upon thethe regulation of one's self, that the regulation of
regulation of one's self, that the regulation
of one's
one's self
self depended
depended
upon sincerity
upon sincerity of
of thought,
thought, and
and that
that sincerity
sincerity of
of thought
thought arose
arose from
from "the
"the
tt
utmost
utmost extension
extension of of knowledge"
knowledge'' through through "the
"the investigation
investigation of
of things
things"? ?
Chu Hsi Hsi answered
answered that that this meant just
this meant
just
what
what it said;
it said; that
that philosophy,
philosophy,
morals
morals and and statesmanship
statesmanship should
should begin
begin with
with a
a modest
modest study
study of of realities.
realities.

He accepted
accepted without
without protest
protest
the
the positivistic
positivistic
bent
bent of
of the
the Master's
Master's mind;
mind;
and
and though
though he
he labored
labored over
over the
the problems
problems of
of ontology
ontology at
at greater length
greater length
than
than Confucius
Confucius might might have have approved,
approved, he he arrived
arrived at at a a strange
strange combination
combination
of
of atheism
atheism and and piety
piety which
which mightmight have have interested
interested the the sagesage of of Shantung.
Shantung.
Like
Like the Book of
the Book Changes,
of Changes, which
which has
has always
always dominated
dominated the
the .metaphysics
metaphysics
of
of the
the Chinese,
Chinese, Chu Hsi Hsi recognized
recognized a a certain
certain strident
strident dualism
dualism in in reality:
reality:
everywhere
everywhere the
the Yang
Yang and
and the
the Yin-activity
Yin activity and
and passivity,
passivity,
motion
motion and
and rest
rest
-mingl~
mingled like
like male
male and
and female
female principles, 'working
principles, working
on
on the
the five
five elements
elements
of water, fire,
of water, fire, earth,
earth, metal
metal and and wood to produce the
to produce the phenomena
phenomena of of crea-
crea-
tion;
tion; and
and everywhere
everywhere Li
Li and
and Chi-Law
CW-Law and
and Matter-equally
Matter-equally external, enemal,
cooperated govern all
to·-govern all things and
cooperated to things and give give them
them form.
form. But But overover all all these
these
forms,
forms, and and combining
combining them,
them, was
was T'ai
T'ai chi,
chi, the
the Absolute,
Absolute, the
the impe~onal
impersonal
Law of of Laws,
Laws, or or structure
structure of of the
the world.
world. Chu Hsi identified this
Hsi identified this Absolute
Absolute
with the
with the T'ien
T'ien or Heaven of
or Heaven of orthodox Confucianism; God,
orthodox Confucianism; God, in his view,
in his view,
was aa rational
was rational process
process without
without personality
personality or or figurable
figurable form. form. "Nature
"Nature
is
is nothing else
nothing else than than Law."
Law.'nI 38

This Law of
This of the universe is
the universe also, said
is also, Chu, the
said Chu, the kw law of of morals
morals and and of of
politics. Morality
politics. Morality
is
is harmo~y
harmony with
with the
the laws
laws of
of nature,
nature, and
and the
the highest
highest
statesmanship
statesmanship is
is the
the application
application of
of .the
.the laws
laws of
of morality
morality to
to the
the conduct
conduct
of aa state.
of Nature in
state. Nature every ultimate
in every ultimate sense sense isis good,
good, and and diethe nature
nature of of men
men
is good; to follow nature is the secret
is good; to follow nature is the secret of of wisdom
wisdom and and peace.
pelce. "Choi "Choi Mao Mao
Shu refrained
Shu refrained from clearing away
from clearing away the the grass
grass from
from in in front
front of his window,
of his window,
'because,' he
'because,' said, 'its
he said, impulse is
'its impulse is just
just like
like my own.' ""
my own.' '711 One might might con-con-
clude that
clude that the instincts are
the instincts are also
also good,
good, and and that
that one
one maymay follow
follow them them gayly;
gayly;
but Chu Hsi
but Hsi denounces
denounces them them as as the
the expression
expression of of matter
matter (Chi),(Chi), and and de-de-
mands their
mands their subjection
subjection to to reason
reason and and kw (Li).- It
law (Li)* It isis difficult
difficult to to bebe atat
once aa moralist
once moralist and and aa logician.
logician.
*
passage isis quoted
• The passage quoted in
in full
full on page
page 668
668 above.
above. ..
CHAP. xxv)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF
OF THE ARTISTS
ARTISTS 733
733

There were
There were contradictions
contradictions in this philosophy,
in this philosophy, but
but these
these did
did not
not disturb
disturb
its leading
its leading opponent,
opponent, the
the gentle
gentle and
and peculiar
peculiar Wang Yang-Minge For
Wang Yang-ming. For
Wang
Wang was
was a
a saint
saint as
as well
well as
as a
a philosopher;
philosopher;
the
the meditative
meditative spirit
spirit
and
and habits
habits
of
of Mahllyana
Mahay ma Buddhism had sunk
Buddhism had deeply into
sunk deeply his soul.
into his soul. It
It seemed
seemed to him
to him
that the
that the great
great error in Chu
error in Chu Hsi
Hsi was
was not
not one
one of
of morals,
morals, but
but one
one of
of method;
method;
the investigation of things, he felt, should begin not with the examination
the investigation of things, he felt, should
begin not with the examination
of the external universe, but, as the Hindus had said, the far pro-
with the far pro-
of the external universe, but, as the Hindus had said, with
founder and
founder and more
more revealing
revealing world
world of
of the
the inner
inner self.
self. Not all the
Not all the physical
physical
science of
science all the
of all the centuries
centuries would
would ever
ever explain
explain aa bamboo
bamboo shoot
shoot or grain
or aa grain
of rice.
of rice.

In former years I said to my

In former years I said to my friend Chien: "If, to be a sage or a
friend Chien: "If, to be a
sage or a
virtuous one must investigate everything under
man, one must investigate everything under heaven,
virtuous man, peaven, how how
can at
can at present any man possess
present any possess such
such tremendous
tremendous power?"
power?" Pointing
Pointing
to the
to bamboos in
the bamboos front of
in front of the pavilion, II asked
the pavilion, asked himhim toto investigate
investigate
. them
them and see. Both
and see. Both day day and
and night Chie~ entered
night Chien entered into
into an
an investiga-
investiga-
tion of
tion the principles
of the principles of the bamboo.
of the bamboo. For For three days he
three days he exhausted
exhausted
his mind and
his mind and thought,
thought, untiluntil his mental energy
his mental energy waswas tired
tired out
out and he
and he
took sick.
took sick. AtAt first
first II s&:id that it
said that it was
was because
because his energy and
his energy and strength
strength
were insufficient.
were Therefore II myself
insufficient Therefore undertook to
myself undertook to carry
carry on thethe
investigation.
investigation. Day
Day and
and night
night I
I was
was unable
unable to
to understand
understand the
the prin-
prin-
ciples
ciples
of
of the
the bamboo,
bamboo, untiluntil after seven days
after seven days II also became ill be-
also became ill be-
cause
cause ofof having
having wearied
wearied and burdened my
and burdened thoughts. In
my tl\oughts. In consequence
consequence
we mutually sighed
mutually sighed and
and said,
said, "We cannot
cannot be
be either
either sages or virtu-
sages or
virtu-
ous
ous men."·
men."*

So
So Wang
Wang Yang-ming
Yang-ming put aside the
put aside examination of
the examination of things,
things, and put
and put aside
aside
even the classics of antiquity;
even the classics of antiquity; to
to read
read one's
one's own heart
heart and
and mind in
in solitary
solitary
contemplation
contemplation seemed
seemed to
to him
him to
to promise
promise more wisdom than
than all
all objects
objects
and all
and all books.-
books." Exiled
Exiled to to a mountainous wildemess
a mountainous wilderness inhabited
inhabited by by bar-
bar-
barians
barians and and infested with poisonous
infested with snakes, he
poisonous snakes,
he made friends
friends and disciples
disciples
of
of thethe criminaIs
criminals who had had escaped
escaped to
to those
those parts;
parts;
he
he taught
taught them philoso-
philoso-
phy,
phy,
cooked
cooked for
for them,
them, and
and sang
sang them
them songs.
songs. Once,
Once, at
at the
the midnight
midnight watch,
watch,
he
he startled them by
startled them leaping
by leaping from
from his
his cot
cot and
and crying
crying out
out ecstatically: "My
ecstatically: "My
nature, of course,
nature, of course, is
is sufficient.
sufficient. II was
was wrong
wrong in
in looking
looking for
for principles in
principles in
things and affairs." His
things and affairs."
His comrades
comrades were were not
not sure
sure that
that they followed him;
they followed him;
but slowly
but slowly
he
he led
led them
them on
on to his
to his idealistic conclusion: "The mind itself
idealistic conclusion: itself

isis the
the emQodiment.
embodiment of of natural law. Is
natural law. Is there anything in
there anything in the
the universe
universe that
that
exists
exists independent of the mind?
mind? Is there any
Is there any law
law apart
apart from the mind?"·
from the mind?"*
independent of the
734
734 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXV
(CHAP.XXV

He did
did not
not infer
infer from
from thisthis that
that God waswas aa figment
figment of of the
the imagination;
imagination; onon
the contrary he conceived of the Deity as a vague but
the contrary he conceived of the Deity as a vague but omnipresent moral omnipresent moral
force,
force, too
too great
great toto be
be merely
merely aa person, and yet
person, and yet capable of feeling sym-
capable of feeling sym-
pathy
pathy and
and anger
anger toward
toward men.
men.* M

From this
this idealistic
idealistic starting-point he
starting-point he camecame to to the
the same
same ethical
ethical principles
principles
as
as Chu Hsi. "Nature is
HsL "Nature is the
the highest good,"
highest good," and
and the
the highest excellence lies
highest excellence lies
*
in
in accepting the
accepting the laws kws of Nature completely.-
of Nature completely When it it was
was pointed
pointed out
out
to him
to him that
that Nature
Nature seems
seems to to include
include snakes
snakes as as well
well as as philosophers, he
philosophers, he
replied,
replied, with
with a
a touch
touch of
of Aquinas, Spinoza
Aquinas, Spinoza and
and Nietzsche, that
Nietzsche, that "good" "good" and
and
"bad" are prejudices,
"bad" are prejudices, terms
terms applied
applied to
to things according
things according to
to their
their advantage
advantage
or injury to one's self or mankind;
mankind; Nature
Nature itself,
itself, he taught, is
he taught, is beyond good
or injury to one's self or
beyond good
and
and evil,
evil, and
and ignores
ignores our
our egoistic
egoistic terminology.
terminology. A pupil pupil reports, or invents,
reports, or invents,
aa dialogue
dialogue which
which might
might have
have been
been entitled
entitled J enseits
Jemeits von
'l}0'IJ, Gut
Gut und
und Bose:
Bose:

A little
little later
later hehe said:
said: "This
"This View
view ofof good and evil
good and has its
evil has its source
source
in the
in the body,
body, and
and is
is probably mistaken."
probably mistaken." I
I was
was not
not able
able to
to compre-
compre-
hend.
hend. The Teacher
Teacher said: said: "The purpose of heaven in
purpose of heaven in bringing
bringing forthforth
is
is even
even as as in
in the
the instance
instance of of :Bowers
flowers andand grass.
grass.
In
In what
what way
way does
does it
it

distinguish
distinguish between good
good and
and evil?
evil? If
If you, my disciple,
you, my disciple, take de- take de-
light in
light in seeing the
seeing the :Bowers,
flowers, then
then you will consider
you will flowers good
consider flowers
good andand
grass bad. If
grass bad. If you
you desire
desire toto use
use the
the grass
grass you
you will,
will, in
in tum,
turn, con-
con-
sider the
sider the grass
grass good.
good. This of good
type of
This type good andand evil
evil has
has its source in
its source the
in the
likes and
likes dislikes of
and dislikes your mind.
of your Therefore II know that
mind. Therefore you are
that you are mis-
mis-
taken."
taken."
I said:
I said: "In"In that
that case
case there
there isis neither
neither good
good nor evil, is
nor evil, there?"
is there?"

Teacher said:
The Teacher said: "The tranquillity
tranquillity resulting
resulting from
from the the dominance
dominance
of natural
of law is
natural law is aa state in which
state in which nono discrimination
discrimination is is made between
made between
good
good and
and evil;
evil; while
while the
the stirring
stirring of
of the
the passion-nature
passion-nature
is
is a
a state in
state in
which both
which both good
good and and evil
evil are
are present.
present. If If there
there are
are no stirrings of
no stirrings of the
the
passion-nature, there
passion-nature, there is is neither
neither good
good nornor evil, this is
and this
evil, and what is
is what is
called the
called the highest
highest good"
good." • • •
. . .

I said: "In
I said: "In thatthat case
case good
good and and evil
evil are
are not
not at at all present in
all present in
things?" He said:
things?" said: "They"They are only in
are only in your
your mind."*
mind.'" 8

was well
It was
It that Wang
well that Wang andand Buddhism
Buddhism sounded this. subtle
sounded this, subtle note of an
note of an
idealist metaphysic in
idealist metaphysic in the halls of
the halls of the
the correct
correct and prim Confucians;
and prim Confucians; for for
though these
though scholars had
these scholars had the
the justest view of
justest view of human
human nature
nature and
and govern-
govem-
which philosophy
ment which
ment philosophy had
had yet conceived, they
yet conceived, were aa trifle
they were trifle enamored
enamored
of their
of their wisdom,
wisdom, and
and had
had become
become anan intellectual
mtellectual bureaucracy
bureaucracy irksome
irksome and
and
hostile to
hostile to every free and
every free crea~vely erring
and creatively erring soul
soul If in the
H in the end th~ followers
end the followers
 ," 1-·"
Q :\l"I,,~ r':;,
,' ',,;"' :'(:~f;~
I '
, I " ,': ;,~:'
I,
,).

"
'.Y
t
" _,.. , "

I \,~ ~.:- I

'1yJ.lt"C,.
I ,.,f'F.,
J, ....

.. NJl.J"
It.. l~:

FIG.6S-Imperitd
FIG. jewel cruket of blue
6$~lmperid jewel casket of
blue lacquer
lacquer
Underwood
Underwood &&Underwood
Underwood
CHAP.n.'·V)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS 735
735

of
of Hsi won
Chu Hsi \von the day,
the if his
day, if his tablet
tablet was
was placed
placed with
with high
high honors
honors in the
in the
same hall with that
same hall with that of
of the
the Master
l\!!aster himself,
himself, and his interpretations
and his interpretations of
of the
the
Classics became
Classics became aa law
law to all orthodox
to all orthodox thought
thought for
for seven
seven hundred years,
hundred years,
was indeed
it was
it indeed aa victory
victory of
of sound
sound and sense over
and simple sense
simple
over the
the disturbing
disturbing
subdeties of the metaphysical
subtleties of the mind. But
metaphysical mind. But aa nation,
nation, like
like an
an individual,
individual, can
can
be too
be too sensible,
sensible, too prosaically sane
too prosaically sane and unbearably right.
and unbearably right. It
It was partly
was partly
because Chu Hsi
because Hsi and
and Confucianism
Confucianism triumphed
triumphed so so completely
completely that
that China
China
had to
had to have her Revolution.
have her Revolution.

u.
II. BRONZE, LACQUER AND JADE
BRONZE, JADE

The rdle
The ,dle of
of art in China-Tertiles-Furniture-Jewelry-Fans-
Qrt in China Textiles Furniture Jewelry-Fans
The making
The making of
of lacquer
lacquer-The cutting of
The cutting of jade-Some
jade-8ome master-
master-
pieces in bronze-Chinese
pieces in bronze sculpture
Chinese sculpture

pursuit of
The pursuit wisdom
of wisdom and the passion
and the passion for
for beauty
beauty are
are the
the two
two poles poles
of the Chinese
of the Chinese mind,
mind, and Chinaloosely be
might loosely
and China might be defined
defined as
as
philosophy philosophy
and porcelain.
and As the
porcelain. As the pursuit
pursuit of wisdom meant to
of wisdom to China
China no
no airy meta-
meta- airy
physic but
physic but aa positive philosophy aiming
positive philosophy aiming at at individual
individual development
development and and
social
social order,
order, so
so the
the passion
passion for
for beauty
beauty was
was no
no esoteric
esoteric estheticism,
estheticism, no
dilettante
dilettante concoction
concoction of art fonns
of art forms irrelevant
irrelevant to human affairs,
to human affairs, but
but anan
earthly marriage
earthly marriage of
of beauty
beauty and
and utility,
utility,
a
a practical
practical
resolve
resolve to
to adorn
adorn the
the
objects and implements of daily life. Until it began to yield its own ideals
objects and implements of daily life. Until it began to yield its
ideals

to Western
to influence, China
Western influence, China refused
refused to recognize any
to recognize any distinction
distinction between
between
the artist
the artist and
and thethe artisan,
artisan, or
or between
between the
the artisan
artisan and
and the
the worker;
worker; nearly
nearly
all
all industry was
industry was 1na1lufaeture,
?nanui acture, and
and all
all manufacture
manufacture was
was handicraft;
handicraft; in-
in-
dustry,
dustry,
like
like art,
art, was
was the
the expression
expression of
of personality
personality in
in things.
things. Hence China,
China,
while negle~
while neglecting to
to provide
provide its
its people, through large-scale industry, with
people, through large-scale industry, with
conveniences common in
conveniences in the
the West,
West, excelled
excelled every country
every country in
in artistic
artistic

taste
taste and
and the
the multiplication
multiplication of of beautiful
beautiful objects for daily
objects for daily use.
use. From the the
characters in
characters in which
which he he wrote
wrote to to the
the dishes from which
dishes from which he he ate,
ate, the
the com-
fortable Chinese
fortable Chinese demanded
demanded that that everything
everything about
about him
him should
should have
have some
esthetic
esthetic form,
form, and evidence in
and evidence in its
its shape and
shape and texture
texture the
the mature
mature civilization
civilization

of
of which
which it it -was
was a a symbol and aa part.
part
symbol
It was
It was during
during the
the Sung
Sung Dynasty
Dynasty that this
that this movement to to beautify
beautify thethe
person, the temple and
person, the temple
and the
the home reached
reached its its highest expression. It
highest expression. It had
been a part
been a part of of the
the excellence
excellence of
of T'ang life,
T'ang life, and
and would remain
remain andand spread
spread
under
under later
later dynasties;
dynasties;
but
but now a
a long period
long period of
of order
order and
and prosperity
prosperity
nourished
nourished every art, and gave to Chinese living aa grace
every art, and gave to Chinese living grace and adornment
736
736 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXV
(CHAP.XXV

which
which had never
it had
it never enjoyed
enjoyed before. before. In In textiles
textiles and and metalworking
metalworking the the
craftsmen of
craftsmen China, during
of China, during and and after
after thethe SungSung era,era, reached a degree
reached a ~egree of of
perfection
perfection
never
never surpassed;
surpassed;
in
in the
the cutting
cutting of
of jade
jade and
and hard
hard stones
stones they
they
went beyond all
went beyond all rivals
rivals anywhere;
anywhere; and and in in the
the carving
carving of of wood and and ivory
ivory
they were
they were excelled
excelled onlyonly by their pupils
by their pupils in in Japan.*
Japan.- Furniture
Furniture was was designed
designed
in aa variety
in variety of of unique
unique and and uncomfortable
uncomfortable forms; forms; cabinet-makers,
cabinet-makers, living living on on
bowl of
aa bowl of rice
rice per
per day,
day, sentsent forth
forth one objet de
one objet de vertur-one
vert7J,-one little
little piece
piece of of
perfection-after another; and
perfection after another;
and these
these minor
minor products
produet8 of of aa careful
careful art, taking
art, taking
the place
the place of of expensive
expensive furniture
furniture and and luxuries
luxuries in in homes,
homes, gave gave to to their
their
owners aa pleasure
owners pleasure which
which in in thethe Occident
Occident only only connoisseurs
connoisseurs can can know.
know.
Jewelry
Jewelry was
was not
not abundant,
abundant, but
but it
it was
was admirably
admirably cut.
cut. Women and
and men
cooled themselves
cooled themselves with
with ornate
ornate fans
fans of
of feathers
feathers or
or bamboo,
bamboo, of
of painted
painted
paper
paper or
or silk;
silk; even
even beggars
beggars brandished
brandished elegant
elegant fans
fans as
as they
they plied their
plied their
ancient trade.
ancient trade.
The art
The art of of lacquer
lacquer beganbegan in in China,
China, and and camecame to its fullest
to its fullest perfection
perfection
in Japan.
in Japan. In In the Far East
the Far lacquer is
East lacquer is the
the natural
natural product
product of of aa tree*
tree- in- in-

digenous to China,
digenous to China, but but now most sedulously
most sedulously cultivated
cultivated by
by the
the Japanese.
Japanese.
The sap is
The sap drawn from
is drawn trunk and
from trunk branches, strained,
and branches, strained, and and heated
heated to to remove
remove
excess liquid; it
excess liquid; it is
is applied to to thin
thin wood,
wood, sometimes
sometimes to
to metal
metal or
or porcelain,
porcelain,
applied
and is
and is dried
dried by by exposure
exposure to
to moisture.-
moisture* Twenty
Twenty or
or thirty
thirty coats,
coats, each
each slowly
slowly
dried
dried and painstakingly polished,
and painstakingly are laid
laid on, the applications varying in
applications varying
are on, the in
polished,
color and depth;
color and depth; then, then, in
in China,
China, the
the finished
finished lacquer
lacquer is
is carved
carved with
with aa
sharp V-shaped too~ each incision
sharp V-shaped tool, each
incision reaching
reaching to to such
such a a layer
layer as as toto expose
expose
the color required
the color required by by the
the design.
design. The art
art grew slowly;
grew slowly; it
it began as
began as a a
form of writing upon
form of writing upon bamboo strips;bamboo strips; the
the material
material was used
used in
in the
the Chou
Dynasty to.decorate vessels,
Dynasty to.decorate vessels, harness,
harness, carriages,
carriages, etc.;etc.; inin the
the second
second century
century
it was
A.D. it
A.D. was applied to
to buildings
buildings and
and musical:
musical instruments;
instruments; under
under the
the T'ang
T'ang
applied
many lacquered
many lacquered articles were
articles were exported
exported to
to Japan;
Japan; under
under the
the SungSung all
all

branches
branches of of the
the .industry
.industry took
took their
their definite
definite form,form, and shipped
shipped their
their
products to such distant ports as as India
India and and Arabia;
Arabia; underunder thethe MingMing em-
products to such distant ports
perors the art art was
was further perfected, and in some phases
further perfected, phases reached
and in reached its
perors the
its

zenith;-
zenith;" under
under the
the enlightened
enlightened Manchu rulers
rulers K'ang-hsi
K'ang-hsi and
and 'Ch'ien
Ch'ien Lung
Lung
great
great
factories
factories were were built
built andand maintained
maintained by by imperial
imperial decree,
decree, and
and made
such
such masterpieces as Ch'ien Lung's throne,· or
masterpieces as Ch'ien Lung's throne,
80
or the
the lacquered
lacquered screenscreen that that
K'ang-hsi presented
K'ang-hsi presented
to
to Leopold I,
Leopold I, Emperor Emperor of
of the
the Holy
Holy Roman.
Roman Empire.-
Empire.*
1

The
The artart continued
continued at at its
its height until
height until the the nineteenth
nineteenth century,·
century, 'when when the the

The "Rhus
•* The vernirifera. Lacq:uer
Tlhus 'Vemiciferll. Lacquer is
is from
from the French Zaere,
the :french resin, which in
lacre, resin, torn derives
in tum derives
from Latin lac,
the Latin
from the milk.
lac, milk
.
CHAP. xxv)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF THE AR
THE ARTISTS
TI STS 737
737

wars
wars brought
brought on by
by European
European merchants,
merchants, and
and the
the poor
poor taste
taste of
of European
European
importers
importers and clients,
and clients, caused
caused the
the withdrawal
withdrawal of
of imperial support, lowered
imperial support, lowered
the
the standards,
standards, debased
debased the
the designs,
designs,
and
and left
left the
the leadership
leadership
in
in lacquer
lacquer to
to
Japan.
Japan.
Jade is
Jade is asas old
old as Chinese history,
as Chinese for it is found in the most ancient
history, for it is found in the most ancient
graves.
graves. The earliest
earliest records
records attribute
attribute its its use
use as as aa "sound-stone"
"sound-stone" to to 2500
2500
B.C.: jade was cut
B.C.: jade cut in
in the
the form
form of
of a
a fish
fish or
or elsewise,
elsewise, and
and suspended
suspended by a by a
thong;
thong; when properly
properly cut
cut and
and struck
struck it
it emitted
emitted a
a clear
clear musical
musical tone,
tone,
astonishingly
astonishingly long long sustained.
sustained. The word was
was derived
derived through
through the
the French
French
jade from the
jade Spanish ijada
die Spanish (Lat. ilia),
ijada (Lat. ilia), meaning
meaning loins; loins; thethe Spanish
Spanish con-
con-
querors
querors of of America
America found found that that thethe Mexicans
Mexicans lised used thethe stone,
stone, powdered
powdered
and
and mixed
mixed with with water,
water, as as a a cure
cure for for manymany internal
internal disorders,
disorders, and and theythey
brought
brought this
this new prescription
prescription back
back to
to Europe
Europe along along with
with American
American gold.
gold.
The Chinese
Chinese word for for the stone is
the stone is much more more sensible;
sensible; jun jan means
means softsoft like
like
*
the
the dew."
dew. Two minerals
minerals provide jade:
provide jade: jadeite jadeite and
and nephrite-silicates
nephrite-silicates in
in
the
the one
one case
case of of aluminium
aluminium and sodium, in
and sodium, in the
the other
other of of calcium
calcium and and mag-
mag-
nesium.
nesium. Both are are tough;
tough; the
the pressure
pressure of
of :fifty
fifty
tons
tons is
is sometimes
sometimes required
required
to
to crush
crush a a one-inch
one-inch cube; cube; large
large pieces
pieces are are usually broken by
usually broken by being
being sub-sub-
jected
jected in
in quick
quick succesSion
succession :first
first toto extreme
extreme heat
heat and
and then
then to
to cold
cold water.
water.
The ingenuity artist is revealed in his ability to bring
ingenuity of of the
the Chinese
Chinese artist is revealed in his ability to bring
lustrous
lustrous colors
colors of of green,
green, brown,
brown, black black and white out
and white out of these naturally
of these naturally
colorless materials, and
colorless materials, and in the patient
in the patient obstinacy
obstinacy with
with which
which he
he varies
varies thethe
forms,
forms, so that in in all
all the
the world's
world's collections
collections of jade (barring
so that of jade (barring buttons)
buttons) no no
two pieces
two pieces are alike. Examples begin to
are alike. to appear as
as far
far back
back as
as the
the Shang
Examples begin appear Shang
Dynasty, in
Dynasty, the shape
in the shape of of a jade toad
a jade toad usedused in divine sacrifice;-
in divine sacrifice; and
88
and forms
forms
of great
of great beauty
beauty were produced in
were produced days of
the days
in the of Confucius.*
Confucius." While While various
various
peoples used
peoples used jadeite
jadeite forfor axes, knives and
axes, knives and other
other utensils,
utensils, the the Chinese
Chinese held held
the stone
the stone in in such
such reverence
reverence that that they
they kept kept itit almost
almost exclusivly
exclusivly for for art; they
art; they
regarded
regarded it
it as
as more
more precious
precious than
than silver
silver or
or gold,
gold, or
or any jewelry;-
any jewelry; they
88
they
valued some
valued some smallsmall jades,
jades, like
like thethe thumb
thumb rings rings worn by man~,
the mandarins,
by the
at five
at nve thousand
thousand dollars,dollars, and
and somesome jade jade necklaces
necklaces at S100,000; collectors
at $100,000; collectors
spent years
spent years
in
in search
search of·
of a
a single piece.
single piece. It
It has
has been
been estimated
estimated that an
that an
assemblage of
assemblage all existing
of all existing Chinese
Chinese jades jades would
would form form aa collection
collection unrivaled
unrivaled
by any
by any other
other material."
material.
88

Bronze is
Bronze is almost
almost as as old
old as
as jade
jade inin the
the artart ofof China,
China, andand eveneven more
more exalted
exalted
in Chinese
in Chinese reverence.
reverence. Legend
Legend tells
tells how the
the ancient
ancient Emperor Yii,
Emperor Yii, hero hero
of the
of the Chinese
Chinese flood, :Hood, cast
cast thethe metals
metals sentsent himhim as as tribute
tribute by the nine
by the nine pro-
pro-
vinces of
vinces of his
his empire
empire into into the
the form
form of of three
three nine-legged
nine-legged cauldrons,
cauldrons, possessed
possessed
 738 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXV

of
of the
the magic
magic power
power toto ward
ward offoff noxious
noxious influences,
influences, cause
cause their
their contents
contents
to
to boil
boil without
without fire,
fire, and
and generate
generate spontaneously
spontaneously every
every delicacy. They
delicacy. They
became
became a sacred symbol
a sacred symbol of
of the
the imperial authority,
imperial authority,
were
were handed
handed down
down
carefully
carefully from
from dynasty
dynasty to
to dynasty,
dynasty, but
but disappeared
disappeared mysteriously on the
mysteriously on the
fall
fall of
of the
the Chou-a circumstance extr~mely
Chou a circumstance injurious
extremely injurious to
to the
the prestige of
prestige of
Shih Huang-ti.
Shih Huang-ti, The casting
casting and
and decoration
decoration of
of bronze
bronze became
became one
one of
of the
the
fine
fine arts
arts of
of China,
China, and
and produced
produced collections
collections that
that required forty-two
required forty-two
volumes
volumes to to catalogue
catalogue them""
them." It It made vessels
vessels for the religious
for the ceremonies
religious ceremonies
of the
of the government
government and and the
the home,
home, and
and transformed
transformed a a thousand
thousand varieties
varieties
of
of utensils
utensils into
into works
works of art. Chinese
of art. Chinese bronzes
bronzes are
are equaled only
equaled only by by the
the
work of of the
the Italian
Italian Renaissance,
Renaissance, and
and there, perhaps, only by those
there, perhaps, only by those "Gates"Gates
of
of Paradise"
Paradise" which
which Ghiberti
Ghiberti designed
designed for die Baptistery
for the Baptistery ofof Florence.
Florence.

The
The oldest
oldest existing pieces of of Chinese
Chinese bronze
bronze are are sacrificial vessels re-
sacrificial vessels re-
existing pieces
cendy discovered in Honan; Chinese scholars
cently discovered in Honan; Chinese
scholars assign
assign them to
to the
the Shang
Shang
Dynasty,
Dynasty, but
but European
European connoisseurs
connoisseurs give
give them
them a
a later,
later, though
though uncertain,
uncertain,
date.
date. The earliest
earliest dated
dated remains
remains are are from
from the the period
period of of the
the Chou;
Chou; an an ex-
ex-
cellent
cellent example of of these
these is
is the
the set
set of
of ceremonial
ceremonial vessels in
vessels in the
the Metropolitan
example Metropolitan
Museum of Art in
of Art in N ew York.
New York. MostMost of of the
the Chou
Chou bronzes were confiscated
bronzes were confiscated
by
by Shih
Shih Huang-ti,
Huang-ti, lest
lest the
the people
people melt
melt them down and
and recast
recast them
them as as
weapons. With the
weapons. the accumulated
accumulated metal metal his his artisans made twelve
artisans made twelve gigantic
gigantic
statues, each
statues, fifty feet
each fifty feet high;M
high; but
88
but not
not oneone foot
foot of th.e :fifty
of the remains. Under
fifty remains. Under
the Han many
the many fine vessels were made,
fine vessels made, often
often inlaid with gold.
inlaid with Artists trained
gold. Artists trained
in China cast
in China cast several masterpieces for
several masterpieces for thethe Temple
Temple of of Horiuji
Horiuji at Nara in
at Nara in
Japan,
Japan, the
the loveliest
loveliest being
being three
three Amida-Buddhas
Amida-Buddhas seated
seated in
in lotus-beds;- 8
lotus-beds; there
*
there
is figures in
is hardly anything finer than these
these figures the history
history of of bronze.*
bronze.· Under Under
hardly anything nner than in the
the Sung
the Sung the the art reached its
art reached height, if
its height, not of
if not of excellence, certainly of
excellence, certainly of fer-
fer-
tility;
tility;
cauldrons,
cauldrons, wine
wine vessels,
vessels, beakers,
beakers, censers,
censers, weapons,
weapons, mirrors,
mirrors, bells, drums,
bells, drums,
vases, plaques
vases, plaques andand figurines
figurines filled
filled the
the shelves
shelves of of connoisseurs
connoisseurs and and found
found some some
place
place in
in nearly every
nearly every home.
home. An attractive
attractive sample
sample of
of Sung
Sung work
work is an
is an in-in-
cense burner in the form of a water buffalo
cense burner in the form of a water buffalo mounted
mounted by Lao-tze, who
by Lao-tze, who be- be-
strides it
strides calmly in
it calmly in proof of
proof of the the power
power of philosophy to
of philosophy to tame
tame the the savage
savage
40
casting isis throughout
breast." The casting
breast throughout of of the
the thinness
thinness of of paper,
paper, andand thethe kpse
lapse ofof
time has
time given the
has given the piece
piece aa patina
patina oror coating
coating of of mottled
mottled green
green thatthat lends
lends it it
the meretricious
the meretricious beautybeauty of of decay.t
decay.t UnderUnder the Ming aa slow
the Ming slow deterioration
deterioration
p. °897 below.
• Cf. p.
*Cf. 897below.
t Patina (Latin
fPwina (Latin for dish)
for dish)fanned by
is formed
is the disintegration
by the disintegration of
of the
the metal
metal surface
surface through
through
contact with
contact moisture or
with moisture or earth.
earth. It isis the
It the fashion
fashion today
today to
to value
value bronzes partly according
bronzes partly according
to the
to the green
green or
or bkck
black patina
patina left
left on
on them
them by time-or by
by time-or the acids
by the acids used in the
used in the modern
modem
of "ancient"
production of
production art.
"ancient" art
 CHAP. XXV)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS
THE 739
739
attacked the art;
attacked the art; the size of
the size of the
the objects
objects increased, the quality
increased, the fell. Bronze,
quality fell. Bronze,
which had
which been aa miraculous
had been miraculous novelty in the Chalcolithic Age of the Em-
novelty in the Chalcolithic Age of the Em-
peror Vii,
peror Yii, became
became a
a commonplace, its popularity to
commonplace, and yielded its
and to porcelain.
yielded popularity porcelain.

Sculpture
Sculpture waswas not
not one
one ofof the
the major
major arts, not even
arts, not even a a fine art, to
fine art, to the
the
A 41
Chinese.
Chinese. By
By an act
act of
of rare
rare modesty
modesty the
the Far
Far East
East refused
refused to
to class
class the
the
human body
human body under
under the
the rubric
rubric of beauty; its
of beauty; its sculptors played a little
sculptors played a little with
with
drapery,
drapery, and usedused the
the figures
figures of
of men-seldom
men seldom of women to study
of ,vamen-to or
study or
represent
represent certain
certain types
types of
of consciol:lSIless;
consciousness; but
but they
they did
did not
not glorify
glorify
the
the
body. 'For
body. the most
For the most part
part they
they confined
confined their
their portraits
portraits
of
of humanity
humanity to to
Buddhist saints and
Buddhist saints and Taoist
Taoist sages, ignoring
sages, ignoring
the
the athletes
athletes and
and courtesans
courtesans who
gave
gave such
such inspiration
inspiration to
to the artists of
the artists Greece. In
of Greece. the sculpture
In the of China
sculpture of China
animals were preferred
animals were preferred even
even to philosophers and
to philosophers and saints.
saints.

earliest Chinese
The earliest Chinese statues
statues known to to usus are twelve bronze
the twelve
are the bronze colossi
colossi
erected
erected by by Shih
Shih Huang-ti;
Huang-ti; theythey were melted
melted by
by a
a Han ruler
ruler to
to make "small
"small
cash." A few little
cash." little animals
animals in bronze remain
remain from the Han Dynasty;
in bronze from the Dynasty; but but
nearly
nearly all the
all the statuary
statuary of
of that
that epoch
epoch was destroyed
destroyed by by war
war or
or the
the negli-
negli-
gence of
gence time. The only
of time. only important
important Han remains remains are tomb-reliefs found
the tomb-reliefs
are the found
in
in Shantung;
Shantung; here here again
again the
the human :figuresfigures
are rare, the
are rare, the scenes
scenes being
being domi-
domi-
nated by
nated by animals
animals carved
carved in
in thin
thin relief.
relief. More akin
akin to
to sculpture
sculpture are
are the
the
funerary
funerary statuettes
statuettes of of clay-mostly
clay mostly of
of animals,
animals, occasionally
occasionally of
of servants
servants or
or
wives-which
wives which were were buried
buried withwith malemale corpses
corpses as
as aa convenient
convenient substitute
substitute for
for
suttee. Here and
suttee. Here there animals
and there animals in in the
the round survive from
round survive from thisthis period,
period, like
like
the marble
the tiger, all
marble tiger, all muscle
muscle and and watchfulness,
watchfulness, that that guarded
guarded the temple of
the temple of
Sniang-fu,"
Sniang-fu,*
or
or the
the snarling
snarling
bears
bears in
in the
the Gardner
Gardner collection
collection at
at Boston,
Boston, or
or the
the
winged and
winged and goitrous
goitrous lionslions ofof the Nanking tombs."
the Nanking tombs.
48
These animals,
animals, and and thethe
proud
proud horses
horses of
of the
the tomb-reliefs,
tomb-reliefs, show a
a mixture
mixture of
of Greco-Bactrian,
Greco-Bactrian, Assyrian
Assyrian
and Scythian
and Scythian induences;
influences; there
there is is nothing about them distinctively Chinese." 44
nothing about them distinctively Chinese.
Meanwhile
Meanwhile another another inB.uence
influence was enteringentering China,
China, in the form
in the form of of Buddhist
Buddhist
theology and and art.art It It made a a home for for itself first in
itself first in Turkestan,
Turkestan, and and built
built
theology
there aa civilization
there civilization from from which
which SteinStein and
and Pelliot unearthed many
have unearthed
Pelliot have
many tonstons
of ruined statuary; some of i~
of seems equal to Hindu Buddhist art at its
15
of ruined statuary;
some it seems equal to Buddhist art at its

best. The Chinese

best Chinese took took over
over those
those Buddhist
Buddhist forms without much alteration,
forms without alteration,
and produced Buddhas Buddhas as as fair
fair asas any in or India.
and produced any in Gandhara
Gandhara or India. The earliest
earliest ofof
these appear
these appear in
in the
the Ytin
Yiin Kan cave
cave temples
temples of
of Shansi
Shansi (ca. 490 A.D.);
(ca. 490 A.D.); among among
the best are
the best are thethe figures
figures
in the Lung
in the Lung Men grottoes
grottoes of of Honan.
Honan. Outside
Outside these
these
grottoes
grottoes
stand
stand several
several colossi,
colossi, of
of which the the most
most unique
unique is a
is a graceful
graceful Bod-Bod-
hisattrwa,
hisattwa, and
and the
the most
most imposing
imposing is the
is the "Vairochana"
"Vairochana" Buddha (ca.
(ca. 671
672 A.D.),
A.D.),
destroyed at the base
base but still instructively serene."
but still Farther east, inin Shan-
48
at the instructively
serene. Farther east, Shan-
destroyed
740
740 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXV
(CHAP. XXV

tung,
tung, many cave
many cave temples have been found whose walls are
temples have been found whose walls
carved with
are carved with
mythology
mythology in
in Hindu
Hindu fashion,
fashion, with
with here
here and there
there a powerful
a powerful BodhislZtt'W1l
Bodhisattwa
like that in
like that the cave
in the cave of of Yun Men (ca. (ca. 600 A.D.)." The T'ang
600 A.D.).*' T'ang Dynasty
Dynasty con- con-
tinued the
tinued the Buddhist tradition in
Buddhist tradition in sculpture,
sculpture,
and
and carried
carried it
it toto perfection in
perfection in
me
the seated
seated stone
stone Buddha
Buddha (ca. 639)
(ca. 639) found
found in
in the
the province
province of
of Shensi.
ShensL*
41
The
The
kter dynasties
later produced in clay some massive
dynasties produced in clay
massive LohawLohans-disciples of the
disciples of the
gentle Buddha
gentle Buddha
who have the
have the stern stem faces
faces of
of financiers;-
financiers;* and some very
very
beautiful1igures
beautiful of the Mahayana deity Kuan-yin, almost
figures of the Mahay ma deity Kuan-yin,
almost in in the
the process
process of of
turning
turning from a
a god
god into
into a
a goddess.-
goddess.
40

After the
After the T'ang
T'ang Dynasty
Dynasty sculpture
sculpture lost lost its
its religious inspiration, and
religious inspiration, and took took
on aa secular,
secular, occasionally
occasionally a
a sensuous,
sensuous, character;
character; moralists
moralists complained,
complained, as
as in
in
Renaissance Italy,
Renaissance Italy,
that
that the
the artists
artists were making saints
making saints as
as graceful
graceful and supple
supple
as women; and Buddhist
as women; Buddhist priests
priests
laid
laid down severe severe iconographic
iconographic rules rules for-
for-
bidding the
bidding the individualization
individualization of of character
character or or the
the accentuation
accentuation of of the
the body.
body.
Probably
Probably the
the strong
strong moral
moral bent
bent of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese impeded
impeded the
the development
development
of
of sculpture;
sculpture; when the religious motif
the religious motif lostlost its
its impelling force,
impelling force, and the the attrac-
attrac-
tiveness
tiveness of physical beauty
of physical was not
not allowed
allowed to
to take
take its place, sculpture in
its
beauty place, sculpture in
China
China decayed; religion
decayed; religion destroyed destroyed what it
it could
could no longer
longer inspire. Towards
inspire. Towards
the end of
the the T'ang
of the T'ang the
the fount
fount of
of sculptural
sculptural
creation
creation began
began to
to run dry.
run dry.
The Sung produced only
Sung produced only a a few extant pieces of
extant pieces of distinction;
distinction; the the Mongols
Mongols
gave their energies
gave their energies to to war; the Mings
war; the Mings excelled
excelled for for a passing moment in
a passing in
bizarreries
bizarreries and'such
and such colossi
colossi as as the
the stone
stone monsters
monsters that that stand before the
stand before the tombs
tombs
of the Mings. Sculpture,
the Mings. Sculpture, choked by by religious restrictions, gave
religious restrictions, gave up up the
the ghost,
ghost,
and left
left the fi~d of
the field of Chinese
Chinese art art to porcelain and painting.
to porcelain painting.

m.
HI. PAGODAS AND PALACES

Chinese
Chinese architecture-The Porcelain Tower
architecture-The Porcelain Tower of Nanking-The
of Nanking Jade
The Jade
Pagoda of
Pllgodll Peking-The Temple
of Peking-The of Confucius-The Temple
Temple of Confucius-The Temple
and Altar
Altllf of Heaven-The palaces
of Heaven-The palaces of Kublai Khan-
of Kublai Khan-
A Chinese
Chinese home-The mterior-Color
interior-Color and form
and form

Architecture, too, has been a minor

Architecture, too, has been a minor art in China. Such master-builders
art in China. Such master-builders
as have labored there have hardly
as have labored there have hardly left
left a name behind
a name them, and
behind them, and seem
seem to
to
have been
have been less admired than
less admired than the
the great potters. Large
great potters. Large structures
structures have
have been
been
rare in
rare in China, even in
China, even in honoring
honoring the
the gods;
gods; old buildings are
old buildings are seldom
seldom found,
found,
and only
only a few pagodas
pagodas date
date back
back beyond
beyond the
the sixteenth
sixteenth century. Sung
century. Sung
architects issued, in
architects issued, in 11°3 A.D., eight handSomely
1103 A.D., eight handsomely illustrated
illustrated volumes
volumes on
on
Method of
The Method A.rchitecture; but
of Architecture; but the
the masterpieces that
masterpieces
that they pictured
they pictured
•* There
There are
are some
some examples
examples of
of this style in
this style in the
the Metropolitan
Metropolitan Museum of
of Art.
Art.
CHAP. xxv)
CHAP.XXV) THE AG
THE AGEE 0OF THE ART
F THE 1ST S
ARTISTS 741
741
were all
were all of
of wood,
wood, andand not
not aa fragment
fragment of of them survives. Drawings in
them survives. the
Drawings in the
National
National Library
Library at at Paris,
Paris, purporting
purporting to to represent the dwellings and
represent the dwellings and
temples
temples of
of Confucius'
Confucius' time,
time, show
show that
that through its long history
through its long history of over
of over
twenty-three
twenty-three centuries
centuries Chinese
Chinese architecture
architecture hashas beenbeen content
content with
with the
the
1ID
same designs,
same and the
the same
same modest
modest proportions. Perhaps80
the very sensi-
designs, proportions. Perhaps the very sensi-
tivity
tivity of
of the Chinese in
the Chinese in matters
matters of art and
of art and taste
taste made
made them
them forego struc-
forego struc-
tures
tures that
that might
might have
have seemed
seemed immodest
immodest and
and grandiose;
grandiose;
and
and perhaps their
perhaps their
superiority
superiority in
in intellect
intellect has
has somewhat
somewhat hindered the scope of
hindered the scope of their their imagina-
imagina-
tion.
tion. Above
Above all,all, Chinese
Chinese architecture
architecture suffered
suffered from
from the the absence
absence ofof three
three
institutions present in
institutions in almost
almost every other
other great nation
nation of
of antiquity: an
antiquity: an
present every great
hereditary
hereditary aristocracy,
aristocracy, a powerful
a
priesthood, and
powerful priesthood,1I1 and a
81
a strong
strong
and
and wealthy
wealthy
central
central government. These
government. These are are the
the forces that in
forces that in the
the past have paid for
past have paid for
the
the larger
larger works of of art-for
art for thethe temples
temples and
and palaces, the masses and operas,
palaces, the masses and operas,
the
the great
great frescoes
frescoes and
and sculptured
sculptured tombs.
tombs. And China China was was fortunate
fortunate and
and
unique:
unique: she
she had
had none
none of
of these
these institutions.
institutions.

For aa time
time the Buddhist faith
the Buddhist faith captured the
captured the Chinese
Chinese soul,
soul, and
and sufficient
sufficient ofof
China's
China's income to to build
build thethe great temples
great temples whose
whose ruins
ruins have
have been
been so
so lately
ktely
in Turkestan.
a"
discovered in
discovered Buddhist temples
Buddhist temples of of a a certain
certain middling majesty
4
Turkestan.
middling majesty
survive throughout China, China, but but they
they suffer
suffer severely when
severely when compared with the
compared with
survive throughout the
religious
religious architecture
architecture of
of India.
India. Pleasant
Pleasant natural
natural approaches lead
approaches lead to them, to them,
usually up
usually up winding
winding inclines marked by
inclines marked gateways called
ornate gateways
by ornate p'ai-Ius, and
called p'ai-lw, and
apparently
apparently derived
derived from
from the
the "rails"
"rails" of
of the
the Hindu
Hindu topes;
topes;
somotimes
sometimes the
the
entrance is
entrance is spiritually barred by
spiritually barred by hideous
hideous images
images designed,
designed, in in one
one sense
sense oror
another, to
another, to frighten
frighten foreign
foreign devilsdevils away.
away. One One of of the best of
the best of the Chinese
the Chinese
Buddhist shrines
Buddhist shrines is is the Temple of
the Temple of the Sleeping Buddha,
the Sleeping Buddha, nearnear the the Summer
Summer
Palace outside
Palace outside Peking;
Peking; Fergusson
Fergusson called called it "the finest
it "the :finest architectural
architectural achieve-
achieve-
ment in China.~"
ment in China."
88

characteristic of
More characteristic of thethe Far East are
Far East are the
the pagodas
pagodas thatthat dominate
dominate the the
landscape
landscape of
of almost
almost every
every Chinese
Chinese town.·
town.* Like
Like the
the Buddhism
Buddhism that
that inspired
inspired
them, these
them, these graceful
graceful edifices
edifices tooktook over
over some
some of of the
the superstitions
superstitions of of popular
popular
Taoism,
Taoism, and
and became
became centers
centers not
not only
only of
of religious ceremony,
religious ceremony, but
but of
of geomantic
geomantic
divination-ie.,
divination the discovery
Le., the discovery of the future
of the future by by the
the study
study of of lines
lines andand clefts
clefts
in the earth. Communities erected pagodas
in the earth. Communities erected pagodas in in the
the belief
belief that such structures
that such structures
could ward
could ward off off wind
wind andand flood, propitiate evil
flood, propitiate evil spirits,
spirits, and
and attract
attract prosperity.
prosperity.
Usually they
Usually they tooktook thethe form
form of of octagonal
octagonal brick
brick towers
towers rising
rising on on aa stone
stone
foundation to
foundation to five,
five, seven,
seven, nine nine or thirteen stories,
or thirteen stories, because
because eveneven numbers
numbers
*
• Their
Their origin, in name
origin, in name and fact, isis in
and fact, ~uch dispute.
in much dispute. The
The word may be
word may be taken
taken from
from the
the
Hindu-Persian term
Hindu-Persian tenn but-kadah-"howe
but-kadab-"house of
of idols";
idols"; die
the form
form may be
may be indigenous
indigenous to ChiQa, as
to China, as
some think,"
some think," or may be
or may ~erived from
be derived from the spire that
the spire that crowned
crowned some
some Hindu
Hindu topes.
topes.-
18
742.
74* THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXV
(CHAP. XXV

were unlucky.
were unlucky.-58 The oldest
oldest standing pagoda
standing pagoda is
is atat Sung Yiieh 8su,
Sung Yiieh Ssu, built
built in in
52.3
523 A.D.
A.D. on
on the
the sacred
sacred mountain
mountain of
of Sung
Sung Shan
Shan in
in Honan;
Honan; one
one of
of the
the loveliest
loveliest
is the Pagoda
is the Pagoda of of the
the Summer Palace; Palace; the most spectacular
the most are the Jade
spectacular are the Jade
Pagoda
Pagoda at
at Peking
Peking and
and the
the "Flask
"Flask Pagoda"
Pagoda" at
at Wu-tai-shan;
Wu-tai-shan; the
the most
most famous
famous
was the
was Porcelain Tower of
the Porcelain Nanking, built
of Nanking, built in in 1412-31,
1412-31, distinguished
distinguished by by a a
facing
facing of
of porcelain
porcelain over
over its
its bricks,
bricks, and
and destroyed
destroyed by by the
the T'ai-p'ing
Tai-p'ing Rebellion
Rebellion
in
in 1854-
1854.
The fairest
fairest temples of China are those dedicated to the
temples of China are those dedicated to
official faith
the official faith at at
Peking. The Temple Confucius is is guarded by a magnificent p'ai-lu,
Peking. Temple of of Confucius guarded by a magnificent p'ai-lu,
most delicately
most delicately
carved,
carved, but
but the
the temple
temple itself
itself is
is a a monument
monument to
to philosoph)T
philosophy
rather than
rather than to to art.
art Built
Built in in the
the thirteenth
thirteenth century,
century, it has
it has been
been remodeled
remodeled
and restored many
and restored many times
times since.
since. On a a wooden stand stand inin anan open
open niche
niche is
is the
the
"Tablet
"Tablet of the Soul
of the Soul of of the
the Most
Most HolyHoly Ancestral
Ancestral Teacher
Teacher Confucius;"
Confucius;" and
and
over
over thethe main
main altar
altar isis the
the dedication
dedication to to "The Master Master and and Model of of Ten
Thousand Generations."
Thousand Generations." Near Near the the South
South Tatar Tatar Wall Wall of Peking stand
of Peking stand the the
Temple
Temple of
of Heaven
Heaven and
and the
the Altar
Altar of
of Heaven.
Heaven. The altar
altar is
is anan impressive
impressive
series
series of marble stairs
of marble stairs and
and terraces,
terraces, whose
whose numbernumber and and arrangement
arrangement had had a a
magical significance;
magical significance; the
the temple
temple is
is aa modified
modified pagoda
pagoda of
of three
three stories,
stories, raised
raised
upon aa marble
upon marble platform,
platform, and and built
built of unprepossessing brick
of unprepossessing brick and and tile.
tile. Here,
Here,
at
at three o'clock in
three o'clock in the
the morning
morning of
of the Chinese
the Chinese New Year,
Year, the
the Emperor
Emperor
prayed for
prayed the success
for the success of of his
his dynasty and
dynasty and the prosperity of
the prosperity his people,
of his people,
and
and
offered
offered sacrifice
sacrifice to to a a neuter
neuter but, but, itit was
was hoped,
hoped, not
not neutral,
neutral, Heaven.
Heaven. How-
ever,
ever, thethe temple
temple was badly badly damaged
damaged by by lightning
lightning in in 1889.-
1889."
More attractive
attractive than than these
these stolid
stolid shrines
shrines are the frail
are die frail and
and ornate
ornate palaces
palaces
that once
that housed princes
once housed princes and
and mandarins at
mandarins at Peking. Peking. A burst of architectural
burst of architectural
genius
genius during
during the the reign
reign of of Ch'eng
Ch'eng Tsu (14°3-25)(1403-25) reared teared the the Great
Great Hall Hall at at

the tombs
the tombs of the Ming
of the Emperors,
Ming Emperors, and
and raised
raised a
a medley
medley of
of royal
royal residenc.es
residences
in
in an enclosure
enclosure destined
destined to to become
become known as as the
the "Forbidden
"Forbidden City," on the
City," on the
very
very site where
site where Kublai
Kublai Khan's
Khan's palaces
palaces had
had amazed
amazed Marco
Marco Polo
Polo two
two centuries
centuries
before. Ogrish
before. Ogrish lions lions stand
stand watchwatch at at either
either sideside of the marble
of the marble balustrades
balustrades
that lead
that lead to to the
the marble
marble terrace;
terrace; hereon
hereon are
are official
official buildings with
buildings with throne
throne
rooms, reception
rooms, reception rooms,rooms, banquet
banquet rooms,rooms, and and thethe other needs of
other needs of royalty;
royalty; and
and
scattered
scattered aboutabout are are the
the elaborate
elaborate homeshomes in which once
in which o~ce ,lived
lived the the Imperial
Imperial
Family,
Family, their their children
children and relatives,relatives, theirtheir servants
servants and retainers, their
and retainers, their
eunuchs
eunuchs and concubines.
concubines. The palaces palaces hardly
hardly vary vary one
one from
from another; all
another; all

have the
have the same slender
slender columns,
columns, the
die same
same pretty lattices,
pretty lattices,
the
the same
same carved
carved or or
lettered cornices,
lettered cornices, the same profusion
the same profusion of brilliant
of brilliant colors,
colors, thethe same
same upward-
upward-
curving
curving eaveseaves of of the
the same massively
massively tiled roofs. And like
tiled roofs. these forbidden
like these forbidden
delicacies
delicacies is the second
is the second Summer Palace, Palace, some some milesmiles away;
away; perhaps
perhaps more
more
completely
completely perfectperfect of
of its
its kind,
kind, more gracefully proportioned
gracefully proportioned
and
and fastidiously
fastidiously
carved,
carved, thanthan thethe once
once royal
royal homes
homes of of Peking.
Peking.
 CIL4.P.1.A'V)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF .~ R TIS T S
0 F THE ARTISTS 743
743

If ,"Fe try
If we try to express in
to express in brief
brief compass
compass the general characteristics
the general characteristics of of Chinese
Chinese
architecture,
architecture, we find
find as
as a
a first
first feature
feature the
the unpleasant
unpleasant
,vall
wall that
that hides
hides the
the
~ structures
main structures from from the the street
street. In In thethe poorer
poorer sections
sections thesethese outerouter walls
walls areare
continuous from
continuous from home to home, and
to home, and betraybetray an an ancient
ancient insecurity
insecurity of of life.
life.
Within the
Within the wallwall isis aa court,
court, uponupon which which open open the the doors
doors and and lattices
lattices of of one
one
or several
or several homes.homes. The The houses
houses of of the the poorpoor are are gloomy
gloomy tenements,
tenements, with with
narrow entrances and
narrow entrances and corridors,
corridors, low low ceilings,
ceilings, and :Boors of
and floors of thethe good
good earth;
earth;
in many
in many families
families pigs, pigs, dogs,
dogs, hens,
hens, men men and and women live live in in oneone room.
room. The
poorest of
poorest of allall live
live in in rain-swept,
rain-swept, wind-beaten
wind-beaten huts huts of of mud and and straw.
straw. Those
Those
slightly better
with slightly
with better incomes
incomes cover cover the the floor
fioor with mats, or
with mats, or pave
pave it it with
with tiles.
tiles.
well-to-do adorn
The well-to-do adorn the the inner
inner courtcourt with shrubs and
with shrubs and flowers
flowers and and pools,
pools, or or
surround their
surround mansions with
their mansions gardens in
with gardens in which
which nature's
nature's wild wild variety
variety and and
playful sports
playful sports find find assiduous
assiduous representation.
representation. Here Here are are no no primrose
primrose paths,paths,
no avenues
no avenues of of tulip-beds,
tulip-beds, no no squares
squares or or circles
circles or or octagons
octagons of of grass
grass or or
Bowers; instead, precarious footways
flowers; instead, precarious footways wind casually through wind casually through rock-laid
rock-laid gulleys
gulleys
over devious
over devious riviilets,
rivulets, and and among
among trees trees whosewhose trunks
trunks or or limbs
limbs have have been
been
taught
taught to
to take
take strange
strange shapesshapes to
to satisfy sophisticated
satisfy sophisticated
souls.
souls. Here
Here and
and there
there

dainty pavilions, half

dainty pavilions, half hidden
hidden by by the the foliage,
foliage, offer the wanderer
offer the wanderer rest. rest.
The homehome itselfitself is not an
is not imposing affair,
an imposing affair, even
even when it it isis a palace. It
a pakce. It isis

never more
never more than than one one story in height; and if many rooms
story in height; and if many
rooms are needed,
are needed, the the
tendency
tendency is
is toto raise
raise new edificesedifices rather
rather than
than to
to enlarge
enlarge the
the old.
old. Hence a a
palatial dwelling
palatial dwelling
is
is seldom
seldom one
one united
united structure;
structure; it is
it is a a group
group of
of buildings
buildings
of
of which
which the the more
more important follow in' a line from the
important follow in a line from
the entrance
entrance to to the
the
enclosure,
enclosure, while
while the
the secondary
secondary buildings buildings are
are placed
placed at
at either
either side.
side. The
favorite
favorite materials
materials are are wood and and brick;
brick; stone stone rarely
rarely rises
rises above
above the the founda.-
founda-
tion
tion terrace;
terrace; brickbrick is is usually confined to the
to outer walls,
the outer walls, earthen tiles provide
earthen
usually confined
tiles
provide
the
die roof,
roof, andand wood
wood buildsbuilds thethe decorative
decorative columns columns and 'and the inner walls.
the inner walls. Above

the brightly
the colored walls an ornamental cornice
brightly colored walls an ornamental
cornice runs.runs. Neither
Neither the the walls
walls
nor
nor thethe columns
columns support support
the
the roof;
roof; this,
this, heavy though
heavy though it
it is,
is, rests
rests only upon
only upon
th~
the posts that form part of the wooden frame.
posts that form part of the wooden
frame. The roof roof is is the
the major
major partpart
of a
of a Chinese
Chinese temple or home. Built of glazed tiles-yellow if
temple or home. Built of glazed tiles-yellow
if covering
covering
imperial heads, otherwise green, purple, red red or or blue-the
blue the roof roof makes
makes a a pretty
imperial heads, otherwise green, purple, pretty
picture
picture
in
in a
a natural
natural surrounding,
surrounding,
and
and even
even in
in the
the chaos
chaos of of city
city streets.
streets. Per-

haps the projecting bamboos of ancient

haps the projecting bamboos of
ancient tent-tops
tent-tops gave gave the the Far EasternEastern roofroof
its graceful upward curve
its curve at
at thethe eaves;
eaves; but
but more probably
probably this
this celebrated
celebrated
graceful upward
form
form arosearose merely
merely from from the the desire
desire of of thethe Chinese
Chinese builder
builder to to protect
protect his
his

structure from min.- For

structure from rain." For there were few there were few windows in
in China;
China; Korean paper
paper
4

or eretty
·or pretty
lattices
lattices tooktook their place, and
their place,
and lattices
lattices would not keep keep out the
the rain.
rain.

1b-main
TOe-main doorway doorway is is not
not at at the
the gablegable end,
end, but on the southern fa~ade;
the southern fajade;
within the ornamented
within the ornamented portal portal is
is usually
usually
aa screen
screen or
or wall, barring
wall, barring the
the visitor
visitor

from an mediate view

from an immediate view of the interior, of the interior, and
and offering
offering some discouragement
discouragement
744
744 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXV
( CHAP. XXV

to evil spirits, who must

to evil travel in
must travel in aa straight line. The hall
straight line.
hall and rooms are are dim,
dim,
spirits,
for most of
for most the daylight
of the daylight is
is kept out
kept out by
by the
the latticed
latticed openings
openings and the
the pro-
pro-
jecting
jecting
eaves.
eaves. ThereThere are
are seldom
seldom any arrangements
any arrangements for
for ventilation,
ventilation, and.
and. thethe
only
only heat
heat supplied
supplied
is
is from
from portable braziers,
portable braziers,
or
or brick
brick beds
beds built
built over
over aa
smoky
smoky fire;fire; there
there are
are no
no chimneys
chimneys and
and no
no fiues.-
flues.* Rich
Rich and
and poor
poor suffer
suffer from
from
cold,
cold, and
and go go toto bedbed fully clothed.1O "Are
fully clothed.*
"Are you you cold?"
cold?" the the traveler
traveler asks asks the
the
Chinese; and the answer is often
Chinese; and the answer is often "Of course."* "Of course. ,til. The ceiling
ceiling maymay be
be hung
hung
with gaudy
with gaudy paper paper lanterns;
lanterns; the
the walls
walls may
may be
be adomed
adorned with calligraphic
calligraphic
scrolls,
scrolls, oror inkink sketches, silk hangings skilfully
or silk
sketches, pr hangings skilfully embroidered embroidered and and painted
painted
roral scenes.
widl rural
with scenes. The furniturefurniture is is usually of of heavy wood,
wood, stained
stained to
to anan
usually heavy
ebony
ebony black,
black, and
and luxuriantly
luxuriantly carved;
carved; the
the lighter pieces
lighter pieces may may be of
of brilliant
brilliant

lacquer. The Chinese

lacquer. Chinese are are the
the only
only Oriental
Oriental nationnation that that sits
sits on chairs;
chairs; and and
even
even they prefer to
they prefer to recline
recline or or squat.
squat.
On a
a special
special
table
table or
or shelf
shelf are are the
the
vessels used
vessels used to to offer
offer sacrifice
sacrifice to to the
the ancestral
ancestral dead.dead. In the rear
In the rear are
are thethe apart-
apart-
ments of
ments of the women. Separate
the women. Separate rooms rooms or or detached buildings may
detached buildings may house house a a
library or a school
library or a
school.
The general left by
general impression
impression left by Chinese
Chinese architecture
architecture upon upon the the foreign
foreign and and
untechnical observer
untechnical observer is is one
one of of channing
charming frailty.frailty. Color
Color dominates
dominates form,
form, and
and
beauty here
beauty here has has toto dodo without
without the the aid
aid of of sublimity.
sublimity. The Chinese Chinese temple temple or or
palace seeks
seeks not
not to
to dominate
dominate nature,
nature, but
but to
to cooperate with
with it in
it in that
that perfect
palace cooperate perfect
harmony of
harmony the whole
of the whole whichwhich depends
depends upon upon the modesty of
the modesty the parts.
of the parts. Those
Those
qualities
qualities that
that give
give a
a structure
structure strength, security
strength, security and
and permanence
permanence are
are absent
absent
here,
here, as
as if
if the
the builders
builders feared
feared that
that earthquakes
earthquakes would
would stultify
stultify
their
their pains.
pains.
These buildings
buildings hardly belong
hardly belong to
to the
the same
same art
art as
as that
that which
which raised its
raised its monu-monu-
ments at at Karnak
Karnak and Persepolis, the Acropolis;
Persepolis, and on the Acropolis; they they areare not
not architec-
architec-
ture as
ture as we of the Occident
of the Occident have have known it, but rather
it, but rather the the c.arving
carving of
of wood,
wood,
the glazing
the glazing of pottery
pottery and the
the sculpture
sculpture of
of stone;
stone; they
they ~onize
harmonize better
better
porcelain and jade
with porcelain
with jade than
than with the ponderous edifices
the ponderous edifices thatthat aa mixture
mixture of of
engineering
engineering and architecture
architecture gave
gave to
to India,
India, Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia or
or Rome.
Rome. If
If we
do not ask ask of them the grandeur and
the grandeur and the the solidity which
solidity
which their makers may
their makers may
never have
never have 'cared
cared to to give them,
give them, if
if we accept
accept them
them willingly
willingly
as
as architectural
architectural
cameos expressing
expressing the the most delicate
delicate of tastes in
of tastes the most
in the most fragile of structural
fragile of structural
forms,
forms, then they
then they take their place
take their place as a natural
as a natural and and appropriate variety of
appropriate variety of
Chinese art, and gracious shapes ever fashioned by men.
Chinese art, and among
among the the most gracious
shapes ever fashioned by men.
CHAP. xxv)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS
THE 745
745

IV•
IV. PAINTING

1. Masterssoj
1. Master of Chinese Painting
Chinese fainting

K'ai-chbi, the
Ku K'ai-cbhi, the "g:reatest painter, wit
"greatest painter, wit and fooF-Han Yu's
and fool"-Han Ytfs
mniature-The classic
miniature-The classic tmd the romantic
and the schools-Wang Wei
romantic schoolsWang
Wu TflO-tze-Hui
-Wu Tao-tzeHui Tsung, the artist-em.peror-MasteTs
Tsung, the artist-emperor Masters
of the Sung
of the Sung IIge
age

The Occident
Occident has has been
been forgivably
forgivably slow slow in in acquainting
acquainting itself itself with
with
Chinese painting, for
Chinese painting, almost every
for almost aspect
every aspect and
and method
method of
of the
the art
art in
in the
the
East
East differed
differed fromfrom itsits practice in
practice in the
the West.
West. First,
First, the
the paintings
paintings of
of the
the
Far.
Far. East were never
East were never on on canvas;
canvas; occasionally
occasionally they
they were wall frescoes,
were wall frescoes, as as
in the period
in the period of of Buddhist
Buddhist influence; sometimes,
influence; sometimes, as
as in
in later
later days, they
days, they were
were
on paper; but
on paper; but for
for the
the most part they
most part they were
were onon silk,
silk, and the frailty
and the of this
frailty of this

material shortened
material shortened the the life
life of
of every masterpiece,
every masterpiece, and
and left
left the
the history
history of of
the art with
the art with mere
mere memories
memories and
and records
records of accomplishment. Further,
of accomplishment. Further, the the
paintings
paintings had
had an
an air
air ofof thinness
thinness and
and slightness;
slightness;
most of
most of them were were in in
water-color,
water-color, and
and lacked
lacked the
the full-bodied
full-bodied and
and sensuous
sensuous tints
tints of
of European
European
pictUres
pictures
in
in oil.
oil. The Chinese
Chinese tried
tried oil-painting, but
oil-painting,
but seem
seem to
to have
have abandoned
abandoned
it
it as too coarse
as too coarse and
and heavy
heavy a a method
method for for their
their subtle purposes. To them
subtle purposes. them
painting,
painting,
at least
at least in
in its
its earliest
earliest forms,
forms, was
was a
a branch
branch of
of calligraphy,
calligraphy, or or
beautiful penmanship;
beautiful penmanship; the the brus~
brush which they used for
they used writing served
for writing served them
them
also
also for painting; and
for painting; and many
many of
of their
their chef-d'fZ'U/l)'feS
chef-d'ceuvres were
were drawn simply
simply
with brush
with brush andand ink.-
ink.* Finally,
Finally, their
their greatest
greatest achievements
achievements were were uncon-
uncon-
sciously hidden from
sciously hidden
from Western
Western travelers.
travelers. For the Chinese
For the Chinese do do not
not flaunt
flaunt
their pictures
pictures on on public
public or private walls;
or private walls; they
they roll them up up and store them
their roll them and store them
carefully away, and
carefully away,
and unfold
unfold them them for for occasional
occasional enjoyment
enjoyment as as we take take
down and
down and read aread a book.
book. Such
Such scroll
scroll paintings
paintings were
were arranged
arranged in
in sequence
sequence
on
on a roll of
a roll paper or
of paper or silk,
silk, and
and were "read""read" like
like a manuscript; smaller
a manuscript; smaller
pictures
pictures
were
were hung
hung on
on aa wall,
wall, but
but were
were seldom
seldom framed;
framed; sometimes
sometimes a
a series
series

•* Though is in
writing is in its
its origin of drawing painting, the Chinese classify
Though writing origin aa form of drawing or painting, the Chinese classify
painting as
as aa form
form of writing,
of writing,
and consider calligraphy,
and consider calligraphy, or beautiful
beautiful writing,
writing, as
as a D)ljor
major
painting
art. Specimens of
art. fine writing are
Specimens of fine writing
are hung on the
hung OD walls in
the walls in Chinese and Japanese
Japanese homes;
homes; and
devotees of
devotees the art
of the art have pursued its
have pursued its masterpieces
masterpieces as modem collectors
as modern collectors roam over conti-
nents to
nents to :find
find a picture or
a picture or a a vase.
vase. The most famous
famous of of Chinese calligraphers was Wang
Chinese calligraphers Wang
Hsi-chih was on on the
the Chinese as formed by
characters as his graceful
Hsi-chih (ca. (ca. 400 AJ>.); it
4DO A.D.); it was Chinese charaeteJ.'S by his graceful hand
the characters
that the
that characters were
were cut
cut when block-printing
block-printing began. great T'ang
began. The great emperor, T'ai
Tang emperor, Tat
Tsung, resorted to
Tsung, resorted to theft
theft to. get from
to.get from Pien-tsai
Pien-tsai a
0 a scroll written by
scroll written Wang Hsi-chih.
by Wang Hsi-chih. There-
There-

upon Picn-tsai, we are

upon Ken-tsai, are told, lost appetite
told, lost appetite and died.-
died.*
 746
746 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXV
(CHAP. XXV

of pictures
of pictures was
was painted
painted on
on aa screen.
screen. By the
the time
time of By
of the
the later
later Sung
Sung Dynasty Dynasty
the art
the of painting
art of painting had
had already
already developed
developed thirteen
thirteen "branches,"
"branches,"·88 and
and
innumerable forms.
innumerable fonns.
Painting is mentioned in
Painting is mentioned Chinese in Chinese literature
literature as as an
an established
established art several
art several
centuries before
centuries before Christ;
Christ; and
and despite
despite the
the interruptions
interruptions of
of war
war itit has con-
con- has
tinued in China to our
tinued in China to our own time. time.
Tradition
Tradition makes the first makes the first Chinese
Chinese painter
painter
aa woman,
woman, Lei, Le~ sister
sister ofof the
the pious
pious Emperor
Emperor Shun; "alas," cried
Shun; "alas," cried aa disgusted
disgusted
critic,
critic, "that
"that this
this divine
divine art
art should
should have
have been
been invented
invented by
by a
a woman!"8&
woman!"
04

Nothing
Nothing survives
survives of
of Chou
Chou painting;
painting;
but
but that
that the
the art
art was
was then already
then already
old appears from
old appears from Confucius'
Confucius' reportreport of of how deeply deeply he he was
was affected
affected by by
the frescoes in the Grand
the frescoes in the Grand Temple Temple at
at Lo-yang."
Lo-yang." During During the
the early years
early years
of the
of the Han
Han Dynasty
Dynasty aa writer complained that
writer complained hero whom he
that aa hero he admired
admired
had not been sufficiendy
had not been sufficiently painted: painted: "Good
"Good artists
artists are
are many;
many; why why. does
does "not
not
one of
one of them
them draw draw him?"
him?"· The story
86
story is is told
told of of an
an artist
artist virtuoso
virtuoso of of the
the
time, Lieh-I,
time, Lieh-I, who
who could
could draw
draw a
a perfectly straight
perfecdy straight
line
line one
one thousand
thousand feet
feet
long,
long,
could
could etch
etch a
a detailed
detailed map
map of
of China on
China on aa square
square inchinch of of surface,
surface, and and
could fill
could fill his
his mouth
mouth with with colored
colored waterwater and and spit
spit
it
it out
out in th~
in the form of
of
paintings; the
paintings;
the phoenixes
phcenixes which which he he painted
painted were so lifelike that people
were so lifelike that people
wondered why
wondered why they they did
did not
not fly away.rt
fly away/
7
There
There are
are signs
signs that
that Chinese
Chinese
painting reached
painting
reached one one of its zeniths
of its zeniths at at the beginning of
die beginning of our
our era,·
era," but war
and
and time have destroyed
time have destroyed the the evidence.
evidence. From the the days
days when the the Ch'in
Ch'in
warriors sacked Lo-yang
warriors sacked (ca. 149 B.C.),
Lo-yang (ca. 249 B.C.), burning burning whatever
whatever they
they could
could ~ot
not
use,
use, down
down to to the
the Boxer
Boxer Uprising
Uprising (1900 (1900 A.D.),
A.D.), when the soldiers of Tung
the soldiers of Tung
Cho
Cho employed
employed the
the silk
silk pictures of
pictures
of the
die Imperial
Imperial Collection
Collection for
for wrapping
wrapping
purposes, the victories of art and
of art and war
war have alternated in
have alternated in their
their ancient
ancient
purposes, tie victories
. conflict-destruction
conflict-destruction always never still.
always certain,
certain, butbut creation
creation never still,

As
As Christianity transformed
transformed Mediterranean
Mediterranean culture
culture and
and art in
art in the
the third
third
Christianity
and
and fourth
fourth centuries
centuries afterafter Christ,
Christ, so Buddhism, in
so Buddhism, in the
the same
same centuries,
centuries,
effected
effected a a theological
theological
and
and esthetic
esthetic revolution
revolution in
in the
the life
life of
of China.
China. While
Confucianism
Confucianism retained retained its its political power, Buddhism,
political power, Buddhism, mingling
mingling with with
Taoism,
Taoism, became
became the the dominating
dominating force
force in
in art,
art, and
and brought
brought to
to the
the Chinese.
Chinese,
aa stimulating
stimulating contactcontact withwith Hindu motives, symbols,
Hindu motives, symbols, methods
methods and and fonns.
forms.
The greatest genius of
greatest genius
of the
the Chinese
Chinese Buddhist
Buddhist schoolschool of of painting
painting was Ku
K'ai-chih,
K'ai-chih, a
a man of
of such
such unique
unique and
and positive personality
positive personality
that
that a a web of of
anecdote
anecdote or legend has
or legend meshed him
has meshed him in.in. He lovedloved thethe girl
girl
next
next door,
door, andand
offered
offered herher hishis hand;
hand; but
but she,
she, not
not knowing
knowing how famous
famous he
he was
was to
to be,
be,
refused him.
refused him. He paintedpainted her her fonn
form upon
upon aa wall,
wall, and
and stuck
stuck a a thorn
thorn into into the
the
heart,
heart, whereupon
whereupon the the girl began to
girl began
to die. approached her a~
die. He approached her
again,
and
and
CHAP. xxv)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS
THE 747
747

she yielded; he
she yielded; he removed
removed the the thom
thorn fromfrom his his picture,
picture, and and forthwith
forthwith the the
girl grew well.
girl grew
well. When the the Buddhists
Buddhists tried tried to raise money
to raise money to to build
build a a
temple
temple at
at Nanking
Nanking he
he promised
promised the
the fund
fund one
one million
million "cash";
"cash"; all
all China
China
laughed
laughed at the offer,
at the offer, for
for Ku was was as as poor as
poor as an an artist.
artist. "Give
"Give me the the use
use of of a a
wall," he
wall," he asked.
asked. Having
Having found found a a wall
wall and and secured privacy, he
secured privacy, he painted
painted
there the
there the Buddhist
Buddhist saint saint Uimala-Kirti.
Uimala-Kirri. When it was finished
it was finished he he sent
sent for for
the priests,
the priests, and and explained
explained to them how they
to them they might raise the
might raise the million
million "cash."
"cash."
"On the first day you must
the first must charge 100,000 'cash'
'cash* for
for admission"
admission" to
to seesee
day you charge 100,000
the picture;
the picture; "on "on the second day,
the second 50,000; on the third day let visitors sub-
day, 50,000; on the third day let visitors
sub-
scribe what they
scribe what they please."
please." They They did
did as
as he
he told
told them,
them, and
and took
took in
in a
a million
million
"cash."·
"cash,"* Ku painted painted aa longlong series of
series of Buddhist
Buddhist pictures, and
pictures,
and manymany others,others,
but nothing
but nothing certainly
certainly
his
his has
has come
come down
down to
to our
our day.·
day.* He wrote
wrote three
three
treatises
treatises on on pfinting, of which some fragments
planting, of which some fragments survive. Men,
survive. Men, he
he said,
said,
were the
were the most
most difficult
difficult things to
things to paint;
paint;
next
next came
came landscapes,
landscapes, then
then horses
horses
and
and gods.'fI
1
insisted on being a philosopher, too; under his
gods.* He insisted on being a philosopher, too; under portrait of
his portrait of
the emperor
the emperor he he wrote:
wrote: "In Nature there
"In Nature there is is nothing high which
nothing high which is is not
not soonsoon
brought
brought low....
low. . . When
. the
the sun
sun has
has reached
reached its noon,
its noon, it
it begins to
begins to sink;
sink;
when the
when the moon
moon is is full
full itit begins to to wane.
wane. To rise
rise to
to glory is
is as
as hard
hard as as to
to
begins glory
build aa mountain
build mountain out of grains
out of of dust; to fall into
grains of dust; to fall
into calamity
calamity is as easy
is as
easy as as
the rebound of a tense
the rebound of a tense spring." spring.'''' 78
His
His contemporaries
contemporaries ranked
ranked him as
as the
the
outstanding
outstanding
man
man of
of his
his time
time in
in three
three lines: in
lines: painting, in
in painting, wit, and
in wit, and in in fool-
fool-

ishness."
ishness.
7*

Painting flourished at the T'ang court.

Painting flourished at the Tang
court. "There"There are are as many painters
as many painters as
as

morning, stars," said Tu Fu, "but artists

Fu, "but artists are few." In
are few."'" the ninth
ninth century
78
In the
morning, stars," said century
Chang Yen-yUan
Chang Yen-yuan
wrote
wrote a
a book
book called
called Eminent
Eminent Painters
Painters of
of All
All Ages,
Ages, in
in

which he
which he" described
described the the work
work of of three
three hundred
hundred and seventy seventy artists.
artists. A pic-
pic-
ture by a master, he tells
ture by a master, he tells us, brought us, brought in
in those
those days
days as
as much as
as twenty
twenty
thousand ounces
thousand ounces of of silver.
silver. But But he he warns
warns us us against rating art art in.
in monetary
monetary
against rating
terms; "good
terms; pictures," he writes, "are
"good pictures," he writes,
"are more priceless
priceless than than goldgold or jade;
or jade;
bad ones
bad ones are are notnot worth
worth a a potsherd.""
potsherd."
16
Of T'ang painters we still know
Tang painters we still know
the
the names
names of
of two
two hundred
hundred and
and twenty;
twenty; of
of their
their work hardly
work hardly anything
anything
remains, for the Tatar revolutionists
remains, for the Tatar revolutionists who sacked
sacked Chang-~
Chang-an in
in 75 6 A.D. did
756 A.D. did
no~ care
not care for painting. We catch
for painting. catch something
something of the art
of the art atmosphere
atmosphere that that

mingled with the

mingled with the poetry
poetry of
of the
the time,
time, in
in the
the story
story of
of Han Yti,
Yii, the
the famous
famous

• The
The British Museum asSigns
British Museum to him
assigns to
him a a faded but lovely
faded but lovely scroll
scroll of five pictures
of five pictures illustrat-
illustrat-

ing
ing
model
model family life;'IO
family life;
the
the Temple
10
Temple of
of Confucius
Confucius at
at Chii-fu
Chu-fu con~
contains a stone e~ving
a stone engraving
purporting to follow aa design of Ku; and
and the Freer Gallery
the Freer Gallery at Washington contams
contains two
two
purporting to Mow
at Washington
design of Ku;
71
excellent copies
excellent copies of
of compositions
compositions attributed
attributed to
to him.a.
him.
 748 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. xxv
(CHAP. XXV

"Prince
"Prince of of Literature."
Literature." One day day he he \von,
won, from from a a fellow
fellow lodger
lodger at an inn,
at an inn,
aa precious
precious
miniature
miniature portraying,
portraying, in
in the smallest compass,
the smallest compass, one
one hundred
hundred and
and
twenty-three
twenty-three human figures, eighty-three
figures, eighty-three
horses,
horses, thirty
thirty other
other animals,
animals,
three chariots,
three chariots, and and twotwo hundred
hundred and and :fifty-one
fifty-one articles.
articles. "I "I thought a
thought a great great
deal
deal of
of it, for
it, for II could
could not not believe
believe that that it it was
was the the ~ork
work of of a a single man,
single man,
uniting
uniting as
as it did
it did in
in itself such
itself such a
a variety
variety of
of excellences;
excellences; and
and no
no sum
sum would
would
have
have tempted
tempted me to
to part
part from
from it.
it. Next year
year left the city, and went to
I
I left the city, and went to
Ho-yang;
Ho-yang; and
and there,
there, one
one day,
day, while
while discussing
discussing
art
art with
with strangers,
strangers,
I
I pro-
pro-
duced
duced the the picture
picture for for them
them to to see.see. Among
Among them them was was a a Mr.
Air. Chao,
Chao, a a
Censor,* a.
Censor,· a highly
highly cultivated
cultivated man, man, who, who, when he he sawsaw it, seemed
it, seemed ratherrather
overcome,
overcome, and
and at
at length
length said:
said: 'That
'That picture
picture is
is a
a copy,
copy, made by
by me in
in my
my
youth,
youth, of
of aa work from
from the
the Imperial Gallery.
Imperial Gallery. I
I lost
lost it
it twenty years
twenty years ago ago
"
while
while traveling
traveling in in the
the province
province of of Fukien.'"
FuMen.' Han Yii Yii at at once
once presented
presented
the
the miniature
miniature to to Mr.
Mr. Chao.
Chao.
Just
Just asas inin Chinese religion two schools
Chinese religion schools had had taken shape;
taken shape, Confucian Confucian and and
Taoist-Bu~dhist-and
Taoist-Buddhist- and just as two schools,
just
as two schools, led byled by Chu Hsi Hsi and and Wang
Wang
Yang-ming,
Yang-ming, were
were soon
soon to
to develop
develop in
in philosophy, representing
philosophy, representing respectively respectively
what we in in thethe West would would call call the
the classic
classic and and the the romantic
romantic types types of
of
mind; so
mind; so in Chines~e painting
in Chinese
painting the northern artists
the northem artists accepted a
accepted a stern stern tradi-
tradi-
tion of
tion of classical
classical sobriety and
sobriety and restraint,
restraint, while
while the
the south
south gave
gave color
color and
and
form to to feeling
feeling and
and imagination.
imagination. The northem
northern school
school set itself
set itself severely
severely
to secure
to correct modeling
secure correct modeling of
of :figure
figure and
and full
full clarity
clarity
of
of line;
line; the
the southern
southern
rebelled like
rebelled like Montmartre
Montmartre against against such limi~tions, disdained
such limitations, disdained aa simple real-
simple real-
ism, and
ism, and tried
tried to to use
use objects merely as
objects merely elements in
as elements in aa spiritual experience,
spiritual experience,
tones in
tones in aa musical
musical mood."mood." Li Li Ssu-hsiin, painting at
Ssu-hsiin, painting at the
the court
court of of Ming
Ming
Huang,
Huang, found
found time,
time, amid
amid the
the fluctuations
fluctuations of
of political power
political power and lonely
and lonely
exile, to
exile, to establish
establish the the northern
northern school.
school. He painted painted some some of of the
the first
first Chinese
Chinese
landscapes,
landscapes, and
and achieved
achieved a
a degree
degree of
of realism
realism carried
carried down in
in many
many aa tale; tale;
the Emperor
the Emperor said saia he he could
could hear,
hear, at at night,
night, the the splash
splash of of the
the water
water that that Li Li
had painted
had painted upon upon an an imperial
imperial screen;
screen; and and aa fishfish leaped
leaped to to life
life outout ofof an-an-
other of
other his pictures
of his pictures and and was kter later found
found in in aa pool
pool-every nation tells
every nation tells such
such
stories of
stories of its painters. The southern
its painters. southern school school sprouted
sprouted out out of of thethe natural
natural
innovations of
innovations of art, and the
art, and the genius
genius of of Wang
Wang Wei; Wei; in in his impressionist style
his impressionist style'
landscape became
a landscape
a became merely merely the symbol of
the symbol mood. A poet
of aa mood. poet as as well
well as as aa
painter, Wang
painter, Wang sought sought to
to bind
bind the
the two
two arts
arts by making
by making the
the picture express
picture express
·aa poem;
poem; it it was
was of of him that that men first first used
used the the now trite trite phrase
phrase so applicabl~
so applicable
*
• Cf.
Cf. p. 798 below.
p. 798 below.
CHAP. XXV)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE
THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS
OF THE ARTISTS 749
749
to nearly all
to nearly all Chinese
Chinese poetrypoetry and and painting: "Every poem is a picture, and
painting: "Every poem is a picture, and
every picture is
every picture is aa poem."
poem." (In
(In many
many cases
cases the poem isis inscribed
the poem inscribed upon the
upon the
picture,
picture, and
and is
is itself
itself aa calligraphic work of Tung
calligraphic work of art.) Tung Ch'i-ch'ang,
art.)
Ch'i-ch'ang, we
we
are told,
are
spent his
told, spent his whole
whole lifelife searching for a genuine Wang Wei.".
searching for a genuine Wang Wei
78 *
The greatest
The painter of the T'
greatest painter of the Tang epoch, and,
ang epoch, and, by by common
common consent,
consent, of of
all the Far
all the Far East,
East, rose above distinctions
rose above distinctions of of school,
school, and
and belonged rather
rather to
to
belonged
the
the Buddhist
Buddhist tradition
tradition of of Chinese
Chinese art. art. W Wuu Tao-tze
Tao-tze deserved
deserved his his name-
name-
Wu,
Wu, Master of the
Master of the Tao or
7^ Way,or Way, for
for all those
all those impressions
impressions
and
and formlessr
formless'
thoughts which
thoughts Lao-tze ~d
which Lao-tze
Chuang-tze had
and Chuang-tze had found
found too subtle for
too subtle for words
words
seemed to Bow naturally
seemed to flow naturally into line and
into line and color under his
color under his brush.
brush. "A "A poverty-
poverty-
stricken
stricken orphan," a
orphan," a Chinese Chinese historian
historian describes
describes him,him, "but
"but endowed
endowed with with
not assumed
assumed the the cap
aa divine cap ofof puberty ere was
divine nature,
nature, he he had
had not ere he
he was already
puberty already
flooded Lo-yang with
aa master artist, and had :Booded
Lo-yang with his his works."
works." Chinese
Chinese tradi-
master artist, tradi-
tion has
tion it that
has it that he was fond of of wine
wine andand feats of strength, and thought like
strength, and thought like
feats of
1t
Poe thatthat thethe spirit
spirit could
could work best best under
under a a little
litde intoxication.
intoxication* He ex- ex-
celled
celled inin every subject: men, gods, devils, Buddhas, birds,
every subject: men, gods, devils, Buddhas, birds, beasts, buildings, beasts, buildings,
landscapes-all seemed to come naturally
landscapes-all naturally to to his
his exuberant
exuberant art. art. He
He painted
painted
with equal
with skill
skill on silk, paper, and
and freshly-plastered walls; he made three
equal silk, paper, freshly-plastered walls; he made three
hundred frescoes for Buddhist
hundred frescoes for Buddhist edifices,
edifices, and and oneone of theSt, containing
of thegfc,
containing more
more
than aa thousand
than thousand figures, ngures, became
became as as famous
famous in in China
China as as "The
"The LastLast Judg-
Judg-
ment" or
ment" or "The Last Supper" in
Last Supper" Europe. Ninety-three
in Europe. Ninety-three of his pain~gs
of his paintings
were in
were in the
the Imperial
Imperial GalleryGallery in in the
the twelfth
twelfth century,
century, fourfour hundred
hundred years years
after his death;
after his death; but none remains anywhere
but none remains anywhere today. today. His His Buddhas,
Buddhas, we we are
are
told, "fathomed
told, "fathomed the the mysteries
mysteries of of life
life and
and death";
death"; hishis picture
picture of of purgatory
purgatory
frightened some
frightened some of of the
the butchers
butchers and and fishmongers
fishmongers of of China
China into abandoning
into abandoning
their scandalously un-Buddhistic
their scandalously un-Buddhistic trades; trades; his his representation
representation of of Ming
Ming
Huang's
Huang's dream
dream convinced
convinced the
the Emperor
Emperor that
that Wu had
had had
had an
an identical
identical
vision.- When
vision* When the the monarch
monarch sent sent Wu to to sketch
sketch the the scenery
scenery alongalong the the
Chia-ling
Chia-ling River
River in
in Szechuan
Szechuan he
he was
was piqued
piqued to
to see
see the
the artist
artist return
return without
without
having sketched
having sketched aa line. line. "I "I have
have itit all
all in
in my heart," said
my heart," said Wu;
Wu; and and isolating
isolating
himself in
himself in aa room
room of the palace,
of the palace, he he threw
threw off, off, we
we areare assured,
assured, aa hundred
hundred
miles
miles of of landscape.*!
landscape.-t When When GeneralGeneral Pei Pei wished
wished his his portrait painted, Wu
portrait painted, Wu
asked him
asked him not not to to pose,
pose, butbut to to do
do aa sword
sword dance;
dance; after which the
after which artist
the artist
painted aa
painted picture picture that
that conternporuies
contemporaries felt
felt constrained
constrained to
to ascribe
ascribe to
to divine
divine

•Only
*Only copies remain: chiefly
copies remain: chieBy aa "Waterfall"
"Waterfall" inin the
the Temple Ch,isakuin atat Kyoto,
of Chi.saVnin
Temple of Kyoto," and
and
roll (in
aa roll both die
(in both British
the British Museum and
Museum the Freer
and the Gallery) entitled
Freer Gallery) "Scenery of
entided "Scenery of the
the
Wang
Wang Ch'uan.'"
Ch'uan."*
ftCf
Cf. Croce's
Croce's view
view that
that art lies inin the
art lies the conception
conception rather than inin the
rather than execution.8II
the execution. *
.
750 THE STORY
THE OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXV
(CHAP.XXV

inspiration. So
inspiration.
So great
great was was hishis reputation
reputation that that when
when he he was
was finishing
:finishing some some
Buddhist figures
Buddhist figures at
at the
the Hsing-shan
Hsing-shan Temple, Temple, "the
"the whole
whole of
of Chang-an"
Chang-an"
came to
came to see him add
see him add the finishing touches.
the finishing touches. Surrounded
Surrounded by this assemblage,
by this assemblage,
says a Chinese historian
says a Chinese
historian of of the
the ninth
ninth century,
century, "he "he executed
executed the haloes with
the haloes with
so violent a rush
so violent a rush and and swirl
swirl that
that it
it seemed
seemed as
as though
though aa whirlwind
whirlwind possessed
possessed
all who
88
his hand,
his hand, andand all who saw saw itit cried
cried thatthat some
some god god was
was helping him":- the
helping him": the
lazy will always
lazy will always
attribute
attribute genius
genius to
to some
some "inspiration"
"inspiration" that
that comes
comes for
for mere
mere
waiting.
waiting.
When
When Wu had
had lived
lived long
long enough,
enough, says aa pretty
says pretty tale,
tale, hehe painted
painted aa
vast landscape,
vast landscape, stepped
stepped into into thethe mouth
mouth of of aa cave
cave pictured
pictured in in it, and
it, and was was
never seen again.-
never seen again. Never
88
Never had
had art
art known such
such mastery
mastery and
and delicacy
delicacy of of
line.
line.

Under the
Under the Sung
Sung emperors
emperors paintingpainting became passion with
became aa passion with thethe Chinese.
Chinese.
Emancipa:tfug itself from
Emancipating itself
from subserviency
subserviency to to Buddhist themes,
Buddhist themes, it poured
it poured
forth an unprecedented
forth an unprecedented number
number and
and variety
variety of
of pictures.
pictures. The
The Sung
Sung Em-
peror Hui Tsung was
peror Hui Tsung
was himself
himself not not the the least of the eight
least of the eight hundred known
hundred
painters of of the day. In
the day. In a a roll
roll which
which is is one
one of of the tr~es of
the treasures of the
the Museum
painters
of Fine Arts in Boston
of Fine Arts in Boston he portrayed he portrayed with
with astonishing simplicity and clarity
astonishing simplicity and clarity
81
the stages
the stages through
through which which women carried carried the the preparation
preparation of of silk;'"
silk; he
he
founded an art
founded an art museum museum richer
richer in
in masterpieces
masterpieces than
than any
any collection
collection that
that

China has
China has ever
ever again known;- he elevated
elevated the the Painting Academy
Academy from from a
88
known; he Painting a
again
mere
mere department of the Literary College into
department of the Literary College
into an an independent
independent instimtion
institution of of
the
the highest rank, substituted art
highest rank, substituted
art tests
tests forfor some of the literary
of the literary exercises
exercises

traditionally
traditionally
used
used in
in thethe examinations
examinations for for political
political office,
office, and raised
raised men

to the ministry for

to the ministry for their their excellence
excellence in
in art
art as
as often
often as
as for
for their
their skill
skill in
in states-
states-

manship.· 89
The Tatars, hearing of of all all this, invaded China,
this, invaded China, deposed
deposed the
manship. The Tatars, hearing
the
Emperor,
Emperor, sacked
sacked the
the capital
capital
and
and destroyed
destroyed nearly nearly all
all of
of the
the paintings in
paintings in

the
the Imperial Museum, whose
Imperial Museum,
whose catalogue
catalogue had had :6lled
filled twenty volumes.
twenty volumes.
80tO
The
artist-emperor was
was carried
carried away by the
the invaders,
invaders, and died in
and died in captivity
artist-emperor away by captivity
and disgrace.
and disgrace.
Greater
Greater than than thisthis royal
royal painter
painter
were Kuo Hsi
were and Li
Hsi and Li Lung-mien.
Lung-mien. "For "For
tall
tall pines, huge trees, swirling streams, beetling
pines, huge trees, swirling streams, beetling crags, steep precipices,
crags, steep precipices,
mountain
mountain peaks, now lovely in
now lovely the rising
in the rising mist,
mist, now
now lostlost inin an
an obscuring
obscuring
peaks,
pall,
pall,
with
with all their thousand
all their thousand ten
ten thousand
thousand shapes-critics
shapes-critics allow
allow that
that KuoKuo
Hsi strode
Hsi across his
strode across his generation."·· Li Li Lung-mien
Lung-mien was was an artist, a
an artist, a scholar,
01

generation."* scholar,
aa successful
successful official
official and
and aa gentleman,
gentleman, honored
honored by
by the
the Chinese
Chinese as
as the
the per-
per-
feet
fect type
type
of
of Chinese
Chinese culture
culture at at its
its richest.
richest. He He passed
passed from
from the
the profession
profession

• The
The Freer has aa "Landscape Hoang-ho" uncertainly
Gallery at
at Washington "Landscape on
Freer Gallery Washington has on the
the Hoang-ho" uncertainly
attributed
attributed to
to Kuo
Kuo Hsi..
HsL*
CHAP. xxv)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE
THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS
OF THE ARTISTS 7SI
751
ofof calligraphy
calligraphy to to sketching and
sketching and painting, and rarely used anything but
painting, and rarely used anything but
ink; he gloried in
ink; he gloried the strict
in the strict traditions
traditions of of the
the Northern
Northern School,School, andand spent
spent
himself
himself upon accuracy
upon accuracy and
and delicacy
delicacy of line. He painted horses so
of line. He painted horses so 'Well
well
that
that when
when six six that
that hehe had
had painted
painted died,
died, it
it was
was charged
charged
that
that his
his picture had
picture had
stolen their vital
stolen their vital principle from
principle from them.
them. AA Buddhist priest wamed
Buddhist priest warned him that him that
he
he would
would become
become aa horsehorse ifif he
he painted horses
horses so
so often
often andand soso intendy; he
painted intendy; he
accepted
accepted the the counsel
counsel of of the
the monk,
monk, and
and painted
painted
five
five hundred
hundred Lobans.
Lohans. We "Ve
may
may judge
judge of of his
his repute by the
repute by the fact fact that
that HuiHui Tsung's imperial gallery,
Tsung's imperial gallery,
when
when it was sacked,
it was sacked, contained
contained one one hundred
hundred and and seven
seven works
works by Li
by Li
Lung-mien.
Lung-mien.
Other
Other masters
masters crowded
crowded the Sung scene: Mi
the Sung scene: Mi Fe~
Fei, anan eccentric
eccentric genius
genius
who was
who forever washing his
was forever washing his hands
hands or
or changing
changing his
his clothes
clothes when
when he he was
was
transforming landscape painting with his
not
not collecting
collecting old old masters
masters or or transforming landscape painting with his
"method
"method of of blobs"-daubs
blobs" daubs of ink laid
of ink laid on
on without
without the the guidance
guidance
of
of any
any
con-
con-
tour
tour line;- Hsia Kue~
line;* Hsia Kuei, whose long the Yang-tze-its
long roll
roll ofof scenes
scenes from
from the Yang-tze-its
modest sources, its
modest sources, its passage through loess
passage through loess and and gorges, its gaping mouth
gorges, its gaping mouth
:filled sampans-has many students ~o
filled with merchant ships and and led
led many students-
98
to rank
ships sampaw-has rank
him
him at the head of all
at the all landscape painters of of Orient
Orient and Occident; Ma Yuan,
and Occident; Ma
landscape painters Yuan,
whose delicate landscapes and
whose delicate landscapes and distant distant vistas
vistas adorn
adorn the the Boston
Boston Museum
Museum of of
Fine Arts;t
Fine Liang K'ai,
Arts;t Liang K'ai, with
with his his stately portrait
stately portrait of
of Li
Li Po; Mu-ch'~ with
Po; Mu-ch'i, with his his
terrible tiger, his
terrible tiger, careless starling,
his careless starling, and and hishis morose
morose but but gentle
gentle Kuan-yin;
Kuan-yin;
and others
and others whose
whose names
names strike
strike no familiar chords
no familiar chords in in Occidental
Occidental memories,
memories,
but are
but are the
the tokens
tokens of of aa mind
mind richrich inin the
the heritage
heritage of of the
the East.
East. "The
"The Sung
Sung
culture," says
culture," says Fenollosa,
Fenollosa, "was"was the the ripest
ripest expression
expression of of Chinese
Chinese genius."
genius."·
05

When we try try toto estimate

estimate the the quality
quality of of Chinese
Chinese painting
painting in in the heyday
the heyday
of Tang
of T'ang and Sung
and Sung are in
we are in the
the position
position of of future
future historians
historians who who may
may trytry
to write
to write of of the
the Italian
Italian Renaissance
Renaissance when when all all the
the works
works of Raphae~ Leo-
of Raphael, Leo-
nardo and
nardo and Michelangelo
Michelangelo have have beenbeen lost.
lost. After
Mter the the ravages
ravages of of barbaric
barbaric
hosts had
hosts had destroyed
destroyed the the masterpieces
masterpieces of of Chinese
Chinese painting,
painting, and and interrupted
interrupted
for centuries
for centuries the the continuity
continuity of of Chinese
Chinese development,
development, painting
painting seems
seems to to
have lost
have lost heart;
heart; and though
and though the ~ter dynasties,
the later dynasties, native
native and alien, produced
and alien, produced
many
many artists
artists of
of delicacy
delicacy or
or power,
power, none
none could
could rank
rank with
with the
the men
men who
who
had known
had known paradise
paradise for for aa time
time at at the
the courts
courts of of Ming
Ming HuangHuang and and HuiHui
*A landscape attributed
• A landscape Mi Fei
attributed toto Mi may be
Fei may be seen
seen in Room E nII of
in Room of the
the Metropolitan
Metropolitan
Museum
Museum of
of Ait.
Art.
tt Particularly striking isis "The
Particularly striking "The Lady Ling-chao Standing
Lady Ling-chao Standing inin the
the Snow."
Snow." The Lady (a(a
The Lady
Buddhist mystic
Buddhist mystic ofof the
the eighth century) isis quite
eighth century) still inin meditation,
quite still meditation, like
like Socrates in
Socrates jn the
the
snow atat Plataea.
snow Plata. TheThe world
world (the
(the artist
artist seems say) isis nothing
seems toto say) nothing except to aa mind;
except to mind; and
and
that mind can
thatmind can ignore
ignore fc-f
it-for while.
or aa while. .
75
7521 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION ( CHAP. XXV
(CHAP.XXV

Tsung.
Tsung. When we we think
think of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese we must
must see
see them not
not merely
merely as as a
a
people now stricken ,vith poverty, weakened
people now stricken with poverty,
weakened with
with corruption,
corruption, tomtorn with
with
factions
factions and
and disgraced
disgraced
with
with defeat,
defeat, but
but as
as a
a nation
nation that
that has
has had,
had, in
in the
the long
long
vista
vista of its history, ages that
of its history, ages
that could
could compare
compare with
with those
those of Pericles,
of Pericles, Augustus
Augustus
and
and the Medici, and
the Medici, may have
and may have such
such ages
ages again.
again.

2.
2. Qualities
Qualities of
of Chinese
Chinese Painting
Painting .

The
The rejection
rejection of Of realism-Line
perspective-Of
of perspective realismLine as as nobler
nobler than
than
color - Form
color as rhythm
Form as - Representation by suggestion-
rhythm Representation by suggestion
Conventions and restrictirms-SinceritY.
Conventions and restriction Sincerity of
of Chinese
Chinese art
art

What is it that
is it that distinguishes Chinese painting,
distinguishes Chinese painting,
and
and makes
makes it it so
so completely
completely
different
different fromfrom every
every other
other school
school of
of painting
painting in
in history except
history except its its own

pupils in Japan? First, of

pupils in Japan? First,
of course,
course, itsits scroll
scroll or or screen
screen form.
form. But But thisthis isis an
an
external
external matter;
matter; farfar more
more intrinsic
intrinsic and fundamental is
and fundamental is the
the Chinese
Chinese scornscorn of of
perspective
perspective and shadow.
shadow. When two European painters
European painters accepted accepted the
the invita-
invita-
tion
tion of the Emperor
of the Emperor K'ang-hsi
K'ang-hsi to to come and and paint
paint decorations
decorations for for his
his palaces,
palaces,
their
their work was rejectedrejected because
because they
they had
had made the
the farther
farther columns
columns in their
in their
pictures
pictures shorter
shorter than
than the
the nearer
nearer ones; n~thing
ones; nothing could
could be
be more false and
more false and
artificial, argued
artificial, argued the the Chinese,
Chinese, thanthan to to represent
represent distances
distances wherewhere obviously
obviously
there were
there were none*none.- Neither
Neither party
party could understa;nd the
could understand the prejudice
prejudice of of thethe
other,
other, for the Europeans
for the Europeans had
had been
been taught
taught to
to look
look at
at a
a scene
scene from
from a
a level
level
with it,
with while the
it, while the Chinese artists were accustomed
Chinese artists accustomed to ~ it
to visualize it as
as seen
seen
from above"
from above.'" Shadows,
Shadows, too, too, seemed
seemed to
to the
the Chinese
Chinese to
to be
be out
out of
of place in
place in a
a
form of
form of art which, as
art which, as they understod
they understod it,
it, aimed
aimed not to imitate reality,
not to imitate reality, but to but to
give pleasure,
give pleasure, convey
convey moods,
moods, andand suggest
suggest ideasideas through
through the the medium
medium of per~
of per?
feet form.
feet form.
The formform was was everything
everything in in these
these paintings,
paintings, and and it was sought
it was sought not not in in
warmth or
warmth or splendor
splendor of of color,
color, but
but inin rhythm
rhythm and and accuracy
accuracy of of line.
line. In In thethe
early paintings color
early paintings color was
was sternly
sternly excluded,
excluded, and and inin the
the masters
masters it was rare;
it was rare;
black ink
black ink and
and aa brush
brush werewere enough,
enough, for for aa color
color had
had nothing
nothing to to dodo with
with
form. Form,
form. FonD, as as the
the artist-theorist
artist-theorist Hsieh
Hsieh Ho said, is rhythm:
said, is rhythm: first first inin thethe
sense that
sense that aa Chinese
Chinese painting
painting is the visible
is the visible record
record of of aa rhythmic
rhythmic gesture,
gesture, aa
dance executed
dance executed by by the
the hand;*
hand;- and again in
and again in the
the sense
sense that significant form
that aa significant fonn
reveals the
reveals the "rhythm
"rhythm of of the
the spirit,"
spirit," thethe essence
essence and and quiet
quiet movement
movement of of
reality.
88
Finally, the body
reality.- Finally, the body of rhythm
of rhythm is line-not
is line not asas describing
descnbing the the actual
actual
contours of
contours things, but
of things, but asas building
building forms
forms that, through suggestion
that, through suggestion or or symbol,
symbol,
express the
express soul. The skill
the soul skill of
of execution,
execution, as distinct from
as distinct from die the power
power of per-
of per-
ception, feeling
ception, feeling and
and imagination,
imagination, lies-in
lies in Chinese
Chinese painting-almost
painting almost entirely
entirely in
in
CHAP. xxv)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE
AGE OF THE ARTISTS
OF THE ARTISTS 753
753
accuracy
accuracy and and delicacy
delicacy of of line.
line. The painter must observe with patient care,
painter must observe with patient care,
possess
possess intense
intense feeling
feeling under strict
strict contro~
control, conceive his
conceive his purpose clearly, and
purpose clearly, and
then,
then, without the possibility
without the
possibility of of correction,
correction, transfer
transfer to to thethe silk, \vith a few
silk, with a few
continuous
continuous and easeful strokes, his
easeful strokes, his representative imagination. The
representative imagination. The art of
art of
line
line reached
reached its its apex in
apex in China
China and
and Japan,
Japan,
as
as the
the art
art of
of color
color touched
touched its
its

zenith in
zenith in Venice and and thethe Netherlands.
Netherlands.
Chinese
Chinese painting
painting never never cared
cared for for realism,
realism, but but sought rather to suggest
sought rather to suggest
than to to describe;
describe; it
it left
left "truth"
"truth" to science,
to science, and and gave itself to beauty. A
gave itself to beauty.
branch emerging
branch emerging nowhence,
nowhence, and and bearing a few leaves or blossoms against a
bearing a few leaves or blossoms against a
clear
clear sky, sky, was sufficient
sufficient subject for
subject for the
the greatest master; his handling. and
greatest master; his handling and
proportion
proportion of
of the
the empty background
empty background were
were tests
tests of
of his
his courage and his skill.
courage and his skill.
One of the subjects proposed
subjects proposed to
to candidates
candidates for
for admission
admission to
to Hui
Hui Tsung's
Tsung's
Painting Academy
Painting Academy may may serve
serve to
to illustrate
illustrate the
the Chinese
Chinese emphasis on indirect
emphasis on indirect
suggestion
suggestion as against
as
against explicit
explicit representation: the contestants were asked t~
representation: the contestants were asked to
illustrate
illustrate by paintings a
by paintings a line line of of poetry-"The
poetry-'The hoof hoof of of his
his steed
steed comes
comes backback
heavily
heavily chargedcharged with with the the scent
scent of of thethe trampled
trampled
flowers."
flowers." The
The successful
successful
competitor
competitor was an artist artist who painted a
painted a rider rider withwith a a cluster
cluster of of butterflies
butterflies
following
following at
at the
the horse's
horse's heels.
heek
&As the the form
form was was everything,
everything, the the subject
subject mightmight be be anything.
anything.
Men were
were
rarely
rarely the the center
center or or essence
essence of of the picture; when they
the picture;
they appeared they were
appeared they were
almost
almost alwaysalways old,
old, and
and nearly
nearly all
all alike.
alike. The Chinese
Chinese painter, though
painter, though
he
he was
was
never visibly
never visibly aa pessimist,
pessimist, seldom
seldom looked
looked at
at the
the world
world through
through the
the eyes
eyes of
of
youth.
youth. Portraits
Portraits were
were painted,
painted, but
but indifferently
indifferently well;
well; the
the artist
artist was
was not
not
interested in
interested in individuals.
individuals. He loved loved flowers
flowers and animals, apparently,
and animals, apparently, far more
far more
than men,
than men, and spent
and spent himseH upon
himself upon them recklessly; Hui
them recklessly; Hui Tsung,
Tsung, withwith an an
empire at
empire at his co~d, gave
his command, gave half half hishis life
life toto painting
painting .birds birds andand :Bowers.
flowers.
Sometimes the
Sometimes Howers or
the flowers or the animals were
the animals were symbols,
symbols, like like thethe lotus
lotus oror the
the
dragon;
dragon; but
but for
for the
the most
most part
part theythey were
were drawn
drawn for
for their
their own sake,
sake, because
because
the charm
the charm and mystery of
and mystery of life
life appeared
appeared as as completely
completely in them as
in them in aa man.
as in man.
The horse horse was especially loved,
was especially loved, and artists like
and artists like Han Kan did did hardly any-
hardly any-
thing
thing else
else but
but paint one form after another of, that
paint one form after another of that living embodiment of living embodiment of
artistic line.
artistic line. .
It isis true
It that painting
true that painting suffered
suffered in in China, first from
China, first from religious
religious conventions,
conventions,
and then
and then from from academic
academic restrictions;
restrictions; that that thethe copying
copying and and imitation
imitation of of old
old
masters became
masters became aa retarding
retarding fetichfetich in the training
in the training of of students,
students, and and that
that the
the
artist was
artist was in many
in many matters
matters confined
confined to to aa given
given number
number of of permitted
permitted waysways
of fashioning
of fashioning his his material
materiaLuo "In
1110
"In my my young
young days,"days," said said an an eminent
eminent SungSung
critic, "I
critic, "I praised
praised the the master
master whosewhose pictures
pictures II liked;
liked; but but as as my judgment
my judgment
matured II praised
matured praised myselfmyself for for liking
liking whatwhat the the masters
masters had had chosen
chosen to to have
have
me like.'" It
me like." 101
asto~g_ how;
It isis astonishing, how: .~uch_ vitality
much, vitality remained..
remained !n
in this
this art
art despite
despite
its conventions
its conventions and and canons;
canons; itit was was herehere as as Hume thought thought itit had had been wi~
been with
 7S4
754 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
ofr ctvttIZATION' (CHAP.XXV
(CHAP.XXV
the
the censored
censored '\vriters
writers ofof the
the French
French Enlightenment:
Enlightenment: the the very
very limitations
limitations from

which the artist suffered

which the artist suffered compelledcompelled him to
to be
be brilliant.
brilliant.

What
What saved
saved the Chinese painters
the Chinese painters
from was the sincerity of
stagnation was the sincerity
from stagnation of their
their
feeling for nature. Taoism
feeling for nature.
Taoism had had taught
taught it it to them, and
to them, and Buddhism had made
it stronger by teaching them
it them that
that man and and nature
nature areare one in in the
the flow and
stronger by teaching
change
change
and
and unity
unity
of
of life.
life. AsAs the
the poets
poets
found
found in
in nature
nature a
a retreat
retreat from urban
urban
strife,
strife, and
and the
the philosophers sought
philosophers sought
in
in it
it a
a model
model of
of morals
morals and
and a
a guide
guide to
to life,
life,

so
so the
the painters
painters
brooded
brooded by solitary streams,
by solitary streams, and
and lost
lost themselves
themselves in
in deeply
deeply
wooded hills,hills, feeling
feeling
that
that in these speechless
in these
speechless
and
and lasting things the
lasting things
the nameless
nameless
spirit
spirit
had
had expressed itself more clearly than in the
expressed itself more clearly than in
the turbulent
turbulent c!U"eer
career and
and
thought
thought of
of men.·
men.* Nature,
Nature, which
which is
is so
so cruel
cruel in
in China,
China, lavishing
lavishing death
death with
with
cold
cold andand flood,
flood, was
was accepted
accepted stoically
stoically
as
as the
the supreme
supreme god god ofof the
the Chinese,
Chinese,
and
and received
received fromfrom them
them not not merely religious sacrifice,
merely religious sacrifice, but
but the
the worship
worship of of
~eir
their philosophy, their
philosophy, their literature
literature and
and their
their art.
art. Let
Let it
it serve
serve as
as an
an indication
indication
of
of the
the age
age and depth of
and depth culture in
of culture in China
China thatthat a·thousand
a thousand years years before
before Claude
Claude
Lorraine, Rousseau,
Lorraine, Rousseau, Wordsworth
Wordsworth and and Chateaubriand
Chateaubriand the the Chinese
Chinese made
made nature
nature
aa passion,
passion, and
and created
created a
a school
school of
of landscape painting
landscape painting
whose
whose work throughout
throughout
the
the Far
Far East
East became one one of the sovereign
of the expressions of mankind.
sovereign expressions of mankind.
I

v.
V. PORCELAIN

The ceramic
ceramic art-Tbe
artThe making
making of porcelain-Its
of porcelain early hi:st0'y-
Its early history
"Celado"," -
"Ctladon" - Enamels -
Enamels - The skill of
The skill Shih-chiu --
Hao Shih-ctiiu
of Hao
"Cloiso'1lne"-The
"CloisonnP-The ageage of K'rmg-hsi-Of Cb'ien
of K*ang-hsi-Of Lung
CWien Lung

As we approach
As approach the most
the most distinct
distinct art of China,
art of China, in
in which
which her her leadership
leadership
of the
of the world
world is least open
is least
open to
to dispute,
dispute, we find
find ourselves
ourselves harassed
harassed by
by oUr
our
tendency
tendency to
to class
class pottery
pottery as
as an
an industry.
industry. To us,
us, accustomed
accustomed to think
to think of of
"china" in
"china" terms of
in terms the kitchen,
of the pottery is
kitchen, aa pottery a place
is a "china" is
where "china"
place where made;
is made;

it factory like
it isis aa factory any other,
like any other, and its products
and its products do do not
not arouse exalte9 asso-
arouse exalted asso-
ciations. But
ciations. But toto the
the Chinese, pottery was
Chinese, pottery was aa major
major art; it pleased
art; it pleased their
their prac-
prac-
tical and
tical and yet esthetic souls
yet esthetic souls by combining
by combining beauty beauty with
with use;
use;..it
it gave
gave to
to their
their
greatest national institution-the
greatest national drinking of
institution-the drinking tea-utensils
of tea utensils asas lovely
lovely to to the
the
finger-tips
finger-tips as
as to
to the
the eye;
eye; and
and it
it adomed
adorned their
their homes
homes with
with shapes
shapes
so
so fair
fair that
that
even the
even the poorest
poorest families
families might
might live in the
live in the presence
presence ofof perfection.
perfection. Pottery
Pottery
is the
is the sculpture
sculpture of of the
the Chinese.
Chinese.

Pottery first,
the industry
is, first, the
Pottery is, that bakes
industry that bakes clay into clay
into usable
Usable forms,
forms, second,
second,
the art that makes those
the art that makes those forms
forms beautiful,
beautiful, and
and third,
third, the
the objects
objects produced
produced
*
• Landscape painting was
Landscape painting was called
called simply sbtm-mi-i.e.,n mountains
simply sh<m-sid-le mountains and
and water.
water.
CHAP. xxv)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS
THE 7SS
755
by that
by that industry
industry and and that
that art.art Porcelain
Porcelain is vitrified pottery;
is vitrified pottery; that that is,is, it
it

is
is clay so
clay mixed
so mixed with
with minerals
minerals that
that \vhen
when exposed
exposed to
to fire it melts
fire it melts or
or fuses
fuses
into
into a translucent, but
a translucent, but notnot transparent, substance resembling glass.· The
transparent, substance resembling glass.*
Chinese
Chinese made porcelain out
made porcelain out of of twotwo minerals
minerals chiefly:
chiefly:
kaolin-aa pure
kaolin
pure white
white
clay
clay
formed
formed from
from decomposed
decomposed felspar felspar of
of granite,
granite,
and
and pe-tun-tse-a
pe-tun-tsez fusible
fusible
white quartz
white quartz that that gave
gave thethe product its
product its translucency. These materials were
translucency. These materials were
ground
ground into
into a a powder,
powder, worked up
up into
into a a paste
paste
with
with water, moulded by
water, moulded by hand
hand
or
or on the whee~ and
the wheel, and subjected
subjected to
to high temperatures
high temperatures that
that fused
fused the
the composi-
composi-
tion into
tion into a vitreous form,
a vitreous form, brilliant
brilliant and and durable.
durable. Sometimes
Sometimes the the potters,
potters,
not
not
content
content with with thisthis simple
simple white porcelain, covered
white porcelain, covered the the "paste"-ie.,
"paste" Le., the
the vessel
vessel
formed
formed but but not not yetyet fired-with
fired with a a "glaze"
"glaze" or coating of
or coating fine glass,
of fine glass,
and
and then
then
placed
pkced the
the vessel
vessel in
in the
the kiln;
kiln; sometimes
sometimes they applied
they applied the
the glaze
glaze after
after baking
baking
the paste into
the paste into a a ubiscuit,"
"biscuit," and and then placed the
then pkced vessel over
the vessel over thethe tire
fire again.
again.
Usually the
Usually the glaze
glaze was was colored;
colored; but but inin many
many cases the paste
cases the paste was painted in
was painted in
color before applying
color before applying a a transparent
transparent glaze, glaze,
or
or colors were painted
colors were painted on on thethe
fired
fired glaze and
and fused
fused upon it by re-firing.
it These
These "over-glaze" colors, which
which
glaze upon by re-firing. "over-glaze" colors,
we call
call enamels,
enamels, were were made of of colored
colored glass ground to
glass ground
powder and
to powder and reduced
reduced
to aa liquid
to applicable
liquid applicable
with
with the
the painter's
painter's
slender
slender brush.
brush. Life-trained
Life-trained specialists
specialists
painted the flowers, others the animals, others the landscapes, others the
painted the flowers, others the animals, others the landscapes, others
the
saints
saints or
or sages
sages who meditated
meditated among
among the
the mountains
mountains or
or rode
rode upon strange
upon strange
beasts over
beasts over the the waves
waves of of the
the sea.
sea.

Chinese pottery is
Chinese pottery is as
as old
old as as the
the Stone
Stone Age;Age; Professor Andersson has
Professor Andersson has found
found
pottery,
pottery,
in Honan
in Honan and
and Kansu,
Kansu, which "can hardly
"can hardly be
be later in
later in time
time thanthan
3 B.C.";-1 * and the excellent form and finish of these vases assure us that
000
3000 B.C."; and the excellent form and finish of these vases assure us that
even at this
even at this early early date
date the
the industry
industry had
had long
long since
since become an art.
art Some of
of
the pieces
the resemble the
pieces resemble the pottery
pottery of Anau, and
of Anau, suggest a
and suggest a western origin
western origin for for
Chinese
Chinese civilization.
civilization. Far Far inferior
inferior to to these
these neolithic products are
neolithic products are the
the fragments
fragments
of funerary
of pottery
funerary pottery
unearthed
unearthed in
in Honan and and ascribed
ascribed to to the
the declining years
declining years
of the Shang
of the Dynasty.
Shang Dynasty. No remains
remains of
of artistic value
artistic value appear
appear againagain before
before
the Han,
the Han, when when we find find notnot only pottery, but
only pottery, but the
the first
first known use use ofof glass
glass
ip the Far
in the Far East.t
Eastt Under the the T'ang emperors the growing
Tang emperors the growing popularity
popularity of of
tea provided
tea provided aa creativecreative stimulus
stimulus for for the
the ceramic
ceramic art; art; genius
genius or or accident
accident
revealed,· about
revealed, about the the ninth
ninth century,
century, the
the possibility
possibility
of
of producing
producing a
a vessel
vessel vitri-
vitri-

fied
fied not
not only
only on
on the
the glazed
glazed surface
surface (as
(as under
under the
the Han and in
in other
other civiliza-
civiliza-

tions before
tions before this age) but
this age) but throughout-i.e., true porcelain. In that century
throughout-Le., true porcelain. century

•*When porcelain was

When porcelain was introduced into Europe
introduced into Europe it named after
it was named after the porcellcma, or
the porc,UflIIII, or
cowrie shell,
cowrie shell, which
which in
in tum
torn derived
derived its
its name
name from
from its
its supposed
supposed resemblance
resemblance to the rounded
back of
back of a porceUll, or
a parcella, litde hog.
or little
*
1GI 3
hog.
tfThe EgyptiaDs had
The Egyptians had glazed
glazed pottery
pottery unknown centuries before Christ.
centuries before Christ. The decorations
decorations
on the
on die earliest
earliest glazed pottery
glazed pottery
of
of ChiDa
China indicate
indicate that
that China
China had
had learned
learned the
the glazing
glazing process
process
from the Near
from the Near East
East.-
104
756 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXV
XXV

aa Moslem traveler, Suleiman,

Moslem traveler, Suleiman, reported to his coun~en: "They have in
reported to his countrymen: "They
in
China
China a very fine
a very fine clay
clay
\vith
with which
which they
they make vases
vases as
as transparent as
transparent as glass;
glass;
water is
,vater is seen through them."
seen through them." Excavations have recently
Excavations have recently discovered,
discovered, on a a
ninth-century site at Samarra on the Tigris, pieces of
ninth-century site at Samarra on the Tigris, pieces
porcelain of
of porcelain of Chinese
Chinese
manufacture. The
manufacture. The next
next recorded
recorded appearance
appearance of
of the
the substance
substance outside
outside ofof
China
China 'vas
was about
about 1171,
1171, \vhen
when Saladin
Saladin sent
sent forty-one pieces
forty-one pieces of
of porcelain
porcelain asas

precious gift
aa precious gift
to
to the
the Sultan
Sultan of
of Damascus.-
Damascus. The
106
manufacture
manufacture of
of porcelain
porcelain
it is
is not known
is not known to to have begun in
have begun in Europe before 1470; it
Europe before 1470; mentioned then
is mentioned then as
as
an
an art which the
art which the Venetians had learned from
Venetians had learned from the the Arabs
Arabs in
in the
the course
course of
of
me
the Crusades.
the Crusades.
100

Sung
Sung waswas the classic period of
the classic Chinese porcelain. Ceramists
Ceramists ascribe
ascribe to to
period of Chinese porcelain.
it both the
it both the oldest
oldest extant
extant wares
wares and
and the best; even
the best; the Ming
even the potters
Ming potters of
of a
later
later age, sometimes equaled them, spoke of Sung pottery in
age, who sometimes equaled them, spoke of Sung pottery
in rever-
rever-
ential terms, and
ential terms, and collectors treasured its
collectors treasured its masterpieces as
masterpieces beyond
as beyond any
any price.
price.
The great
great factories
factories at at Ching-te-chen, founded in
Ching-te-chen, founded the sixth
in the sixth century
century nearnear
rich deposits
rich deposits
of
of the
the minerals
minerals used
used for
for making
making and
and coloring
coloring earthenware,
earthenware,
were officially
were recognized by the
officially recognized by
the imperial court, and began to
imperial court, and began
to pour
pour outout
upon China
upon China an an unprecedented
unprecedented streamstream of porcelain plates,
of porcelain cups, bowls,
plates, cups, bowls,
vases, beakers, jars, bottles, ewers, boxes, chess-boards, candlesticks, maps,
vases, beakers, jars, bottles, ewers, boxes, chess-boards, candlesticks, maps,
even
even enameled
enameled and and gold-inlaid porcelain
gold-inlaid porcelain
hat-racks.-
hat-racks. Now
101
for
for the
the first
first

time appeared
time appeared those
those jade-green pieces
jade-green pieces known as
as celfldon,·
celadon* which
which it
it has
has
long
long been the
been the highest
highest ambition
ambition of of the
the modem potter to
modern potter to produce,
produce, andand ofof
the collector
the collector toto acquire. t Specimens
acquire.! Specimens of
of it were
it were sent
sent to
to Lorenzo
Lorenzo de'
de' Medici
Medici
by the Sultan
by the Sultan of Egypt in
of Egypt 1487. The Persians
in 1487. ~d the
Persians and the Turks
Turks valued
valued itit not
not
only
only for
for its
its incredibly smooth
incredibly smooth texture
texture ~d
and rich
rich lustre,
lustre, but
but as
as a
a detector
detector of
of
poisons;
poisons; the
the vessels
vessels would change color, they believ~d~
change color, they believed, whenever
whenever poisonous
poisonous
.
substances were placed
placed in in thein.- Pieces
Pieces of of celadon
c&adon are handed down
10*
substances were them. are handed down
from generation
generation to
to generation
generation as
as priceless
priceless
heirlooms
heirlooms in
in the
the families
families of
of
conno~e~.UD
connoisseurs." .. .
For almost thr~e hundred
almost three hundred years
years the
the workers
workers of the Ming
of the Ming Dynasty
Dynasty
labored to
labored to keep
keep the art
the art of porcelain
of porcelain on the high
on the high level to which
level to which the
the Sun.g
Sung*'
potters had
had raised and they
raised it, and fall far
not fall.
potters it, they did
did not far short
short of
of success.
success. Five
Five hun-
hun-

•4 A term applied
applied to them byby the
the French qfof the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century from the
century from the name
name of
of
the hero of
the hero of d'Urfe's
d'Urf&s novel
novel l' Anree, who,
PAstrte, who, in
in the
the dramatization
dramatization of the story,
of the story,
was
was always
always
dressed in
dressed in green..
green*
t From the
fFrom Occidental p~int
the Occidental point of
of view the one is
the one is as bard as
as hard the other;
as the other; for
for the
die Japanese,
Japanese,
have gathered
who have in mOSt
gathered in most of China's famous celldon,
of China's cttadon, refuse to sell
refuse to sell it at any
it at
any price; and
price; and
later potter has
no later been able
potter has been to rival
able to rival the perfection of
the perfection
Sung artistry
of Sung in this :field.
artistry in this field.
CHAP. XXV)"
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS
THE 757
757

dred kilns
dred burned at
kilns burned at Ching-te-chen,
Ching-te-chen, and and the
the imperial court alone used
imperial court alone used
96,000 pieces of
96,000 pieces of chinaware
chinaware to to adorn
adorn its its gardens, its tables and its rooms.U1
gardens, its tables and its rooms."
1

Now appeared
appeared the the first
first good enamels-colors
good enamels colors :fired fired over the glaze.
over the Yel-
glaze. Yel-
low monochromes
low monochromes and
and "egg-shell"
"egg-shell" blue and white porcelains reached per-
blue and white porcelains reached per-
fection;
fection; the
the blue
blue and
and white
white silver-mounted
silver-mounted cup
cup named
named from
from the
the Emperor
Emperor
Wan-Ii
Wan-li (or(or Shen Tsung) is
Shen Tsung) is one
one ofof the
the world's masterpieces of
world's masterpieces of the
the potter's
potter's
art. Among the
art. the experts of
of the
the Wan-Ii
Wan-li age was
was Hao Shih-chiu, who could
could
Among experts age Shih-chiu,
make wine-cups
make wine-cups weighing
weighing less
less than
than one
one forty-eighth
forty-eighth
of
of an
an ounce.
ounce. One
day,
day, says
says aa Chinese
Chinese historian;
historian,' Hao called
called at at the home of
the home of a high official
a high official and
and
begged permission
begged permission to
to examine
examine a
a porcelain tripod
porcelain tripod owned
owned by
by the
the statesman,
statesman,
and numbered among
and numbered among the the choicest
choicest of of Sung wares. Hao felt
Sung wares. felt the
the tripod
tripod
carefully with his
carefully with his hands, ana
hands, anid secredy
secretly copied
copied the
the form
form ofof its
its design on
design on a a
paper
paper concealed
concealed in
in his
his sleeve.
sleeve. Six
Six months
months later
kter he
he visited
visited the
the official
official again,
again,
and
and said:
said: "Your
'Tour Excellency
Excellency is
is the
the possessor
possessor of
of a
a tripod
tripod censer
censer of
of white
white
Ting-yao.·
Ting-yao* Here
Here is
is aa similar
similar one
one of
of mine."
mine." Tang,
Tang, the
the official, compared
official, compared

the tripod with

the new tripod with his his own,
own, andand could
could detect no difference;
detect no difference; even even the
the
stand
stand and
and cover
cover of of the
the tripod
tripod fitted
fitted Hao's
Hao's completely.
completely. Hao smilingly
smilingly
admitted that his
admitted that his .own
own piecepiece was
was an
an imitation,
imitation, and
and then
then sold
sold it for sixty
it for
sixty
*
UI
pieces
pieces
of
of silver to Tang,
silver to Tang, who sold
sold itit for
for fifteen hundred.
fifteen hundred.
1

It was under
It was under thethe Mings
Mings that
that Chinese cloisonne attained
Chinese clouO'fme its highest ex-
attained its
highest ex-
cellence. Both the
cellence. Both the word
word andand the art came
the art came from outside: the word from
outside: the from thethe
French cloison (partition),
French cloison (partition), the
the art
art from
from the
the Near
Near East
East of
of Byzantine
Byzantine days; the
days; the
Chinese referred to products occasionally as Kuei kuo yao
its products occasionally
to its yao-wares of the
Chinese referred as Kuei kuo wares of the
"
devils'
devils' country.UI The art consists
The art consists inin cutting narrow strips
strips of copper,
of copper, silver
1

country. cutting narrow silver

or gold,
or soldering
gold, soldering
them
them edgewise upon
edgewise upon the
the lines of
lines of aa design previously
design previously drawn
upon a metal object, filling the spaces between the
upon a metal object, filling the spaces between
the cloisons
cloisons (or
(or wire lines)
lines)
with appropriately
with appropriately colored
colored enamel, exposing
enamel, exposing the
the vessel
vessel repeatedly
repeatedly to
to fire,
fire,

grinding the hardened

grinding the hardened
surface with pumice stone,
surface with pumice stone, polishingpolishing it
it with charcoal,
charcoal,

and gilding
and gilding
the
the visIble
visible edges
edges of
of the
the cloisons. The earliest
cloisons. earliest known Chinese
Chinese ex-ex-

amples
amples are
are some
some mirrors
mirrors imported
imported into Nara, Japan,
into Nara, Japan, about the middle of
about the of the
the
eighth century.
eighth century.
The
The oldest
oldest wares
wares definitely
definitely marked belong
belong to the
the end
end of
of the
the
Mongol or YUan
Mongol or Yuan Dynasty;I?ynasty; the
the best,
best, to
to the
the reign
reign of
of the
the Ming Emperor
Ming Emperor Ching Ching
Ti.
Ti. The
The last
last great period of
great period
of Chinese
Chinese cloisO'll'fd was under
cloisonn6 was under the
the great
great Manchu
Manchu
emperors of the eighteenth century.
emperors of die eighteenth century.

The
The factories
factories at
at Ching-te-chen were destroyed in
Ching-te-chen were destroyed
~ the
the wars
wars that
that ended
ended
the Ming
the Dynasty, and
Ming Dynasty, and were
were not
not revived
revived again until the
again until the accession
accession of
of one
one

•* The name given by the Chinese to

to an ivory-colored species
species of Sung
The name an ivory-colored of Sung porcelain.
given by the Chinese porcelain.
75
7588 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. XXV
(CHAP.XXV

of
of China's
China's most most enlightened
enlightened rulers,
rulers, K'ang-hsi,
K'ang-hsi, who, quite as much as his
who, quite as as his

contemporary Louis XIV, ,vas

contemporary Louis XIV, was every inch a king. every inch a king. The factories
factories at
at Ching-
Ching-
te-chen
te-chen \vere
were rebuilt under his
rebuilt under his direction,
direction, and and soon
soon three
three thousand
thousand furnaces
furnaces
were in
\vere in operation.
operation. Never Never hadhad China,
China, or or any
any other
other country,
country, seen seen such
such an an
abundance
abundance of elegant pottery.
of elegant pottery. The Kang-hsi Kang-hsi workers
workers thought
thought theirtheir wares
wares
inferior
inferior to to those
those of of ~ling,
Ming, but
but modem
modern connoisseurs
connoisseurs do
do not
not agree
agree withwith
them.
them. Old forms forms were
were imitated
imitated perfectly, and
perfectly, and
new forms
forms were were developed
developed
in
in rich
rich diversity. By
diversity. By coating coating a
a paste
paste with
with a
a glaze
glaze
of
of a
a different
different tempo
tempo of of
fusibility
fusibility the
the Manchu potters produced
potters produced the
the prickly
prickly surface
surface of
of "crackle"
"crackle"
ware;
ware; and by by blowing
blowing bubbles
bubbles of of paint
paint upon the
upon the glaze they turned out
glaze they turned out
souffle
souffle \vares
wares covered
covered \vith
with little
little circles
circles of
of color.
color. They
They mastered
mastered the art of
the art of
monochrome,
monochrome, and issued
issued peach-bloom, coral, ruby, vermilion,
peach-bloom, coral, ruby, vermilion, sang-de- stmg-de-
bosuf and Rose-du-Barry
htzuf Rose-du-Barry reds;
reds; cucumber,
cucumber, apple, peacock, grass and cela-
apple, peacock, grass and cla-
don greens; "Mazarin,"
greens; "Mazarin," azure, azure, lilac
lilac and
and turquoise (or "kingfisher") blues;
turquoise (or "kingfisher") blues;
and yellows
yellows and whites'ofwhites'of suchsuch velvet texture that
velvet texture that one
one could
could onlyonly describe
describe
them as as smoothness
smoothness made visible. visible. They created created ornate
ornate styles distinguished
They styles distinguished
by French
by French collectors
collectors as as Fl1f1zille
Famille Rose, Rose, Famille
Famlle Vene, Famille Noir
Verte, Famille Noir and and
Ftrmille J
Famlle llU1Ze-rose, green,
Jaune-iose, green, black
black and
and yellow
yellow families.·
families.* In
In the
the field
field of
of poly-
poly-
chromes they they developed
developed the the difficult
difficult artart of subjecting a
of subjecting vesse~ in
a vessel, the kiln,
in the kiln,
to alternate
to alternate draughts
draughts of of clear
clear and soot-kden air-the
and soot-laden air the firstfirst providing,
providing, the the
second withdrawing, oxygen-in
second withdrawing, oxygen in such
such ways
ways that
that the
the green
green glazeglaze was
was trans-
trans-
formed into
formed into aa flame
flame of many colors,
of many colors, so that the
so that the French
French have have called this
called this
.~ariety fla'11zbe. They
variety flambe. painted upon
They painted upon some of of their
their wares
wares high high officials
officials inin
flowing
flowing queuequeue and
and robes,
robes, and
and created
created the
the "Mandarin"
"Mandarin" style. They
style. They painted
painted
flowers of
flowers of thethe plum
plum in in white
white upon
upon aa blue
blue (less
(less often
often aa black)
black) background,
background,
and gave
and gave to to the
the world
world thethe grace
grace and and delicacy
delicacy of of the
the hawthorn
hawthorn vase. vase.
last great
The last great age
age ofof Chinese
Chinese porcelain
porcelain camecame in in the
the long
long andand prosperous
prosperous
reign
reign of
of Ch'ien
Ch'ien Lung. Fertility
Lung. Fertility was
was undiminished;
undiminished; and
and though
though the the new
new
fOnDS had something
forms had something less than
less than the the success
success of of the
the K'ang-hsi
K'ang-hsi innovations,
innovations, the the
skill of
skill of the
the master-potters
master-potters was still supreme.
was still supreme. The Famille Rose
The Famlle Rose attained
attained
its fullest perfection,
its fullest perfection, and and spread
spread half half the
the flowers
Bowers and and fruits
fruits of of nature
nature overover
the most
the most brilliant
brilliant glaze,
glaze, while
while egg-shell
egg-shell porcelain
porcelain provided
provided costly lamp-
costly lamp-
shades for
shades for extravagant
extravagant millionaires. 11*
millionaires.11' Then,Then, through
through fifteen
fifteen bloody
bloody yearsyears
18 0
(1850-64),6
( 5 - 4), came the T'ai-p'ing
came the T'ai-p'ing Rebellion,
Rebellion, mining
ruining fifteen
fifteen provinces,
provinces, de- de-
stroying six
stroying six hundred
hundred cities, killing twenty
cities, kiUing twenty million
million men men and and women,
women, and and
. .
*
• Excellent
Excellent specimens
specimens of
of the last two
the last two groups may be
groups may be seen
seen at
at the
the Metropolitan
Metropolitan Museum
Museum
of Art.
of Art.
CHAP. xxv)
CHAP.XXV) THE AGE OF THE ARTISTS 759
7J9

so impoverishing the Manchu Dynasty that it withdrew its support from

so impoverishing the Manchu Dynasty that it withdrew its
support
from
the potteries, and allowed them to close their doors and scatter their crafts-
the potteries, and allowed them to close their doors and scatter their crafts-
men into
men into aa disordered
disordered world.
world.
The art
The of porcelain,
art of porcelain, in China, has
in China, has not
not recovered
recovered from from that devasta-
that devasta-
tion, and
tion, and perhaps
perhaps itit never will. For
never will. For other
other factors
factors havehave reinforced
reinforced the the
destructiveness of
destructiveness of war
war andand the
the ending
ending of of imperial
imperial patronage.
patronage. The The growth
growth
of the
of the export
export trade
trade tempted
tempted the artists to
the artists to design
design such
such pieces
pieces as as best
best satis-
satis-
fied the
fied the taste
taste of of European
European buyers,buyers, and and as as that taste was
that taste was not not as as fine
fine asas
the Chinese,
the Chinese, the the bad
bad pieces
pieces drove
drove thethe good
good pieces
pieces outout of
of circulation
circulation by by aa
ceramic variation
ceramic variation of of Gresham's
Gresham's kw. law. About
About the year 1840
the year English fac-
1840 English fac-
tories began
tories began to to make
make inferior
inferior porcelain
porcelain at at Canton,
Canton, exported
exported itit to to Europe,
Europe,
and gave
and gave it the name
it the name of of "chinaware"; factories at
"chinaware"; factories at Sevres
sevres in in France,
France, Meis-
Meis-
sen in
sen Germany, and
in Germany, and Burslem
Burslem in in England
England imitated
imitated the the work
work of of the
the Chin-
Chin-
ese,·!owered
ese, lowered the the cost
cost of production by
of production by installing machinery, and
installing machinery, and captured
captured
yearly
yearly
more
more and
and more
more of China's
of China's foreign
foreign
ceramic
ceramic trade.
trade.

survives is
What survives
What the memory
is the memory of of anan art perhaps as
art perhaps as completely
completely lost lost asas

that of
that of medieval
medieval stained glass; try
stained glass; try as as they
they will,
will, the
the potters
potters of Europe
of Europe
have been
have been unable
unable to to equal
equal
the
the subder forms
subtler forms of
of Chinese
Chinese porcelain.
porcelain.
Con-
Con-
noisseurs raise
noisseurs with every
raise with every decade
decade their
their monetary
monetary estimate
estimate of of the
the master-
master-
pieces
pieces
that
that survive; they
survive; they ask
ask five
five hundred
hundred dollars
dollars for
for a
a tea-cup,
tea-cup, and
and receive
receive

$23,600 for
$13,600 for a hawthorn vase;
a hawthorn vase; as as far back as
far back as 1767
1767 twotwo "turquoise"
"turquoise" porce-porce-
lain "Dogs
lain "Dogs of
of Fo,"
Fo," at
at auction, brought
auction, brought five
five times
times as
as much
much as Guido Rem's
as Guido Reni's
"
"Infant
"Infant Jesus,"
Jesus," andand thrice
thrice as as much as
Raphael's "Holy Family.'tUI
as Raphael's "Holy But
1

Family." But
anyone who has felt,
any one who has felt, with eyes with eyes and
and fingers
fingers and
and every nerve,
every nerve, the
die lovell-
loveli- .
ness
ness of of Chinese
Chinese porcelain
porcelain
will
will resent
resent these
these valuations,
valuations, and and count
count them as as

sacrilege;
sacrilege;
the
the world
world of of beauty
beauty and and thethe world
world of of money
money never touch,
never touch, eveneven
when beautiful things
when beautiful are
are sold.
sold. It is enough t~
It is to say that
that Chinese
Chinese porcelain
things enough say porcelain
isis the
the summit
summit and and symbol
symbol of
of Chinese
Chinese civilization,
civilization, one
one of of the
the noblest
noblest
things
things
that
that men
men have
have done
done to to make
make their
their species forgivable
species forgivable on
on the
the earth.
earth.
 CHAPTER XXVI
CHAPTER XXVI

The People
People and
and the
the State
State
I.I. HISTORICAL
HISTORICAL INTERLUDE
INTERLUDE

1.
1. Marco
Marco Polo
Polo Visits
Visits Kublai
Kublai Khan
Khan
The
The incredible
incredible trllvelers-Adventures
travelers-Adventures of of a Venetian in
a Venetitm in China-The
Chma-The
elegance and prosperity
elegance Il1ld prosperity ofof Hangchow
Hangchow - The
The palaces
palaces of
of
Peking-The Mongol C01lquest-Jenghiz
Peking-The Mongol Conquest-]enghiz Kbrm-Kuhlai
Khafr-Kublai
Khtm
Khan - HisHis character and policy
character and policy - His
His harem-
harem
"Marco Millions"
"j\1.arco Millions"

TN the year
IN THE golden

in
golden age
X aa man of
of middle
age of
of Venice,
middle age,
in rags and covered
age, worn with
about the
Venice, about
with hardship,
hardship,
1295, two
year 1295,
laden
laden
dust of
with
with
of many
two old
old men
men and
bundles,
bundles,
and
dressed
dressed
rags covered withwith the
the dust many roads,
roads, begged
begged and then forced
and then forced
their way
their way into
into thethe home from which, which, they claimed, they had set forth
they claimed, they had set forth
twenty-six years
twenty-six years before.
before. They
They had had (they
(they said)
said) sailed
sailed many dangerous
many dangerous
seas, scaled
seas, scaled high
high mountains
mountains andand plateaus,
plateaus, crossed
crossed bandit-ridden
bandit-ridden deserts,
deserts,
and passed
and passed four
four times
times through
through thethe Great
Great Wall; they had
Wall; they had stayed
stayed twenty
twenty
years in
years in Cathay,*
Cathay,· and and had
had served
served thethe mightiest
mightiest monarch
monarch in in the
the world.
world.
They told
They told of
of anan empire
empire vaster,
vaster, of
of cities
cities more
more populous,
populous, and
and of of aa ruler
ruler far
far
· richer, than any
richer, than any known
lmown to to Europe;
Europe; of of stones
stones that
that were
were used
used for heating,
for heating,
of paper
of paper accepted
accepted in in place
place of
of gold,
gold, andand ofof nuts larger than
nuts larger man's head;
than aa man's head;
nations where
of nations
of virginity was
where virginity an impediment
was an impediment to to marriage,
marriage, andand ofof others
others
where strangers
where strangers were entertained by
were entertained free use
the free
by the of the
use of host's willing
the host's willing
11
daughters and wives. No man would believe
daughters and wives. No man would believe them;
them; and
and the
the people
people of of Ven-
Ven-
ice gave
ice gave to
to the youngest and
the youngest and most
most garrulous
garrulous of of them
them the
the nickname
nickname "Marco"Marco
Millions," because
Millions," because his his tale
tale was full of
was full of numbers
numbers largelarge and
and marvelous."
rilarvelous.-
Mark and his father and uncle accepted
Mark and his father and uncle this fate
accepted this with good
fate with good cheer,
cheer, for
for
they had
they had brought
brought back back with them many
with them many precious
precious stones
stones from
from the distant
the distant
capital, and
capital, and these
these gave
gave them
them such
such wealth
wealth asas maintained
maintained them
them in in high
high place
place
in their
in city. When
their city. When Venice
Venice went
went to to war with· Genoa
war with Genoa in in 1298,
1298, Marco
Marco

•An form of
English form
An English of die
the Russian name for
Russian name Cbina-KitIli, originally
for Own-KM, origiDally the name of
the name of aa
tribe.
Mongolian tribe.
Mongolian
760
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE AND THE
PEOPLE AND
THE PEOPLE THE STATE
STATE 761
761

~olo received
Polo received command
command of of aa galley;
galley; and
and when his ship
when his ship was
\vas captured,
captured, and
and
~e was
tie was kept
kept for
for a
a year
year in
in a
a Genoese
Genoese jail,
jail,
he
he consoled
consoled himself
himself by dictating
by dictating
to an
to an amenuensis
amenuensis the the most
most famous
famous travel-book
travel-book in in literature.
literature. He He told
told
with
with the
the chann
charm of
of aa simple
simple and
and straightforward
straightforward style style how
how he,
he, father
father Nic-
Nic-
and uncle
:>10 and
D!O uncle Maffeo
Maffeo hadhad left
left Acre
Acre when
when Mark
Mark was but aa boy
was but boy ofof seventeen;
seventeen;
~ow they
how they had had climbed
climbed over over the the Lebanon
Lebanon ranges nnges andand found
found their way
their way
through Mesopotamia
through Mesopotamia
to the Persian
to the Persian Gulf, Gulf, and
and thence through
thence through Persia, Persia,
Khorassan and
Khorassan Balkh to
and Balkh to the
the Plateau
Plateau of of Pamir;
Pamir; how they they had joined cara-
had joined cara-
vans that slowly
vans that slowly marched
marched to
to Kashgar
Kashgar and
and Khatan,
Khotan, and
and across
across the
the Gobi
Gobi
Desert to
Desert Tangut, and
to Tangut, and through
through the Wall to
the Wall to Shangtu,
Shangtu, where
where the the Great
Great
Khan
Khan received
received them
them as
as humble
humble emissaries
emissaries from
from the
the youthful
youthful West.·
West.*
They
They had
had not
not thought
thought that
that they
they would
would stay
stay in
in China
China beyond aa year
beyond year oror
two,
two, but
but they
they found
found such
such lucrative
lucrative service
service and
and commercial
commercial opportunities
opportunities
under Kublai
under Kublai thatthat they
they remained
remained almostalmost aa quarter
quarter ofof aa century.
century. Marco
above all
above all prospered,
prospered, rising
rising even
even toto bebe governor
g<;>vemor of of Hangchow.
Hangchow. In In fond
fond
memory he describes it as far ahead of
memory he describes it as far ahead any European city
of any European city in
in the
the excellence
excellence

of its building
of its building and and bridges,
bridges, the the number
number of of itsi~ public
public hospitals,
hospitals, thethe ele-
ele-
gance of its
gance of its villas,
villas, the profusion
the profusion of
of facilities
facilities for
for pleasure
pleasure and vice, the
vice, the
charm
charm and beauty of
and beauty of its
its courtesans,
courtesans, the the effective maintenance of
effective maintenance of public
public
order, and
order, and the the manners
manners and
and refinement
refinement of
of its
its people.
people. The city,
city, he tells
tells

us, was a hundred miles in

us, was a hundred miles
in circuit.
circuit.

Its streets
Its streets and
and canals are extensive,
canals are extensive, and of of sufficient
sufficient width
width to to
allow
allow of of boats
boats on
on the
the one,
one, and
and carriages
carriages on the
the other,
other, to
to pass easily
pass easily
articles necessary It is
is commonly said
with articles
with for the inhabitants.
necessary for the
inhabitants. It commonly said that that

the number of bridges,

the number of bridges, of of all
all sizes,
sizes, amounts to
to twelve
twelve thousand.
thousand.
Those
Those whichwhich areare thrown
thrown over
over the
the principal
principal canals and are connected
canals and are connected

with the
with the main streets, have
main streets, arches so
have arches so high,
high, and built with so much
built with so much

skill, that vessels with

skill, that vessels
with their masts can
their masts can pass
pass under them. At the same
the same
time carts
time carts and and horses
horses can
can pass over,
pass over,
so
so well
well is
is the
the slope
slope from
from the
the
street graded to the
street graded to the height height of
of the
the arch.
arch. •.• •
. There
. are
are within
within the
the
city ten principal squares or or market-places,
market-places, besides innumerable shops
besides innumerable shops
city ten principal squares
along the
the streets. Each
streets. Each side
side of
of these
these squares
squares is
is half
half a mile in
a mile in length,
length,
along
and
and inin front
front of them is
of them the main
is the main street,
street, forty
forty paces
paces in width,
in width, and and
running
running in a direct
line
in a direct line from
from oneone extremity
extremity of of the city to the other.
the city to the other.
In a. direction parallel to
to that
that of
of the
the main
main street
street .• .
. •. runs aa very
roDS very
In a direction parallel
large ~canal, on
on the nearer bank
the nearer bank of
of which
which capacious
capacious warehouses
warehouses are
are
large

is Coleridge's "Xanadu." central Asian Polo

•* "Shangtu" "Xanadu." The
The central Asian regions
regions described
described by by Polo
"Shangtu" is Coleridge's
were not explored again by Europeans
were not explored again by Europeans (with
(with one
one forgotten
forgotten exception>
exception)
trntil 18
until 38•.
1838.-
7762
61 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
( CHAP. XXVI
XXVI

built
built ofof stone,
stone, for for the the accommodation
accommodation of of thethe merchants
merchants who who arrive
arrive
from India
from India and and other
other partS
parts
\vith
with their
their goods
goods and
and effects.
effects.
They are
They are
thus
thus conveniently
conveniently situated
situated \vith with respect
respect to
to the the market-places.
market-places. In In
each
each ofof these,
these, uponupon three
three daysdays in
in every
every week,
week, there
there is
is an
an assemblage
assemblage
of
of from
from fortyforty to to fift}r
fifty
thousand
thousand persons.
persons. . • •
. . .

The streets
streets are are all all paved with
paved with stone stone and and bricks.
bricks. • • . The
. .The main
.main
street
street ofof thethe city
city
isis paved
paved .... • • to
to the
the width
width of of ten
ten paces
paces on on each
each
side,
side, the
the intennediate
intermediate part being
part being
filled
filled up with
up with small
small grave~
gravel,
and
and
provided
provided ,vith
with arched
arched drains
drains for
for carrying
carrying off
off thethe rain-water
rain-water that
that
falls
falls into
into the the neighboring
neighboring canals, canals, so so that
that it remains always
it remains
always dry. dry.
On this
this gravel carriages continually pass and
gravel carriages continually pass and repass.
repass. They
They are
are of
of aa
long shape,
long shape, covered
covered at
at the
the top,
top,
have
have curtains
curtains and
and cushions
cushions of
of silk,
silk,

and
and areare capable of
capable of holding holding six six persons. Both
persons. Both
men and and women who
feel disposed
feel
disposed to to take
take theirtheir pleasure are in thethe daily practice of of hiring
pleasure are in daily practice hiring
them for for that
that purpose. • . .
purpose. . . .

There is is an
an abundant
abundant quantity quantity of of game
game of of allall kinds.
kinds. • • • From
, From the
. . the
sea,
sea, which is
is fifteen
fifteen miles
miles distant,
distant, there
there is
is daily brought
daily brought up the
up the
river,
river, to to the
the city, a vast quantity of
a vast of fish.•••
fish. ... At the the sight of such
city, quantity sight of such
an importation
importation of
of :fish,
fish, you
you would think
think it
it impossible
impossible
that
that it
it could
could
be sold;
be sold; and yet, yet, in
in the
the course
course of
of a
a few
few hours,
hours, it
it is
is all
all taken
taken off,
off, soso
great
great is the
is the number of
of inhabitants.
inhabitants. .• •. • . The streets connected
The streets connected with with
the market-squares
the market-squares are numerous, and
are numerous, and in in some
some of of them
them are many
are many
cold baths,
cold attended by
baths, attended by servants
servants of
of both
both sexes.
sexes. The
The men
men and
and women
women
frequent them
who frequent them have have fromfrom their childhood been
their childhood been accustomed
accustomed
at all
at all times
times to to wash
wash in in cold
cold water,
water, which
which they they reckon
reckon conducive
conducive
to health.
to health. At these these bathing
bathing places,
places, however,
howev:er, they they have have apartments
apartments
provided
provided with
with wann
warm water,
water, for
for the
the use
use of
of strangers,
strangers,
who
who cannot
cannot
bear the
bear the shock
shock of of the the cold.
cold. AllAll areare inin the daily practice
the daily practice of of wash-
wash-
ing
ing their
their persons,
persons, and
and especially before
especially before their meals
their meals. • • • .
In other streets
In other streets are are the the quarters
quarters of of the
the courtesans,
courtesans, who who are are here
here
in such
in such numbers
numbers as as II daredare notnot venture
venture to to' report,
report, . • . adorned
. . . adorned with with
much finery, highly
much finery, highly perfumed,perfumed, occupying
occupying well-furnished
well-furnished houses, houses,
and attended
and attended by by many
many female female domestics.
domestics. ... . • . In In other
other streets
streets areare
the dwellings
the dwellings of of the
the physicians
physicians and and the the astrologers.
astrologers. ... • • • On On eacheach
side of
side of the
the principal
principal street street there
there are are houses
houses and and mansions
mansions of of great
great
size. • • • The
size. . . . The men men as as well
well as as the
the women
women have have fair fair complexions,
complexions,
and are handsome. The greater
and are handsome. The greater part
part of of them
them are always clothed
are always clothed in in
silk....
silk. ... The The womenwomen have have much
much beauty,
beauty, and and areare brought
brought up. up with
with
delicate and
delicate and languid
languid habits. habits. The The costliness
costliness of of their
their dresses,
dresses, in in silks
silks
and jewelry,
and jewelry, can can scarcely
scarcely be be imagined.*
imagined.'
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PPEOPLE
THE AND
EO P LEA STATE
N D THE S TAT E 7763
63
Peking
Peking (or,(or, asas it
it was
was then
then called,
called, Cambaluc)
Cambaluc) impressed Polo even more
impressed Polo even more
than Hangchow;
than Hangchow; his
his millions
millions fail
fail him
him in
in describing
describing
its
its wealth
wealth and
and popula-
popula-
tion. The twelve suburbs were
tion. The twelve suburbs were yetyet more
more beautiful
beautiful than
than the
the city;
city;
for
for there
there
the business
the business classclass had builtbuilt many handsome
handsome homes.'
homes.* In
In the
the city proper
many city proper
there were
there were numerous
numerous hotels,hotels, and
and thousands
thousands of of shops
shops
and
and booths.
booths. Food
Food of of
all kinds abounded,
all kinds abounded, and every every dayday a
a thousand
thousand loads
loads of
of raw
raw silk
silk entered
entered
the gates
the gates toto bebe turned
turned intointo clothing for
clothing for the
the inhabitants.
inhabitants. Though
Though the the Khan
Khan
had residences
had residences at at Hangchow, Shangtu and
Hangchow, Shangtu and other
other places, the most extensive
places, the most extensive
of his palaces
of his palaces was at at Peking. A marble
Peking. marble wall
wall surrounded
surrounded it,
it, and
and marble
marble
steps
steps led
led up
up to
to it;
it; the
the main building
building
was
was so
so large that "dinners
large that "dinners could be
could be
served
served therethere to to great
great multitudes
multitudes of of people." Marco admired the arrange-
people." Marco admired the arrange-
ment of
ment of the
the chambers,
chambers, the
the delicate
delicate and transparent glazing
and transparent glazing of of the
the windows,
windows,
and the the variety
variety of of colored tiles in
colored tiles in the
the roof.
roof. He had had never
never seen
seen soso opulent
opulent
aa city, or
or so magnificent aa king.' 5
city,
so magnificent
king.
Doubtless
Doubtless the the young Venetian learned
young Venetian learned to to speak and read Chinese; and
speak and read Chinese; and
perhaps
perhaps he
he learned from the
learned the official
official historians
historians how Kublai and
how Kublai and his
his Mongol
Mongol
ancestors had conquered
conquered China. China. The gradual gradual drying up ofof the
the regions
ancestors had
drying up regions
along
along the the northwestern
northwestern frontierfrontier into
into a a deseit
desert land
land incapable of supporting
incapable of supporting
its
its hardy population had
hardy population had sent sent the
the Mongols
Mongols (Le., (i.e., "the brave") out
"the brave") out onon des-
des-
perate
perate raids
raids to
to win new fields;
fields; and
and their
their success had left them
success had left them with such with such
aa taste
taste and
and aptitude
aptitude for
for war that
that they
they never
never stopped
stopped untiluntil nearly
nearly allall Asia,
Asia,
and parts of Europe,
and parts of Europe, had fallen
had before their
fallen before their arms.
arms. Story
Story hadhad itit that
that their
their
fiery
fiery leader,
leader, Genghis
Genghis Khan,
Khan, had
had been
been born
born with
with a
a clot
clot of
of blood
blood in
in the
the
palm of
palm his hand.
of his hand. From the the age
age ofof thirteen
thirteen he he began
began to to weld
weld thethe Mongol
Mongol
tribes into
tribes into one,
one, and
and terror
terror was
was his
his instrument.
instrument. He had
had prisoners nailed
prisoners nailed
to aa wooden
to wooden ass, ass, or
or chopped
chopped to pieces, or
to pieces, boiled in
or boiled in cauldrons,
cauldrons, or or Bayed
flayed
alive.
alive. When he he received
received a a letter
letter from
from the the Chinese
Chinese Emperor Ning
Emperor Ming Tsung Tsung
demanding
demanding his
his submission,
submission, he
he spat
spat in
in the
the direction
direction of
of the Dragon
the Dragon Throne
Throne
and
and beganbegan at once his
at once his march
march across
across twelve hundred miles
twelve hundred miles of of the
the Gobi
Gobi
desert
desert into the western
into the western provinces
provinces of of China. Ninety Chinese
China. Ninety Chinese cities
cities were
were
so
so completely destroyed
completely destroyed that
that horsemen
horsemen could
could ride
ride over
over the
the devastated
devastated
areas in
areas the dark without stumbling.
dark without five years the
in the stumbling. For For five years the "Emperor
"Emperor of of Man-
kind" laid
kind" north China
laid north China waste.
waste. Then, frightened
Then, frightened by by an
an unfavorable
unfavorable con-
con-
junction of planets, he
junction of planets,
he turned
turned backback towards
towards his his native
native village,
village, and
and died
died
of
of illness
illness on the way.'
on the way.
6

His successors,
His successors, Ogodai,
Ogodai, Mangu
Mangu and
and Kublai, continued the
Kublai, continued the campaign
campaign
with barbaric
with barbaric energy;
energy; and
and the
the Chinese,
Chinese, who had
had for
for centuries
centuries given
given them-
them-
 74
6
764
THE STORY
THE OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION XXVI
(CHAP.XXVI
(CHAP.

selves to culture and

selves to culture and neglected
neglected thethe arts of war,
arts of war, died with individual
died with heroism
individual heroism
and national
and ignominy. At
national ignominy. At Juining-f
Joining-fu u aa local
local Chinese
Chinese ruler held out
ruler held out until
until
all the
all the aged and
aged and infirm
infirm had
had been
been killed
killed and
and eaten
eaten by
by the
the beseiged,
beseiged, all
all the
the
able-bodied men
able-bodied men had had fallen,
fallen, and
and only
only women
women remained
remained to to guard walls;
guard the walls;
the
then he
then he set set fire
fire to
to the
the city
city
and
and burned
burned himself
himself alive
alive in
in his
his palace. The
palace. The
armies of
armies of Kublai
Kublai swept
s,vept down
do\vn through
through China
China until they stood before the
until they stood before the
last retreat
last retreat of of the
the Sung
Sung Dynasty,
Dynasty, Canton.
Canton. Unable Unable to to resist,
resist, the
the Chinese
Chinese
general, Lu
general,
Lu Hsiu-f
Hsiu-fu, took the
u, took the boy
boy emperor
emperor on on hishis back,
back, andand leaped
leaped to to aa
double death
double death with
,vith himhim inin the
the sea; and itit isis said
sea; and said that
that aa hundred
hundred thousand
thousand
Chinese drowned
Chinese drowned themselves
themselves rather
rather than
than yield
yield to
to the
the Mongol conqueror.
Mongol conqueror.
Kublai gave
Kublai gave the imperial corpse
the imperial corpse anan honorable
honorable burial,burial, andand set himself to
set himself to
establish that
establish that Yuan
YUan ("Original")
("Original") or or Mongol Dynasty which
Mongol Dynasty which was was to to rule
rule
China for
China for less
less than
than aa hundred years.
hundred years.
Kublai himself
Kublai himself was was nono barbarian.
barbarian. The chief chief exception
exception to this statement
to this statement
was not his treacherous
was not his treacherous diplomacy, diplomacy, which
which was
was in
in the
the manner
manner of
of his time,
his time,
but his treatment
but his treattnent of of the
the patriot
patriot and
and scholar,
scholar, Wen T'ien-hsian,
T'ien-hsian, who, who, out out
of loyalty to the Sung
of loyalty to the Sung Dynasty, Dynasty, refused
refused to
to acknowledge
acknowledge Kublai's
Kublai's rule.
rule.

He was
He was imprisoned
imprisoned for for three years, but
three years, but would
would not not yield.
yield. "My"My dungeon,"
dungeon,"
he wrote, in
he wrote, in one
one of of the
the most
most famous passages in
famous passages in Chinese
Chinese literature,
literature, .

is lighted by the
is the will-o'-the-wisp
will-o'-the-wisp alone;
alone; no breath
breath ofof spring
spring cheers
cheers
lighted by
the
the murky
murky solitude
solitude in
in which
which II dwell.
dwell. • . • Exposed
.
Exposed
. . to
to mist
mist and
and dew,
dew,
had many
II had many times
times thought
thought to
to die;
die; and yet, through
yet, through
the
the seasons
seasons of
two
two revolving years,
revolving years, disease hovered
disease hovered around
around me vain. The dank,
in vain.
in dank,
unhealthy soil to me became
unhealthy soil to became paradise
paradise
itself.
itself. For
For there
there was thatthat .j

within
within me which
which misfortune
misfortune could
could not steal away. And so
not steal so II re-
re-
away.
mained firm, gazing
mained firm, gazing
at
at the
the white
white clouds
clouds :floating
floating over
over my
my head,
head, and
bearing in my
bearing in my heart
heart aa sorrow
sorrow boundless
boundless asas the
the sky.
sky.

At length
length Kublai
Kublai summoned
summoned him into the
him into the imperial presence., "What is it
imperial presence., "What is it
that you
that you want?"
want?" asked
asked the
the monarch. "By the
monarch. "By the grace
grace of
of the
the Sung
Sung Emperor,"
Emperor,"
answered
answered Wen,
Wen, "I became his
"I became his Majesty's
Majesty's minister.
minister. II cannot
cannot serve
serve two
two
masters. II only
masters. only ask
ask to
to die."
die." Kublai
Kublai consented;
consented; and
and as
as Wen
Wen awaited
awaited the
the
axe
axe of
of the
the executioner upon his
executioner upon his neck he made obeisance
neck he made obeisance toWard
toward the
the south,
south,
as th~ugh
as though the
the Sung emperor
Sung emperor were
were still reigning in
still reigning in the
the southern
southern capital,
Nwm~
Nanking/
. ' capital,

Neve~eless,
Nevertheless, Kublai
Kublai had
had the
the grace
grace to
to recognize the Civilized
recognize the civilized superiority
superiority
the Chinese,
of the
of and
Chinese, and to
to merge
merge the
the customs
customs of
of his
his own
own people
people into
into theirs.
theirs.
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PPEOPLE
THE AND
E 0 P LEA THE SSTATE
N D THE TAT E 765
765
Of necessity
necessity he he abandoned
abandoned the the system
system of of examinations
examinations for for public office,
public office,
since that system
since that system would have given him
have given him a completely Chinese
a completely Chinese bureau-
bureau-
cracy;
cracy; he
he restricted
restricted most
most higher
higher offices
offices to
to his
his l\1ongol follo\vers,
Mongol followers, and
and uied
tried
for
for a time to
a time to introduce
introduce the the Mongol
Mongol alphabet. But for the greater part
alphabet. But for the greater part
he and
he his people
and his people accepted
accepted the
the culture
culture of
of China,
China, and were soon
and were soon trans-
trans-
formed
formed by by it
it into
into Chinese.
Chinese. He tolerated
tolerated the
the various
various religions philoso-
religions philoso-
phically, and
phically, and ffirted with Christianity
flirted with Christianity as as an
an instrument
instrument of pacification and
of pacification and
rule. He reconstructed
rule. reconstructed the the Grand
Grand Canal between Tientsin
Canal between Tientsin and and Hang-
Hang-
chow,
chow, improved
improved the the highways,
highways, and provided aa rapid
and provided rapid postal
postal service
service through-
through-
out
out aa domain
domain larger than any
larger than that has
any that has accepted
accepted thethe government
government of of China
China
since his day.
since his day. He built
built great public granaries
great public granaries to
to store
store the
the surplus
surplus
of
of good
good
crops for public distribution in famine years, and
crops for public distribution in famine years, and remitted taxes to all remitted taxes to all

peasants
peasants who had
had suffered
suffered from
from drought,
drought, storms,
storms, or
or insect
insect depredations;·
depredations;*
he
he organized
organized a a system
system of state care
of state care for
for aged scholars, orphans
aged scholars, orphans and and thethe
infirm;
infirm; and
and he patronized munificently
he patronized munificently education,
education, letters
letters and
and the
the arts.
arts.

Under him
Under him the the calendar
calendar was was revised,
revised, andand the
the Imperial
Imperial Academy was
Academy was
opened.'
opened.
9
At
At Peking
Peking he
he reared
reared a
a new capital,
capital,
whose
whose splendor
splendor and
and popula-
popula-
tion were
tion were the the marvel
marvel of of visitors
visitors from
from other lands. Great
other lands. Great palaces
palaces were
were
built,
built, and
and architecture
architecture flourished
flourished as
as never
never in
in China
China before.
before.
"Now when all all this
happened," says
this happened," says Marco Polo, Polo, "Messe,r
"Messcy PoloPolo was
on the spot."20
on the spot."
10
He became
became fairly
fairly intimate with the
intimate with the Khan,
Khan, and and describes
describes
his amusements
his amusements in in fond
fond detail.
detail. Besides
Besides four wives called
four wives empresses, the
called empresses, the
Khan had many
Khan had many concubines, concubines, recruited
recruited from Ungut
Ungut in
in Tatary, whose
Tatary, whose
ladies
ladies seemed
seemed especially
especially fair
fair toto the
the royal eye.
royal eye. EveryEvery second
second year,
year, says
says
Marco,
Marco, officers
officers of
of proved
proved discrimination
discrimination were sent
sent to
to this
this
region to
region to enIist
enlist

for his Majesty's

for his Majesty's service
service a hundred young
a hundred women, according
young women, according to to specifica-
specifica-
tions carefully
tions carefully laid
laid down by
by the
the king.
king.

Upon their
Upon their arrival
arrival in
in his presence, he causes
his presence, causes aa new examination
examination to to
be made by
be made by a a different
different set
set of
of inspectors,
inspectors, and from amongst
amongst them aa
further selection takes place,
further selection takes place, when thirty
thirty or
or forty
forty are
are retained
retained for
for
his own chamber•.••
his chamber. . These
These are
. . are committed
committed separately
separately toto the
the care
care
of
of certain
certain elderly ladies
ladies of
of the palace,
the palace, whose duty it is
it is to
to observe
elderly duty
them attentively,
them .during the
attentively, ^during
the course
course of
of the night, in order to
the night, to ascer-
ascer-

tain that they have

tain that they not any
have not any concealed
concealed imperfections, that they
imperfections, that they sleep
sleep

•* "Not a day
"Not a passes," writes
-writes Marco Polo, "in which ~ere
Polo, "in there are not distributed, by
not disaibuted, by the
the
day passes,"
regular officers, twenty thousand vessels
regular officers, twenty thousand
vessels of
of rice,
rice, millet, panicum. By
nullet, and panicum. reason of this
By reason this

admirable
admirable and astonishing liberality
and astonishing which the Great
liberality which the
Khan exercises
Great Khan· towards the poor,
exercises towards poor,
the people
people all adore him.
all adore
8
the him."
ttl
766
766 STORY
THE ST OR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F C I V IL I ZAT ION (CHAP. XXVI
(CHAP.XXVI

tranquilly, do
tranquilly,
do not
not snore,
snore, have
have sweet breath,
sweet breath, ~d are
and free fro~
are free from
unpleasant scent in any part of the body. Having undergone ~
body. Havmg undergone
scent in any part of the this
unpleasant
rigorous scrutiny', they are are divided
divided into five, each taking
parties of five,
into parries of each taking
rigorous scrutiny, they
turn for
tum three day's
for three days
and
and three
three nights
nights
in his
in his Majesty's
Majesty's interior
interior apart-
apart-
ment,
ment, '\vhere
where they
they
are
are to
to perform every
perform every service
service that
that is required of
is required of
them,
them, and
and he
he does
does with
with them
them as
as he
he likes.
likes. When this term
this term is com-
is com-
pleted they areare relieved by another
relieved by party, and in this
and in manner suc-
this manner
another party, suc-
pleted they
cessively,
cessively,
until the whole
until the whole number
number have
have taken
taken their
their turD;
turn; when the
the
ll
first five recommence
first five recommence their
their attendance.
attendance.
11

After remaining in
After remaining in China
China for
for twenty
twenty years,
years,
Marco Polo, with his
Polo, with his father
father
and his uncle,
and his uncle, took
took advantage
advantage of an embassy
of an embassy sent
sent by the Khan to Persia,
by the to Persia,
to return
to return to
to their native city
their native city
with
with a
a minimum of danger
of danger and expense.
expense.
Kublai
Kublai gave them a message to the Pope, and
gave them a message to the Pope,
and fitted
fitted them out out with
with every
every
comfort
comfort thenthen known
known to to travelers.
travelers. The voyage
voyage around
around the
the Malay
Malay Penin-
Penin-
sula to India
sula to India andand Persia,
Persia, the
the overland journey to
overland journey to Trebizond
Trebizond on the the Black
Bkck
Sea,
Sea, and the Dnal
and the final voyage to
voyage to Venice,
Venice, took
took them three years;
them three years; and when
they
they reached
reached Europe they
Europe they learned
learned that
that both
both the
the Khan and
and the Pope
the Pope were
dead.·
dead.* Marco
Marco himself,
himself, with characteristic obstinacy,
with characteristic obstinacy, lived
lived toto the
the age
age of
of I

seventy.
seventy. On his
his deathbed
deathbed liis
his friends
friends pleaded
pleaded with
with him,
him, for
for the
the salvation
salvation
of his soul,
of his ·to retract
soul^to retract the
the obviously
obviously dishonest
dishonest statements that he
statements that he had
had made
in his book;
in his book; butbut he
he answered,
answered, stoudy:
stoutly:
"I have
"I not told
have not half of
told half of what I I saw."
saw."
Soon after his
Soon after his death
death aa new comic
comic figure
figure became
became popular
popular at
at the
the Venetian
Venetian
carnivals.
carnivals. He was was dressed
dressed like
like aa clown,
clown, and
and amused
amused thethe populace
populace by by his
his
gross exaggerations.
gross exaggerations. His
His name was
was Marco
Marco MiIlions.:II
Millions.
18

2.
2. The Ming and
The Ming and the
the Cb'ing
CVing
FtiJl of the Mongols
Fail of the Mongols-The Ming DyTiastyThe
The Ming Mtmcbu invasion
Dynasty-The Manchu invasion
The Ch'mg
-The Dynasty-An
Cfting Dynasty An enlightened'
enlightened mtmllTcb-Ch'ien
monarch-CWien
~ L'lmg rejects
Lung rejects the
the Occident
Occident

Not for
Not for four centuries was China
four centuries to know again
China 10 again so brilliant an
so brilliant an age.
age. The
YUan Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty quickly
quickly declined,
declined, for it was
for it weakened by
was weakened by the
the collapse
collapse of
of
the Mongol
the power in
Mongol power in Europe and
Europe and western Asia, and
western Asia, and by sinification (if
the sinification
by tie (if
so pedantic aa convenience
so pedantic convenience may
may be
be permitted
permitted for
for so
so repeated a
repeated a phenome-
phenome-
non) of the Mongols
Mongols in
in China itself. Only in
China itself.
non) of the Only in an
an era
era of railroads, telegraph
of railroads,
telegraph
and print
print could
could so
so vast and artificial
vast and artificial an
an empire,
empire, so
so divided
divided by mountains,
by mountains,

•* Kublai Khan had proved

proved his
his conversion to civilization
conversion to by developing
civilization by gout.18
developing gout
11
FIG. 67-A bronze
67^4 Kuan-yin of
bro1lZe Kum-yin the Sui
of the Sui period
period
Metropolitan
Metropolitan of Art
Museum of
 FIG. 68-Temple
FIG. 68-Temple
"
of Heaven,
Of
..... ,
Heaven,
Peipi'1lg
Peiping
Publishers' Photo
Publishers' Photo
Service
Service

6c;-Summer
FIG. 69-Summer
FIG.
Palace, Peipmg
Palace, Peiping
I

i
 FIG.
FIG. 7I-The
-ji-The
Silk-beaters.
Silk-beaters.
the Emperor
By the
By Emperor
Hui Tsung
Hut Tsung
( 1101-26)
(1101-26)
Boston
Boston Aluseum
Museum
of
of Fine
Fine Arts
Arts

FIG. 71-Ltmd-
FIG. 72--Land-
scape 'Wit~
sCllpe with
Bridge Il'1ld
Bridge and
WillO'Ws.
Willows.
kill
Ma ]'1Jtl1l,
Yuan,
i2thcentury
12th
century
Boston
BostonMuseum
Museum
ofofFine
Fine Arts
Axes
CHAP. XX\'I)
CHAP.XXVl) THE
THE PEOPLE AND
P EO P LEA X D THE
THE STATE
S TAT E 767
767

deserts and
deserts seas, be
and seas, be held
held permanently
permanently under under one one rule.
rule. The
The MongolsMongols
proved
proved better
better warriors
warriors than
than administrators,
administrators, and
and the successors
the successors of Kublai of Kublai
\vere forced
were forced to to restore
restore the examination system
the examination system and and to to utilize
utilize Chinese
Chinese
capacity
capacity in
in government.
government. The
The conquest produced
conquest produced in
in the
the end
end little
little change
change
in native
in native customs or
customs or ideas,
ideas, except
except thatthat itit introduced,
introduced, perhaps,perhaps, such such new new
forms as
forms as the
the novel
novel andand the drama into
the drama into Chinese
Chinese literature.
literature. Once Once more more the the
Chinese married
Chinese married their
their conquerors,
conquerors, civilized
civilized them,
them, and and overthrew
overthrew them; them;
In 13 68 an
In 1368 an ex-Buddhist
ex-Buddhist priestpriest led
led aa revolt,
revolt, entered
entered Peking Peking in in triumph,
triumph,
and proclaimed
and proclaimed himselfhimself the first emperor
the first emperor of the Ming
of the ("Brilliant") Dy-
Ming ("Brilliant") Dy-
nasty. In
nasty. In the
the next
next generation
generation an an able
able monarch
monarch came came to to the
the throne,
throne, and and
under Yung
under Yung Lo China China again
again enjoyed
enjoyed prosperity
prosperity and and contributed
contributed to the
to the
Nevertheless, the
arts. Nevertheless,
arts. the Brilliant
Brilliant Dynasty
Dynasty endedended in in aa chaos
chaos of of rebellion
rebellion and and
invasion; at
invasion; at the
the very
very time
time when the the country
country was was divided
divided intointo hostile
hostile fac-
fac-
tions,
tions, a
a new horde
horde of
of conquerors poured
conquerors poured through through the
the Great
Great \tV
Wall all and
and laid
laid
seige to Peking.
seige to Peking.
The Manchus
The Manchus were were aa Tungusic
Tungusic people
people who had had lived
lived for
for manymany cen- cen-
turies in
turies in what
what is is now Manchukuo
Manchukuo (i.e., (i.e., the
the Kingdom
Kingdom of of the
the Manchus).
Manchus).
Having extended their
Having extended their power
power northward
northward to to the
the Amur River, River, theythey turned
turned
back southward,
back southward, and and marched
marched upon upon thethe Chinese
Chinese capital.
capital. The last l\1ing
last
Ming
emperor gathered
emperor gathered his family
his family about
about him,
him, drank
drank a
a toast
toast to
to them,
them, bade his
his

wife kill
wife kill herself,·
herself,* andand then
then hanged
hanged himself
himself withwith his girdle
his
girdle after writing
after writing
his
his last
last edict
edict upon
upon the
the lapel
lapel
of
of his
his robe:
robe: "We,"We, poor
poor in
in virtue
virtue and of of con-
temptible
temptible
personality,
personality,
have
have incurred
incurred the the wrath of of God on high. high. My
ministers
ministers have have deceived
deceived me. me. II am ashamed
ashamed to to meet my my ancestors.
ancestors. There- There-
fore
fore II myseif take off my crown, and
myself take off my crown,
with my
and with my hair covering my
hair covering my faceface
await dismembennent
await dismemberment at tie handsat the l;1ands of
of the
the rebels.
rebels. Do not
not hurt
hurt a single
single one
of buried him
my people."·
of my The Manchus
Manchus buried him with honor, honor, and established
18
established
people."
the Ch'ing ("Unsullied")
the Ch'ing ("Unsullied") Dynasty Dynasty that
that was to
to rule
rule China until
until our own
revolutionary
revolutionary age.
age.
They, too, soon became Chinese, and
They, too, soon became Chinese,
and thethe second
second ruler ruler of of the
the Dynasty,
Dynasty,
K'ang-hs~ .gave China China the
the most
most prosperous,
prosperous, peacefulpeaceful and
and enlightened
enlightened
K'ang-hsi, 'gave
reign
reign
in
in the
the nation's
nation's history.
history. Mounting
Mounting the
the throne
throne at at the
the age
age of seven,
of seven,
K'ang-hsi took
took personal
personal
contro~
control, at
at the
the ageage of
of thirteen,
thirteen, of
of an
an empire
empire
K'ang-hsi
that
that included
included not only China
not only China proper
proper but but Mongolia,
Mongolia, Manchuria,
Manchuria, Korea, Korea,
Indo-China,
Indo-China, Annam,
Annam, Tibet
Tibet and
and Turkestan;
Turkestan; it
it was
was without
without doubt
doubt the
the
largest,
largest,
richest
richest and
and most
most populous empire
populous empire
of
of its
its time.
time. K'ang-hsi
K'ang-hsi ruled
ruled itit
that many
16
•*She
She obeyed, and story has
obeyed, and story
has it
it that many concubines
concubines followed
followed her
her example.
example."
 768
768 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXVI
(CHAP. XXVI

,vith
with a wisdom and
a wisdom justice that
and justice that filled
filled with
with envy
envy thethe educated
educated subjects
subjects of of
his contemporaries
his Aurangzeb
contemporaries Aurangzeb and
and Louis
Louis XIV.
XIV. He was
was a
a man energetic
energetic
in body and
in body active in
and active in mind;
mind; he he found health in
found health in a vigorous outdoor
a vigorous outdoor life,life,

and
and at the same
at the same time
time labored
labored to to make
make himself
himself acquainted
acquainted with
with the
the learning
learning
and arts of
and arts his time.
of his time. He traveled
traveled throughout
throughout his his realm,
realm, corrected
corrected abusesabuses
wherever he
wherever he saw
saw them,
them, and and reformed
reformed the code. He lived
penal code.
the penal lived frugally,
frugally,
tut down the
cut the expenses
expenses of
of administration,
administration, and
and took
took pride
pride in
in the
the welfare
welfare of of
the people.18 Under
the people. 3*
Under his his generous patronage
generous patronage and
and discriminating apprecia-
discriminating apprecia-
tion literature
tion literature and
and scholarship
scholarship flourished,
flourished, and
and the
the art
art of porcelain reached
of porcelain reached
one of
one the peaks
of the peaks ofof its
its career. tolerated all
career. He tolerated the religions,
all the religions, studied
studied Latin
Latin
under the
under the Jesuits,
Jesuits, and
and put put up patiendy with
up patiently with thethe strange
strange practices
practices of of
European
European merchants
merchants in
in his
his ports. When he
ports.
he died,
died, after
after a
a long
long and
and benefi-
benefi-
cent reign (1661-1722),
cent reign (1661-1722), he he left
left these
these asas his
his parting words: 'There is
words: ''There is cause
cause
parting
for
for apprehension lest, in
in the centuries or millenniums to come, China may
the centuries or millenniums to come, China
apprehension lest, may
be endangered
be endangered by by collisions
collisions with
with the
the various
various nations
nations of
of the
the West
West who
come hither from
from beyond
beyond the the seas.,nr
1'
come hither seas."
These problems, arising
These problems, out of the increasing commerce and contacts
arising out of the increasing commerce and contacts
of China with Europe
China with Europe came to to the front again
the front under another
again under another able able
emperor
emperor of
of the
the Manchu line-Ch'ien
line Ch'ien Lung.
Lung. Ch'ien
Ch'ien Lung
Lung wrote
wrote 3~oOO
34,060
poems; one
poems; one ofof them,
them, on on "Tea,"
"Tea," camecame to to the
the attention
attention of Voltaire, who
of Voltaire,
sent his "compliments
sent his "compliments to to thethe charming
charming king king of of China."·
China."" FrenchFrench mis- mis-
sionaries painted his
sionaries painted his portrait, and
portrait, and inscribed
inscribed under
under it
it these
these indifferent
indifferent
verses:
verses:

Occupe SImS re14che

Occupe sans reldche a.
tous
tons les soins di'Uets
les soins divers
D'rm gouvernement
D'un gouvernernent qu'on ad'lnire,
qu'on admire,
Le plus
plus grlllld potentllt qui
grand potentat qui soit
soit dllflS
dans l'fJ!1litiJers
Punivers
Est
Est le
le Meillew lettrt qui
Meilleur lettre sait dans
qui soit son Empire.*
dans son Empire.-

He ruled
niled China for
for two generations abdicated in
(1736-96), abdicated
generations (1736-96), in his
his eighty-
eighty-
fifth year, and continued
fifth year, continued to
to dominate
dominate the
the government
government un~
until his
his death
death
last years of
last occurred which
(1799)· During the
(1799). During the years of hishis reign an
reign an incident
incident occurred which
might have ~ed
might have led the
the thoughtful
thoughtful to
to recall
recall the
the forebodings of
of K'ang-hsi.
forebodings K'ang-hsi.
~lan~ which
England, which ~dhad aroused
aroused the. ~peror's anger
the Emperor's by importing
anger by importing opium
opium
mto China,
into China, sent,
sent, m
in 179
1796,6, aa COIl1IIUSS1on
commission under Lord Ma~ey
under Lord to negoti-
Macartney to negoti-
ate
ate a
a commercial treaty with Ch'ien
treaty Ch'ien Lung.
Lung. The
The commissioners
commissioners explained
explained
*
• "Occupied without rest
"Occupied without rest in
in the
die diverse
diverse cares
cares of
of a
a government which men
government which men admire, the
admire, the
greatest monarch in
greatest monarch the world is
in the is also
also the
the most lettered man in
lettered man his empire."
in his empire."
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PPEOPLE
THE AND
E 0 P LEA N D THE SSTATE
TAT E 769
769
to him
to him the
the advantages
advantages of
of trading
trading with
with England,
England, and
and added
added that
that the
the treaty
treaty
which
which they
they sought
sought would
would take
take for
for granted
granted the
the equality
equality
of
of the
the British
British ruler
ruler
with the
with the Chinese
Chinese emperor.
emperor. Ch'ien
Ch'ien Lung
Lung dictated
dictated this
this reply
reply to
to George
George III:
III:

II set
set no value
value on objects
objects strange
strange and
and ingenious, and have no use
ingenious, and have no use
for
for your country's manufactures. This, then, is my answer
is
your country's manufactures. This, then, my answer to to your
your
request
request to
to appoint a
appoint a representative.
representative,
at
at my court, a
a request
my court, request contrary contrary
to
to our
our dynastic
dynastic usage,
usage, which
which could result in
only result
could only in inconvenience
inconvenience to to
yourself.
yourself. II have
have expounded
expounded my my views
views in
in detail
detail and
and have
have commanded
commanded
your tribute
your tribute envoys to
envoys to leave
leave in
in peace on their homeward
peace on their homeward journeys.
journeys.
It behooves you,
It behooves
you, 0O King,
King, to
to respect my
respect my
sentiments
sentiments and
and to
to display
display
even
even greater
greater devotion
devotion and
and loyalty
loyalty
in
in future,
future, so
so that,
that, by perpetual
by perpetual
submission
submission to to our
our throne, you may
throne, you may secure
secure peace
peace andand prosperity
prosperity
for
for
it
your country
your country hereafter.
hereafter.
*
1

In
In these
these proud
proud words
words China
China tried
tried to
to stave
stave off
off the
the Industrial
Industrial Revolution.
Revolution.
We shall
shall see
see in
in the
the sequel how, nevertheless, that Revolution
sequel how, nevertheless, that Revolution came.
came. Mean-
while
while let
let us
study the
us study the economic,
economic, political
political
and
and moral
moral elements
elements of
of the
the
unique
unique and
and instructive
instructive civilization
civilization which
which that
that Revolution
Revolution seems
seems destined
destined
to destroy.
to destroy.

D. LANGUAGE*
H. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LANGUAGE·

PopuJation-Appearll1J,ce-Dress-Peculitrrities
Pojwlation-Appearmce Dress Peculiarities of
of Chinese
Chinese speech-
speech-
Of
Of Chinese rwriting
Chinese writing

The element in
first element
The first in the picture is
the picture number: there
is number: there are many Chinese.
are many Chinese.
Learned guessers
Learned guessers calculate the population
that the
calculate that population of of the
the Chinese states in
Chinese states in

280 B.C.
280 was around
B.e. was I~OOO,OOO; in
around 14,000,000; in 100 28,000,000; in
A.D., 18,000,000;
200 A.D., 726, 41,500,000;
in 726, 4 1,5°0,000;
in
in 16% in
89,000,000; in 1743,
1644, 89,000,000; 1743, 150,000,000;
150,000,000; in 19 19, 330,000,000*
in
1919, 33 0 ,000,000.- In the In the

cities aU greater
cities all greater than
registration kw
than Venice."*
requiring every
law requiring
t.
fourteenth century a European traveler counted in China "two hundred
fourteenth century a European traveler counted in China "two hundred
Venice. The Chinese
1
Chinese census
household to
census is obtained through
is obtained
to inscribe
inscribe the
through aa
the names
names of its
of its
registration every household
occupants upon
occupants upon
a tablet
a tablet at
at the
the entrance;-
entrance;* we do
do not
not know how accurate
accurate
these tablets
these tablets are,
are, or
or the
the reports
reports which
which purport
purport toto be
be based
based upon
upon them.
them. ItIt
is
is probable
probable
that
that China
China now harbors
harbors some
some 40 0 ,000,000
400,000,000 souls.
souls.

• The
The following
following description
description of Chinese society
of Chinese will apply
society will apply chiefly
chieB.y to
to the
the nineteenth
nineteenth
century;
century;
the
the changes brought
changes brought
on
on by
by contact
contact with
with the
the will
West will be
be studied
studied later.
later. Every
Eveiy
description
description
must
must be taken
be taken reserve,
with reserve,
with since aa civilization
since civilization is
is never
never quite
quite the
the same over
same over a
a

long period
long period of
of time
time or
or an
an extensive
extensive area
area of
of space.
space.
77
7700 THE SSTORY
TOR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F C I V I LIZ A T ION (CHAP.
( CHAP. XXVI

The Chinese vary

The Chinese vary in in stature,
stature, being shorter and weaker in the south, taller
being shorter and weaker in the south, taller
and
and stronger
stronger in
in the
the north;
north; in
in general
general they they are are thethe most
most vigorous
vigorous peoplepeople in in
Asia. They sho\v great ph}TSical stamina,
Ask. They show great physical stamina, magnificent courage magnificent courage in
in the
the bear-
bear-
ing of hardships and pain, exceptional resistance
ing of hardships and pain, exceptional
resistance to to disease,
disease, and and a a climatic
climatic
adaptability
adaptability
\vhich
which has
has enabled
enabled them
them to
to prosper
prosper in
in almost
almost every
every zone. zone.
Neither
Neither opium opium nor
nor inbreeding
inbreeding nor
nor syphilis
syphilis
has
has been
been able
able to
to impair
impair theirtheir
health,
health, and
and the
the collapse
collapse
of
of their
their social
social system
system has
has not
not been
been due
due to
to any
any visi-
visi-

ble deterioration in
ble deterioration in their
their biological
biological or
or 1llental vitality.
ipental vitality.
The Chinese
Chinese face face is is one
one of of the
the most
most intelligent
intelligent
on
on earth,
earth, though
though not not uni-
uni-
versally
versally attractive.
attractive. Some of
of the
the pauper
pauper class
class are
are incomparably
incomparably ugly ugly to
to our
our
Western
Western prejudice,
prejudice, and
and some
some criminals
criminals have
have an
an evil
evil leer
leer admirably
admirably suited
suited
to
to cinematic
cinematic caricature;
caricature; but but the the great
great majority
majority have have regular
regular features
features calm calm
with the
with the physiological
physiological accident
accident of
of low
low eyelids,
eyelids, and
and the social accumulation
the social accumulation
of
of centuries
centuries of of civilization.
civilization. The slant slant of the eyes
of the eyes
is
is not
not so so pronounced
pronounced as as
one
one had
had beenbeen led led to to expect,
expect, and
and the
the yellow
yellow skin
skin is
is often
often a
a pleasant'
pleasant
sun-
sun-
tanned
tanned brown.
brown. The women of of the
the peasantry
peasantry are are almost
almost as as strong
strong as as the
the
men;
men; thethe ladies
ladies ofof the
the upper
upper strata
strata are
are delicate
delicate and
and pretty,
pretty,
starch
starch themselves
themselves
with powder, rouge
with powder, rouge theirtheir lips and cheeks,
lips cheeks, blacken
blacken their their eyebrows,
eyebrows, and train train
or thin them to
or thin to resemble
resemble a a willow
willow leaf leaf or or the
the crescent
crescent moon.- moon.* The hair hair in
8
in
both sexes is
both sexes coarse and
is coarse
vigorous, and
and vigorous, and never curls. The women wear
never curls. wear theirs
theirs
in
in aa tuft, usually adorned
tuft, usually adorned with with flowers.
flowers. Under Under the the lastlast dynasty the
dynasty the men, men,
to please
to please theirtheir rulers,
rulers, adopted
adopted the
the Manchu custom
custom of
of shaving
shaving the
the fore
fore half
half
of
of the head; in
the head; in compensation they left
compensation they left thethe remainder
remainder uncut
uncut and
and gathered
gathered it it

into
into a a long queue, which
long queue, which became
became in
in time
time an
an instrument
instrument of
of correction
correction and
and aa
support
support of
of pride.-
pride.
8 *
Beards
Beards were
were small,
small, and
and were
were always shaved,
always shaved, though sel-though sel-
dom by by the the owners
owners thereof;
thereof; barbers
barbers carried
carried theirtheir shops
shops aboutabout with them,
with them,
and throve.
and throve.
The headhead was was ordinarily
ordinarily left bare; when
left bare; when men covered covered it they used
it they used in in
winter aa cap
winter cap ofof velvet
velvet or with aa turned-up
fur with
or fur turned-up rim, rim, andand in summer aa conical
in summer conical
cap of
cap of finely
finely woven filaments filaments of of bamboo,
bamboo, surmounted,
surmounted, in in persons
persons of any
of any
rank, by
rank, by a colored ball
a colored ball and
and aa silken
silken fringe.
fringe. Women,
Women, when when they they could
could af- af-
ford it,
ford clothed their
it, clothed their heads
heads withwith silk silk oror cotton
cotton bands adomed with
bands adorned tinsel,
with tinsel,
trinkets or
trinkets or artificial Howers. Shoes
artificial flowers. Shoes were usually of
were usually of warmwarm cloth; since the
cloth; since the
floor was
floor was oftenoften of of cold
cold tile
tile oror earth,
earth, thethe Chinese carried aa miniature
Chinese carried miniature carpet carpet
with him
with him underunder eacheach footfoot. By By aa custom
custom begun begun at at the
the court
court of of the Em-
the Em-
peror
peror Li
Li Hou-chu
Hou-chu (ca. 970 A.D.),
(ca. 970 A.D.), the
the feet
feet of
of girls,
girls,
at the
at the age of seven,
age of seven, were
were
compressed with
compressed tight bandages
with tight bandages to to prevent
prevent their their further
further growth,
growth, so so that
that the
the
mature kdy
mature lady might
might walk walk withwith aa mincing
mincing step step erotically
erotically pleasing
pleasing to to the
the men.
men.
Ic was
It was regarded
regarded as as immodest
immodest to speak of
to speak of aa woman's
woman's foot, foot, and and as as scandalous
scandalous
look at
to look
to at one;
one; inin the
the presence
presence of lady even
of aa lady even the the word
word for for shoe
shoe was was tabu.*
tabu.·
The
The practice
practice spreadspread to to all
all ranks
ranks and and groups
groups except
except the the Manchus
Manchus and and Tatars,
Tatars,
 CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PEOPLE
THE PEOPLE AND
AND THE
THE STATE
STATE 771
771

and became so so rigid

rigid that
that aa deception about
deception about the the size
size of
of the
the bride's
bride's footfoot suf-
suf-
nced
ficed toto annul an engagement or
engagement or a
a marriage."
marriage."
3
K'ang-hsi tried to
K'ang-hsi tried to stop the
stop the
custom,
custom, but failed;
but today it is
failed; today it is one
one of of the
the happier casualties of the Revolu-
happier casualties of the Revolu-
tion.
tion. .
Men covered
covered theirtheir nakedness
nakedness with with trousers
trousers and tunics, almost
and tunics, almost alwaysalways
blue. In
blue. In winter
winter the the trousers
trousers were were overlaid
overlaid with with leggings,
leggings,
and
and additional
additional
tunics,
tunics, sometimes
sometimes to to the
the number of of thirteen,
thirteen, werewere put on. These
put OD. These were were
kept
kept on night
on night and day
and day throughout
throughout the the winter,
winter, andand were
were re::loved
removed one one by by one
one
with the progress
progress of of spring."
spring." The tunic
tunic fell variously to
fell to the
the loins,
loins, or
or the
the
variously
knees,
knees, or thethe feet; it was buttoned
feet; it buttoned closely up to
to the
the neck,
neck, and
and had
had immense
immense
closely up
sleeves
sleeves instead
instead of of pockets;
pockets; China
China doesdoes notnot say
say thatthat aa man "pocketed"
"pocketed" an
an
object,
object, but
but that
that he
he "sleeved"
"sleeved" it.
it. Shirts
Shirts and
and underwear
underwear were
were well-nigh
well-nigh
un-
un-
known.·
known." In In the country women wore
the country wore trousers
trousers likelike the men, since
the men, since they
they were
were
accustomed to doing
accustomed to
doing a a man's
man's work and and more;
more; in in the
the towns
towns they
they
covered
covered the
the
trousers with
trousers skirts. In
with skirts. In the cities silk
the cities silk was
was almost
almost as as common as as cotton.-
cotton."
No belt
belt compressed
compressed the waist, and
the waist, and no no corsets held in
corsets held in the breasts. In
the breasts. In general
general
the
the ChineSe dress was more sensible,
Chinese dress healthy and convenient than the garb
sensible, healthy and convenient than the garb ofof
the
the modem
modern West. No tyranny tyranny of
of fashion
fashion harassed or exalted
harassed or exalted the lifethe life of
of the
the
Chinese
Chinese woman;
woman; all all urban
urban classes
classes dressed
dressed alike,
alike, and
and nearly all generations; the
nearly all generations;
the

quality of
quality of the
the garment
garment might
might differ,
differ, but
but not
not the
the form;
form; and
and all ranks
all ranks might
might
be sure that the fashion would last
the fashion last as
as long as
be sure that
long as the
the gown.
gown.

language of
The language the Chinese
of the differed from
Chinese differed from the
the rest
rest of
of the
the world
world even
even
more
more distinctly than
distinctly than their
their dress.
dress. It It had
had nono alphabet,
alphabet, no no spelling,
spelling, no gram-
no gram-
mar,
mar, and
and no
no parts
parts
of
of speech;
speech; it
it is
is amazing
amazing how well
well and
and how long this
long this
oldest and
oldest and most
most populous
populous nation
nation on on earth
earth has
has managed
managed without
without these
these
curses of
curses of Occidental
Occidental youth.youth. Perhaps
Perhaps in in forgotten
forgotten days
days there
there were
were inflec-
inB.ec-
tions, declensions, conjugations,
tions, declensions, conjugations, cases,cases, numbers,
numbers, tenses, moods; but
tenses, moods; but thethe
ianguage
language
as
as f~
far back
back as
as we,can
we can trace
trace it
it shows
shows none
none of
of them.
them. Every
Every word
in it
in may be
it may be aa noun, ver~, an
noun, aa verb, an adjective
adjective oror an
an adverb,
adverb, according
according to its
to its
conteXt and
context and its
its tone.
tone. Since
Since the
the spoken
spoken dialects
dialects have
have only
only from
from four
four to to
eight hUndred monosyllabic word-sounds
eight hundred monosyllabic
word-sounds or or vocables,
vocables, andand tljese
tbese must
must be be
used to
used to express the 40,000
express the characters of
40,000 characters of the
the written
written language,
language, each
each vocable
vocable
has from
has from fourfour toto nine
nine "tones,"
"tones," so that its
so that meaning isis made to
its meaning to differ
differ accord-
accord-
ing
ing
to
to the
the manner
manner in
in which
which it
it is
is sung.
sung. GestureS
Gestures and
and context
context eke
eke out
out these
these
tones, and make each sound serve
tones, and make each sound serve many purposes; many purposes; so
so the
the vocable
vocable I
I may
may
mean any
mean anyoneone ofof sixty-nine things, shi
sixty-nine things, may mean
sbi may mean fifty-nine, t\venty-
fifty-nine, ku twenty-
nine.
nine.
1O
80
No other language
other language has
has been
been at
at once
once so
so complex,
complex, so
so subde
subtle and so
and so
brief.
brief.
77'1.
772 THE STORY
THE OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION XXVI
(CHAP.XXVI
(CHAP.

The written
The written language
language \vas
,,-as even
e\·en more
more unique
unique than
than the ~poken. The
the spoken. The
objects exhumed
objects
exhumed in in Honan,
Honan, and and tentatively
tentatively dated dated back back to to the
the Shang
Shang
Dynasty, bear writing in characters substantially like
Dynasty, bear writing in characters substantially
like those
those in in use
use until
until
our own generation, so that-barring
our own generation, so that-barring a a few
few Copts
Copts who still
still speak
speak ancient
ancient

Egyptian-Chinese
Egyptian Chinese
is
is both
both the
the oldest
oldest and
and the
the most
most widespread
widespread languagelanguage
spoken on the earth today. Originally, as
spoken on the earth today. Originally,
as we infer infer from
from aa passage
passage in in
Lao-tze,
Lao-tze, the
the Chinese
Chinese used
used knotted
knotted cords
cords to
to communicate
communicate messages.
messages. Prob-
Prob-
ably
ably
the
the needs
needs of
of priests
priests
in
in tracing
tracing magic
magic formulas,
formulas, and
and of potters
of potters in in
88
marking
marking
their
their vessels,
vessels, led
led to
to the
the development
development of
of aa pictorial script.-
pictorial script. These
These
primitive pietograms
primitive pictograms
were
were the
the original
original fonn
form of
of the
the six hundred
six hundred signssigns that
that
are now
are now the the fundamental
fundamental characters
characters in in Chinese
Chinese writing.
writing. Some two hun- hun- .
.

dred and fourteen

dred and fourteen of of them
them have
have been
been named
named "radicals"
"radicals" because
because they
they
enter as
enter as elements
elements intointo nearly
nearly all all the
the characters
characters of of thethe current
current language.
language.
The present
The present characters
characters are highly complex
are highly symbols, in
complex symbols, in which
which the the primi-
primi-
tive pictorial
tive pictorial element
element has has been
been overlaid
overlaid with designed to
additions designed
with additions to define
define
the term
the specifically, usually
term specifically, usually through
through some some indication
indication of of its
its sound.
sound. Not
only every
only every word,
word, butbut every idea, has
every idea, its own separate
has its separate sign; sign; one
one sign repre-
sign repre-
sents
sents a a horse,
horse, another
another sign sign
"a
"a bay
bay horse
horse with
with a
a white
white belly,"
7

belly/ another
another "a
"a
horse with
horse with aa white
white spot on his forehead." Some of
spot on his forehead."
the characters
of the characters are are still
still

relatively simple:
relatively simple:
a
a curve
curve over
over a
a straight
straight line
line (i.e.,
(i.e., the
the sun
sun over
over the
the
horizon)
horizon) means means "morning";
"morning"; the the sunsun and and thethe moon together together represent
represent
"light";
"light";
a
a mouth
mouth and
and aa bird
bird together
together mean
mean ccsinging";
"singing"; a
a woman beneath
beneath aa
roof
roof means
means "peace";
"peace"; a
a woman,
woman, a
a mouth and
and the
the sign
sign for
for "crooked"
"crooked" con-
con-
stitute
stitute the
the character
character for for "dangerous";
"dangerous"; a
a man and
and a
a woman together
together mean
mean
"talkative"; "quarreling" is
"talkative"; "quarreling" is aa woman with with two two mouths;
mouths; "wife""wife" is is repre-
repre-
sented
sented by signs
by signs for
for a
a woman,
woman, a
a broom
broom and
and aa storm.-
storm."
From some some points
points of view this
of view this isis aa primitive language that has by
primitive language that has by
supreme
supreme conservatism
conservatism survived
survived into
into "modem"
"modern" times.
times. Its Its difficulties
difficulties areare
obvious than
more obvious than itsits virtues.
virtues. We are told that
are told that thethe Chinese
Chinese takestakes from
from
ten
ten toto fifty
fifty years
years to to become acquainted
acquainted with with all all the characters in
40,000 characters
the 40,000 in
his language;
his language; but but when we realize that these characters
realize that these characters are are not
not letters
letters but
but
ideas,
ideas, and reflect
reflect on the the length
length of
of time
time it would
it would take
take us
us to
to master
master 40,000
40,000
ideas,
ideas, oror even
even a a vocabularly
vocabularly of 40,000 words,
of 40,000 words, we perceive that the terms
perceive that the terms
of
of the
the comparison
comparison are are unfair
unfair to to the
the Chinese;
Chinese; what what we should should say is that it
say is that it
takes
takes anyone
any one fifty years
fifty years to
to master
master 40,000
40,000 ideas.
ideas. In
In actual
actual practice
practice the
the
average
average Chinese
Chinese getsgets along
along quite
quite well with three
well with three or or four thousand signs,
four thousand signs,
and learns these readily
learns these enough
readily enough by finding by :finding their
their "radicals."
"radicals." The The clearest
clearest
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE P}tOPLE
THE PEOPLE AND
AND THE
THE STATE
STATE 773
773
advantage
advantage of of such
such aa language-expressing
language expressing not not sounds
sounds but but ideas-is
ideas-is thatthat it it

can be read by
can be read by Koreans
Koreans and and Japanese
Japanese as
as easily
easily
as
as by
by the
the Chinese,
Chinese, and
and pro-
pro-
vides
vides the Far East
the Far East with
with an an international
international written
written language. Again it unites
language. Again it unites
in
in one system of
one system of writing
writing all all the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of of China,
China, whose
whose dialects
dialects differ
differ
to
to the
the point
point of
of mutual
mutual unintelligibility;
unintelligibility;
the
the same
same character
character is
is read
read as
as dif-
dif-
ferent
ferent sounds
sounds or words in
or words in different
different localities.
localities. This This advantage applies
advantage applies in
in
as in
time as well as language has
time as well in space;
space; since
since thethe written
written language has remained
remained essentially
essentially
the
the same
same while
while thethe spoken language
spoken language has
has diverged
diverged
from
from into a
itit into a hundred
hundred
dialects,
dialects, .the
the literature
literature of of China,
China, written
written for for two thousand years
two thousand in these
years in these
characters,
characters, can can be read read today by
today by any any literate
literate Chinese, though
Chinese, though we
we cannot
cannot
tell how the the ancient
ancient writers the
tell writers pronounced
pronounced the words, or spoke the ideas,
words, or spoke the ideas,
which the signs
which the signs represent.
represent. This This persistence
persistence of of the
the same
same scriptscript
amidst
amidst aa
flux
flux and diversity
diversity of
of speech
speech made for
for the
the preservation
preservation
of
of Chinese
Chinese thought
thought
and
and culture,
culture, and and at at the
the same
same timetime served
served as as aa powerful
powerful force
force for
for conserva-
conserva-
tism; old ideas
tism; ideas held
held thethe stage
stage and and formed
formed the the mind
mind of of youth. The char-
youth. The char-
acter of Chinese
acter civilization is
Chinese civilization is symbolized in
symbolized in this
this
phenomenon of its
phenomenon of its unique
unique
script: its
script: its unity amid diversity and
unity growth, its
diversity and growth, its profound conservatism,
profound conservatism, and
and
its
its unrivaled
unrivaled continuity.
continuity. This
This system
system of
of writing
writing was
was in
in every
every sense
sense aa high
high
intellectual
intellectual achievement;
achievement: it it classified
classified thethe whole world-of objects,
whole world-of activi-
objects, activi-
ties and qualitiesunder
ties qualities-under aa few hundred hundred root root or uradical" signs,
or "radical" signs, combined
combined
with these
with signs some fifteen
these signs hundred distinguishing
fifteen hundred distinguishing marks, marks, and and made
made themthem
represent, in their completed
represent, in their completed forms, forms, allall the
the ideas
ideas used
used inin literature
literature and and life.
life.
We must not not bebe too
too sure that our
sure that our own diversediverse modesmodes of writing down
of writing down
our thoughts
our thoughts are are superior
superior to to this
this apparently
apparently primitive
primitive form.form. Leibnitz
Leibnitz in in
the seventeenth
the seventeenth century,
century, and and Sir Sir Donald
Donald Ross Ross in in our
our time,
time, dreamed
dreamed of of aa
system
system of
of written
written signs independent
signs independent of
of spoken languages,
spoken languages, free
free from
from their
their
nationalist diversity
nationalist diversity and their variations
and their variations in in space
space and and time,
time, and and capable,
capable,
therefore, of
therefore, of expressing
expressing the the ideas
ideas of of different
different peoples
peoples in in identical
identical and and
mutually intelligible
mutually intelligible ways. ways. But
But precisely
precisely such
such a
a sign language,
sign language, miffing a uniting a
hundred generations
hundred generations and and aa quarter
quarter of of the
the earth's
earth's inhabitants,
inhabitants, alreadyalready exists
exists
in the
in the Far East. The
Far East. The conclusion
c('9).clusion of of the Oriental isis logical
the Oriental logical and and terrible:
terrible: thethe
of the
rest of
rest the world
world must ream
must learn to to write
write Chinese.
Chinese.
774
774 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXVI
XXVI

m. THE PRACTICAL LIFE

1.
L In
In the
the Fields
Fields

The pO'lJerty
poverty ofof t],e Methods of
peastmt-.:llethods
the peasant of busbandry-Crops-Tell
husbandry CropsTea
-Food-The stoicinn of
Food The stoiciS11Z of the
the 'Village
village

All
All the
the varied
varied literature
literature of of that
that language,
language, all all thethe subdeties
subtleties of of Chinese
Chinese
thought
thought and
and the
the lwnn-ies
luxuries of
of Chinese
Chinese life,
life, rested
rested in
in the
the last
last analysis
analysis on the the
fertility
fertility
of
of the
the fields.
fields. Or rather
rather on
on the
the toil
toil of
of men-for
men for fertile
fertile fields
fields are
are not
not
born
born butbut made.
made. Through
Through many many centuries
centuries the
the early
early inhabitants
inhabitants of
of China
China
must have
have fought
fought against jungle and
against jungle and forest,
forest, beast
beast and and insect,
insect, drought
drought and and
flood, saltpetre
flood, saltpetre and
and frost
frost to
to turn this
this vast
vast wilderness
wilderness into
into fruitful
fruitful soil.
soil. And
And
the victory
the victory had had to be periodically
to be periodically rewon;rewon; a a century
century of careless timber-
of careless timber-
cutting
cutting leftleft a a desert,·
desert,* and a a few years
years of of neglect
neglect allowed
allowed the jungle to
the jungle to
return. The strUggle
return. struggle was bitter
bitter and perilous;
perilous; at
at any
any moment the
the bar-
bar-
barians
barians might
might rushrush in,in, and seize the slow
seize the slow growths
growths of of thethe cleared
cleared earth.
earth.
Therefore
Therefore the the peasants,
peasants, for for their
their protection,
protection, lived
lived not
not in
in isolated
isolated home-
home-
steads but in
steads but in small
small communities,
communities, surrounded
surrounded their villages with
their villages with walls,
walls, went
went
out together to
out together to plant
plant and cultivate
cultivate the
the soil,
soil, and
and often
often slept.through
slept .through the
the
night on guard
night guard in in their
their fields.
fields.

Their methods were

Their methods simple, and
were simple, yet they
and yet they did
did notnot differ
differ much from from what
what
they
they are
are today.
today. Sometimes
Sometimes they
they used
used ploughs-first
ploughs first ofof wood,
wood, then
then of
of stone,
stone,
then of
then of iron;
iron; but more often
but more often theythey turned
turned up their little
up their little plots patiently
plots patiently
with the
with hoe. They
the hoe. helped the
They helped the soil With any
soil with fertilizer they
natural fertilizer
any natural they could
could
find,
find, and
and did
did not
not disdain
disdain to
to collect
collect for
for this
this purpose
purpose the
the offal
offal of
of dogs
dogs and
and
men. From the
men. the earliest times they
earliest times they dugdug innumerable
innumerable canals canals to to bring
bring thethe
water of of their many rivers
their many rivers to to rice
rice paddies
paddies or or millet
millet fields; deep ,channels
fields; deep
water channels
were cutcut through
through miles miles of of solid
solid rock
rock to to tap
tap some
some elusive
elusive stream,
stream, or or to
to
divert its
divert its course
course intointo aa desiccated
desiccated plain. plain. Without rotation rotation of of crops
crops or or
artificial manures,
artificial manures, and and often
often without draft animals
without draft animals of of.any kind, the
any kind, the Chinese
Chinese
have wrung
have wrung two or or three
three crops
crops annually
annually from from at at least half their
least half soil, and
their soil, and
have won more
have more nourishment
nourishment from from the the earth
earth thanthan anyany otherother people
people in in
history."
history.
84

cereals they
The cereals grew were
they grew chiefly millet
were chiefly millet and and rice,
rice, withwith wheat
wheat and and
barley
barley as
as lesse~
lesser crops.
crops. The rice
rice was
was turned
turned into
into wine
wine as
as well
well as
as food,
food, butbut
*
• The
The denuded
denuded slopes
slopes and
and hills, unable to
hills, unable to hold
hold the
the win-water
rain-water that fell upon
that fell them,. lost
upon them,, lost
their top~oil,became arid,
became
their top-soil, and offered
arid, and offered no obstacle to
DO obstacle the flooding
to the llooding of the valleys
of die by the
valleys by the
heavy rains.
heavy rams.
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PPEOPLE
THE E 0 P LEAAND THE SSTATE
N D THE TAT E 775
775
the
the peasant
peasant nevernever drank
drank tootoo much
much of of it. His
it. favorite drink,
His favorite drink, and and next
next to to
rice his largest
rice his
largest crop,
crop, waswas tea. Used first
tea. Used first asas aa medicine,
medicine, it
it grew
grew
in
in popu-
popu-
larity until, in
larity until, in the
the days
days of the T'angs, it
of the
Pangs, it entered
entered the the realms
realms of of export
export and
and
poetry. By
poetry. By the fifteenth
the fifteenth century all
century all the Far East
the Far East was was esthetically intoxi-
esthetically intoxi-
cated
cated with
with the ceremony of
the^ceremony
of drinking tea;
drinking tea; epicures searched for new varie-
epicures searched for new varie-
ties, and drinking
ties, and drinking tournaments
tournaments were were held
held to to determine
determine whose whose tea tea was
was thethe
85
best,-
best. Added
Added to to these
these products
products were
were delicious
delicious vegetables, sustaining
vegetables, sustaining le-
le-
gumes
gumes like the soy
like the soy bean and its
bean and its sprouts, doughty condiments
sprouts, doughty condiments like like garlic
garlic
and
and the
the onion,
onion, and and aa thousand
thousand varieties
varieties of berries and
of berries and fruits.:JO
fruits.
38
Least
Least of of all
all

products
products of
of rural
rural toil
toil was meat; no\v and then oxen
meat; now and then oxen and buffaloes wereand buffaloes were
used
used for for ploughing, but
ploughing, but stock-raising for food ,vas confined to pigs and
stock-raising for food was confined to pigs and
1f
fowl.
fowl." A large part
large part of
of the
the population
population lived
lived by
by snaring :fish from the streams
snaring fish from the streams
and thethe sea.
sea.

Dry rice,
Dry rice, macaroni,
macaroni, vermicelli,
vermicelli, a a few
few vegetables, and a little fish formed
vegetables, and a little fish formed
the
the diet
diet of of the
the poor;
poor; the
the well-to-do
well-to-do added
added pork
pork and
and chicken,
chicken, and and the
the rich
rich
indulged
indulged a passion
a
passion forfor duck;
duck; thethe most
most pretentious
pretentious
of
of Peking
Peking
dinners
dinners con-
con-
as
sisted
sisted of of a a hundred c~urses
courses of of duck.
duck.* Cow'sCow's milk milk was was rare
rare andand eggs were
eggs were
few and old,
few and old, but the soy
but the soy bean
bean provided wholesome milk
provided wholesome milk and and cheese.
cheese.
Cooking
Cooking was
was developed
developed into
into aa fine
fine art,
art, and
and made
made use
use of
of everything; grasses
everything; grasses
and seaweeds
and seaweeds were were plucked
plucked and birds' nests
and birds' nests ravished
ravished to to make
make tasty
tasty soups;
soups;
dainty dishes
dainty dishes were
were concocted
concocted out out ofof sharks'
sharks' finsfins and
and fish
fish intestines,
intestines, locusts
locusts
and grasshoppers,
and grasshoppers, grubs grubs andand silkworms,
silkworms, horses horses andand mules,
mules, ratsrats and
and water-
water-
snakes, cats and dogs.
snakes, cats and dogs.- The Chinese
40
Chinese loved
loved to to eat;
eat; it was not
it was not unusual
unusual for for aa
ric~ man's
rich man's dinner
dinner to to have
have forty
forty courses,
courses, and and toto require
require three
tlu:ee or or four
four hours
hours
of gentlemanly
of gendemanly absorption.
absorption.
The poorpoor man did did not
not need
need so so much time time for his two
for his two meals
meals aa. day.
day. With
With
all his
all his toil
toil the
the peasant,
peasant, withwith exceptions
exceptions here here and
and there,
there, was
was never
never secure
secure
from starvation
from starvation untiluntil he he was
was dead.
dead. The The strong
strong and and clever
clever accumulated
accumulated
large estates,
large estates, and
and concentrated
concentrated the
the wealth
wealth of
of the
the country
country into
into a
a few hands;
few hands;
occasionally, as
occasionally, as under
under ShihShih Huang-ti,
Huang-ti, the the soil
soil was
was redivided
redivided among among the the
population,
population, but
but the
the natural
natural inequality
inequality of
of men
men soon
soon concentrated
concentrated wealth
wealth
again.A The
again.
41
The majority
majority of of the
the peasants
peasants ownedowned land,land, but but asas the
the population
population
increased faster
increased than the
faster than the area
area under
under cultivation,
cultivation, the the average
average holding
holding be- be-
came smaller
came smaller with with every
every century.
century. The The result
result was
was aa poverty
poverty equaled
equaled onlyonly
by destitute
by India: the
destitute India: the typical family earned
typical family earned but but $83 year, many
$83 aa year, many men men
lived on
lived on twotwo cents day, and
cents aa day, and millions
millions died died ofof hunger
hunger in in each year.- For
each year. 48
For
twenty centuries China
twenty centuries China has has had
had an an average
average of of one
one famine
famine annually; 4*
partly
annually;4I partly
because the
because the peasant
peasant waswas exploited
exploited to to thethe verge
verge of of subsistence,
subsistence, partlypartly be-be-
 CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PPEOPLE
THE AND
E 0 P LEA STATE
N D THE S T .A T E 777
777
they wove
wove their cocoons by
their cocoons by emitting silk. The cocoons were dropped in
they emitting silk. The cocoons were dropped in
hot water,
hot water, the
the silk
silk came away from its shell,
from its was treated
shell, was
away treated and
and woven, and
and woven,
was
was skilfully
skilfully turned
turned into into a a great
great variety of rich clothing, tapestries, em-
variety of rich clothing, tapestries, em-
broideries and brocades
broideries brocades for for the
the upper classes
upper classes of the world.*
of the world.· The The raisers
raisers and
and
weavers of
weavers of silk
silk wore
wore cotton.
cotton.
Even in
. Even the centuries
in the centuries before Christ this
before Christ domestic industry
this domestic had been sup-
industry had been sup-
plemented with
plemented shops in
with shops in the towns. .As
the towns. As far back as
far back as 3 00
300 B.C.
B.C. there
there had
had been
been
an Urban
ttrban proletariat,
proletariat, organized
organized with
with its masters
its masters into
into industrial
industrial guilds.-
guilds.*
8
The
The
growth
growth of
of this
this shop industry
shop industry filled
filled the
the towns
towns with
with a
a busy population,
busy population,
mak-
mak-
ing the China of
ing the of Kublai
Kublai Khan quite quite the
the equal, industrially, of
equal, industrially, of eighteenth-
eighteenth-
century Europe.
century Europe. "There
"There are
are a
a thousand
thousand for
workshops for each craft," wrote
workshops each craft," wrote
Marco Polo, Polo, "and"and eacheach furnishes
furnishes employment
employment for ten, fifteen,
for ten, fifteen, or or twenty
twenty
workmen, and and in in a a few instances
instances as as many as
workmen, many as forty.forty.
.• . . The
. . The opulent
opulent mas-
mas-
ters in
ters these shops
in these
shops do do not
not labor
labor withwith their
their own hands, hands, but but on on thethe contrary
contrary
assume airs airs of of gentility
gentility and affect parade."1D These These guilds, like codified
80
and affect parade."
guilds, like codified
industries
industries of of our time, time, limited
limited competition, and regulated wages, prices and
competition, and regulated wages, prices and
hours; many of
hours; many restricted output in
of them restricted
output in order
order to
to maintain the
maintain the prices of their
prices of their
products;
products; and
and perhaps
perhaps their
their genial
genial content
content with
with traditional
traditional ways
ways must
must share
share
some of of the respoDSlbility for
the responsibility for retarding the
retarding the growth of science in China, and
growth of science in China, and
obstructing
obstructing the Industrial
the Industrial Revolution
Revolution until until all barriers and
all barriers and institutions
institutions are are to-
to-
day
day being broken down by
being broken by its
its flood.
flood.
The guilds undertook many
guilds undertook many of of the
the functions
functions which which the the onceonce proud
proud
citizens
citizens of the West have have surrendered
surrendered to to the state: they· passed their
the state: they -passed their own
of the
laws, administered them fairly; they made
laws, and administered strikes infrequent by ar-
made strikes
fairly; they infrequent by ar-
bitrating
bitrating the
the disputes
disputes of
of employers
employers and
and employees
employees through mediation
through mediation boardsboards
representing
representing each
each side
side equally;
equally; theythey served
served in
in general
general as
as a
a self-governing
self-governing and
and
. self-disciplining organization'
self-disciplining organization for
for industry,
industry,
and
and provided
provided an
an admirable
admirable escape escape
from
from the the modern
modem dilemma between laissez-faire
dilemma between laissez-faire and and thethe servile state. These
servile state. These
guilds were fonned
guilds were formed not not only
only by by merchants,
merchants, manufacturers
manufacturers and
and their
their work-
work-
men, but
men, but by by such
such less
less exalted
exalted trades
trades as barbers, coolies
as barbers, coolies and cooks; even
and cooks; even thethe
beggars
beggars were
were united
united in
in a
a brotherhood
brotherhood that
that subjeeted
subjected its members
its members to
to strict
strict

laws.1I.
laws.
51
A
A. smaIl
small minority
minority of of town
town laborers
laborers werewere slaves,
slaves, engaged
engaged for for thethe most
most
part
part in
in domestic
domestic service,
service, and
and usually
usually bonded
bonded to
to their
thek masters
masters for
for a
a period
period of of
years,
years, or
or for
for life. In
life. In times
times of
of famine
famine girls
girls
and
and orphans
orphans were
were exposed
exposed for
for
sale
sale at
at the price of
the price of aa few
few "cash,"
"cash," and and a a father
father mightmight at at any
any time
time sellsell his
his
daughters as bondservants. Such
daughters as bondservants. Such slavery, however, slavery, however, never
never reached
reached the
the pro-
pro-
portions that
portions that it attained in
it attained in Greece
Greece and and Rome;
Rome; the the majority
majority of of thethe work-
ers were free
ers were free agents or
agents or members
members of of guilds,
guilds,
and the majority
and the majority of the peasants
of the peasants

•*It
It was not unusual
was not unusual for
for aa Chinese
Chinese host, entertaining guests,
host, when entertaining guests, to pass
to pass delicate
delicate
fabrics
fabrics around
around among them,* asas another
another might porce1am or unravel his
his fsvorite
among them," might exhibit
8
exhibit porcelain or unravel favorite
paintings or calligraphic scrolls.
paintings or calligraphic scrolls.
.
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PEOPLE AND THE STATE
THE 779
779
the Malay
around the Malay Peninsula
Peninsuk or or plodding
plodding thethe caravan
caravan routes
routes through Turk..
through Turk-
estan,
estan, to
to get
get their
their goods
goods to
to India, Persia, Mesopotamia, at last even to
India, Persia, Mesopotamia, at last even to
Rome.-
Rome." SilkSilk and tea,
tea, porcelain and
porcelain and paper, peaches and apricots, gunpo\vder
paper, peaches and apricots, gunpowder
and playing
playing cards,
cards, were thethe staple exports; in return for \vhich the \varid
staple exports; in return for which the world
sent to China
sent to China alfalfa and glass,
alfalfa and carrots and
and peanuts, tobacco and opium.
peanuts, tobacco and opium.
glass, carrots

Trade was facilitated

facilitated by an
by an ancient
ancient systemsystem of of credit
credit and and coinage.
coinage.
Merchants lent lent to to one
one another
another at at high rates
high rates of
of interest,
interest, averaging some
averaging some
thirty-six
thirty-six per cent-though this
per cent-though this was
was no no higher
higher thanthan inin Greece
Greece and and Rome.·
58
Rome.
Money-lenders
Money-lenders took
took great
great risks,
risks, charged
charged commensurate
commensurate fees,
fees, and
and were
were
popular only
popular only at
at borrowing time; "wholesale robbers,
borrowing rime; "wholesale robbers," said an old ChineseU said an old Chinese
proverb,
proverb, "start
"start a a bank."aT
bank." The oldest
87

currency of the
oldest known currency of the country
country took took
the
the form of of shells,
shells, knives
knives and
and silk;
silk; the
the first
first metal
metal currency
currency went back at
went back at
least
least to the :fifth
to the fifth century B.C.-
century B.C.
88
Under the
the Ch'in
Ch'in Dynasty
Dynasty gold gold \vas
was made
made
the
the standard
standard of of value
value by by the government; but
the government; but an an alloy of copper and tin
alloy of copper and tin
served
served forfor the
the smaller
smaller coins,
coins, andand gradually
gradually drove drove out out the
the gold.·
gold,*
When
Wu Ti's
Ti's experiment
experiment with
with a
a currency
currency of
of silver
silver alloyed
alloyed with
with tin
tin was
was ruined
ruined

by counterfeiters,
by counterfeiters, the the coins
coins were
were replaced
repkced with with leather
leather strips a
strips
a foot
foot long,
long,
which became
which became the the foster-parents
foster-parents of
of paper money.
paper money. About the
the year
year 8°7,
807, the
the
supply
supply of of copper
copper having,
having, like
like modem
modern gold, become inadequate
gold, become inadequate as as com-
com-
pared
pared with
with the
die rjsing
rising abundance
abundance of
of goods,
goods, the
the Emperor
Emperor Hsien
Hsien Tsung
Tsung
ordered
ordered thatthat all
all copper currency should
copper currency should be be deposited
deposited withwith the the govem-
govern-
ment, and
ment, issued in
and issued in exchange
exchange 'for for itit certificates
certificates of of indebtedness
indebtedness which which re- re-
ceived the
ceived the name
name of uflying money"
of "flying money" from
from the
the Chinese,
Chinese, 'Who
who appear to
appear to have have
taken their
taken fiscal troubles
their fiscal troubles as as good-naturedly as
good-naturedly as the
the Americans
Americans of
of 1933.
1933.
The practice
The practice was was discontinued
discontinued after after thethe passing
passing of of the
the emergency;
emergency; but but the
the
invention of
invention of block-printing
block-printing tempted tempted the the government
government to to apply
apply the the new
to the
art to
art making of
the making of money,
money, and and about
about 935 935 A.D. the semi-independent
A.D. the semi-independent pro- pro-
vince of
vince of Szechuan,
Szechuan, and and inin 970
970 thethe rational
national: government
government at at Ch'ang-an,
Ch'ang-an, be- be-
gan
gan the
the issuance
issuance of
of paper money.
paper money. During During the
the Sung Dynasty
Sung Dynasty a
a fever
fever of
of
printing-press inflation
printing-press
inflation ruined
ruined many many fortunes. 89
fortunes.- "The Emperor's Emperor's Mint," Mint,"
wrote Polo
wrote Polo of of Kublai's
Kublai's treasury,
treasury, "is "is inin the
the city
city ofof Cambaluc
Cambaluc (Peking);
(Peking);
and the
and way itit isis wrought
the way wrought is is such
such that you might
that you might saysay that
that he he hath
hath die
the
Secret of
Secret Alchemy in
of Alchemy in perfection,
perfection, and and youyou would be be right.
right. For he he makes
makes
his money
his money after this fashion"
after this fashion"-and and he he proceeded
proceeded to arouse the
to arouse the incredulous
incredulous
scorn of
scorn of hishis countrymen
countrymen by describing the
by describing the process
process by which the
by which the bark
bark
*• Copper still the
Copper isis still the dominant currency, in
dominant currency, the form
in the form of
of the
the "cash" worth aa third
"cash"-worth or aa
third or
half of a cent-and
half of a cent-and the the "tael," which is
"tael," which worth aa thousand
is worth thousand "cash."
"cash."
780
780 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXVI
(CHAP. XXVI

of the mulberry
of the mulberry tree
tree ,vas
was pressed into bits of paper accepted by the
pressed into bits of paper accepted by
the people
people
eo
as the equivalent
as the of
of gold. Such
Such were
were the
the sources
sources of
of that
that flood of paper
flood of paper
equivalent gold"
money which,
money which, ever since, has
ever since, has alternately
alternately
accelerated
accelerated and threatened the
and threatened the
economic
economic life
life of
of the
the world.
world,

3. Invention and
3. Invention and Science
Science

Gunpowder,
Gunpowder, fireworks and war-The~
fireworks and war The- compass-Poverty
compass Poverty of
of indus-
indus-
trial i1l'lJention-GeogTaphy-Mathematics-Physics-"Feng
trial invention Geography Mathematics Physics "Feng
shut"-Astrono1ny-Medici'lle-H
shui" ygiene
Astronomy Medicine Hygiene
The Chinese have been
been more facile in
more facile in making than in
Chinese have making inventions
inventions than in using
using
them.
them. Gunpowder
Gunpowder appeared appeared under
under the
the T'angs,
Tangs, but
but was
was very sensibly re-
very sensibly re-
stricted to £reworks;
stricted to fireworks; not not until
until the
the Sung
Sung Dynasty
Dynasty (I ( 161
1 A.D.) was
161 A.D.) was itit formed
formed
into hand-grenades and
into hand-grenades and employed
employed in
in war.
war. The Arabs
Arabs became
became acquainted
acquainted
with saltpetre-the main
with saltpetre-the main constituent
constituent of of gunpowder-in
gunpowder-in the the course
course of of their
their
trade with China,
trade with China, and and called
called itit "Chinese
"Chinese snow"; they brought
snow"; they brought the the secret
secret
of
of gunpowder
gunpowder westward,
westward, the the Saracens
Saracens turned
turned it to military
it to military use,use, and
and Roger
Roger
Bacon,
Bacon, thethe first
first European to
European to mention
mention it,
it, may
may have
have learned.
learned of
of it
it through
through
his
his study
study of Arab lore
of Arab or his
lore or his acquaintance
acquaintance with with the
the central Asiatic traveler,
central Asiatic traveler,
De
De Rubruquis.
Rubraquis.*
tl
.

compass is
The compass is of
of much greater antiquity. If
greater antiquity. If we may believe
may believe ChineseChinese
historians, it was invented by
historians, it was invented by the
the Duke of Chou in
of in thethe reign
reign of the Em-
of the Em-
peror Cheng
peror Cheng Wang Wang (I
(i I
1 15-]°78
15-1078 B.C.)
B.C.) to
to guide
guide certain
certain foreign
foreign
ambassadors
ambassadors
back to
back to their
their home lands; the Duke,
lands; the Duke, we are are told, presented the
told, presented the embassy
embassy
with :five
with five chariots
chariots each equipped with
each equipped with a a "south-pointing needle."*
"south-pointing
needle.". Very Very
probably the
probably the magnetic
magnetic properties
properties of of the
the lodestone were known
lodestone were known to to ancient
ancient
China, but the
China, but the use
use of it was confined
of it confined to to orienting temples. The magnetic
orienting temples. magnetic
needle was
needle described in
was described the Sung-shu,
in the Sung-shu, an historical: work
an historical work of the fifth
of the fifth cen-
cen-
tury A.D.,
tury A.D., and waswas attrib~ted
attributed by the
by the author
author to
to the
the astronomer
astronomer Chang
Chang Heng Heng
(d.
(d. 139 A.D.), who,
139 A.D.), who, however,
however, had had only rediscovered what
only rediscovered what China
China had had
before. The oldest
known before. oldest menti~n
mention of of the needle as
the needle useful for
as useful for mariners
mariners
occurs in
occurs in aa work of of the
the early
early twelfth
twelfth century, ascribes this
which ascribes this use
use ofof it
century, which it

to foreign-probably
to foreign probably Arab-navigators
Arab plying between
navigators plying between SumatraSumatra and and Can-
Can-
the c~m­
68
the :first
first known European notice
ton.· About
About I1190 190 we :find European notice of
ton. find the of the com-
pass
pass in
in a
a poem by
poem by Guyot Guyot de
de Provins."
Provins.
84

Despite the contribution of the compass

Despite the compass and
and gunpowder,
gunpowder, of
of paper and
paper and
silk, printing and porcelain,
silk, of printing porcelain, we cannot
cannot speak
speak of
of the Chinese as an in-
the Chinese as an in-
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PEOPLE .A?\D
THE AXD THE STATE 781
781
dustrially
dustrially inventive people. people. They They ,vere were inventi\·e
inventive in in art, developing their
inventive
art, developing their
own forms,
forms, and reachingreaching a
a degree
degree of
of sensitive
sensitive perfection not surpassed in
perfection not surpassed in
any
any other place
place or time;
time; but
but before
before 1912 they were content with ancient
1912 they \vere content \vith ancient
economic ways,
economic ways, and had aa perhaps
and prophetic scorn
perhaps prophetic scorn of of labor-sa\ring
labor-saving devices
devices
that hectically
that hectically accelerate
accelerate the pace of
the pace of human
human toil toil and thro\v half
and throw half thethe popu-
popu-
lation out of work in
lation order to
in order to enrich
enrich the rest. They were
the rest. were among the
the first to
first to
They among
use coal for
use coal fue~ and mined it
for fuel, in small
it in small quantities
quantities
as
as early
early
as
as I2Z
122 B.C.;·
B.C.;* but
but
they developed
developed no mechanisms
mechanisms to to ease
ease thethe slavery of mining, and left for the
they slavery of mining, and left for the
most part
most unexplored the
part unexplored the mineral
mineral resources
resources of their soil.
of their soiL Though they
Though they
knew how to to make glass
glass theythey were satisfiedsatisfied to to import it from the West.
import it from the West.
They
They made no no watches
watches or or clocks
clocks or or screws,
screws, and and only the coarsest nails.eo
only the coarsest nails.
00

Through
Through the the twotwo thousand years years thatthat intervened between the
intervened between the riserise of of the
the
Han and the the fall
fall ofof the
the Manchus,
Manchus, industrial
industrial life
life remained
remained substantially
substantially the
the
same in China as it
in China-as it remained
remained substantially
substantially
the
the same
same in
in Europe
Europe from from P~ricles
Pericles
to the
to the Industrial
Industrial Revolution.
Revolution.
like manner China
In
In like preferred the
China preferred the quiet
quiet and mannerly rule
and mannerly rule of of tradition
tradition
and scholarship
scholarship to to the
the exciting
exciting and and disturbing
disturbing growth growth of
of science
science and
and plutoc-
plutoc-
racy.
racy. Of all the
all the great
great civilizations
civilizations it has
it has been
been the
the poorest
poorest
in
in contributions
contributions
to the
to material technique
the material technique of of life.
life. It
It produced excellent
produced excellent textbooks textbooks of of agri-
agri-
culture and sericultUre
culture sericulture two centuries centuries beforebefore Christ,
Christ, and
and excelled
excelled in
in treatises-
treatises
61
on geography.-
geography. Its centenarian mathematician,
Its centenarian mathematician, Chang Chang Ts'ang
Ts'ang (d. (d. 152152 B.C.),
B.C.),
left behind him a
left behind him a work on algebra
on and ge~metry, containing
algebra and geometry, the first known
containing the first
mention of
mention of a negative quantity.
a negative quantity. Tsu Ch'ung-chih Ch'ung-chih calculated
calculated the the correct
correct
value of
value of ". to six
ir to six decimal
decimal places, improved
places, improved
the
the magnet
magnet or
or "south-pointing
"south-pointing
vehicle," and
vehicle," and is is vaguely recorded
vaguely recorded to to have
have experimented
experimented with with aa self-moving
self-moving
vessel.1!I Chang.
vessel." Chang Heng invented a
Heng invented a seismograph in
seismograph in 132 132 A.U.,* but for
A.D.,· but for thethe most
most
part
part Chinese
Chinese physics
physics lost itself in
lost itself in the
the occultism
occultism of
of feng
feng shui
shui and
and the
the meta-
meta-
physics of
physics the yang
of the ytmg and the j'm.t Chinese
the ym.t Chinese mathematicians
mathematicians apparently
apparently derived derived
algebra
algebra from India, India, but but developed
developed geometry
geometry for themselves out
for themselves out of of their
their need
need
1JO
for measuring the
for measuring the Iand.
land.
70
The astronomers
astronomers of of Confucius'
Confucius' time time correctly
correctly cal- cal-

culated eclipses,
culated eclipses,
and
and laid the
laid the bases
bases of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese calendar-twelve
calendar twelve hours
hours aa
day,
day,
and
and twelve
twelve months
months each
each beginning
beginning with
with the
the new moon;
moon; an
an extra
extra month
was added
was periodically to
added periodically to bring
bring this
this lunar
lunar calendar
calendar in in accord
accord withwith the the seasons
seasons
and the sim:rJ.
and the sun.* LifeLife on on earth
earth waswas Iive~
lived in in harmony
harmony with
with life
life inin the
the sky; the
sky; the

•* His machine consisted

His machine consisted of
of eight
eight copper
copper dragons delicate springs
placed on delicate
dragons placed springs around a a
bowl in
bowl whose center
in whose center squatted
squatted a toad with
a toad with open mouth. Each dragon
open mouth. held a copper
dragon held copper
ball in
ball in its mouth. When an
its mouth. an earthquake
earthquake occurred,
occurred, the
the dragon nearest its
dragon nearest its source
source dropped
dropped
it'S ball into
its ball the mouth
into the mouth ofof the toad. Once a
the toad. a dragon
dragon released
released its ball,
its ball, though
though n~
no shock
shock
had been
had been felt by the
felt by inhabitants. Chang
the inhabitants. Chang Heng was ridiculed
Heng was ridiculed asas aa charlatan,
charlatan, until
until a
a
messenger arrived
arrived who told
told of
of an earthquake in
an earthquake in a
a distant province.- 60
distant province.
messenger
tfFiftg
Feng shui
simi (wind
(wind and water) was
and water) was the art, very
the art, widespread in
very widespread in China,
China, of
of adapting
adapting the
the
location
location of homes and
of homes and graves
graves to
to the
the currents
currents of wind and
of wind water in
and water the locality.
in the locality.
 781
782 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXVI
(CHAP.XXVI

festivals
festivals of of the year \vere
the year regulated by
were regulated by sunsun andand moon;
moon; the the moral
moral order order of of
society
society itself
itself ,vas
was based
based upon
upon the
die regularity
regularity
of
of the
the planets
planets
and
and the
the stars.
stars.

Medicine in
Medicine in China
China was was a a characteristic
characteristic mixture
mixture of of empirical
empirical wisdom and and
popular superstition.
popular superstition. It had
It had its beginnings before
its beginnings before recorded
recorded history,
history, and
and pro-
pro-
duced great
duced great physicians
physicians long before Hippocrates.
long before Hippocrates. Already Already under under the the Chous
Chous
the state
the state held held yearly
yearly examinations
examinations for
for admission
admission to
to medical
medical practice,
practice, and
and
fixed the
fixed salaries of
the salaries of thethe successful
successful applicants according to
to their showing in
their
applicants according showing in
the tests. In
the tests. In the
the fourth
fourth centurycentury before
before Christ a
Christ a Chinese
Chinese governor
governor ordered ordered a a
careful dissection
careful dissection and and anatomical
anatomical study study of of forty
forty beheaded
beheaded criminals;
criminals; but but thethe
results
results \vere
were lost lost in in theoretical
theoretical discussion,
discussion, and dissection stopped.
and dissection stopped. Chang Chang
Chung-ning, in
Chung-ning, in the
the second
second century,
century, ,vrote treatises on
wrote treatises on dietetics
dietetics and and fevers,
fevers,
which remained
which remained standard standard texts texts forfor a thousand years.
a thousand years.
In
In the
the third
third cen-
cen-
tury
tury Hua To \vrote
wrote a
a volume
volume on
on surgery,
surgery, and
and made operations popular
operations popular by
by
inventing
inventing aa wine
wine which
which produced
produced a
a general anesthesia;
general anesthesia; it
it is
is one
one of
of the
the
this ~
stupidities
stupidities of of history
history that that the
the formula
formula for mixing this
for mixing drink has has been
been lost.
lost
About
About 300 A.D. Wang Shu-ho ,vrote a celebrated treatise on
treatise the pulse.'lI9
300 A.D. Wang Shu-ho wrote a celebrated on the pulse.'
To,vards
Towards the the beginning
beginning of of the sixth century T'ao
the sixth century T'ao Hung-ching
Hung-ching composed composed an an
extensive description
extensive description of
of the
the 730 drugs
730 drugs used
used in
in Chinese
Chinese medicine;
medicine; and
and a
a hun-
hun-
dred
dred years
years laterkter Ch'ao
Ch'ao Yuan-fang
Yuan-fang wrote wrote a a classic
classic on on the
the diseases
diseases of of women
and
and children.
children. MedicalMedical encyclopedias
encyclopedias were
were frequent
frequent under
under the
the T'angs,
T'angs, and
and
specialist monographs under under the the Sungs.'11 A medical
medical college was established
78
specialist monographs Sungs. college was established
in the Sung
in the Dynasty, but
Sung Dynasty, but most
most medical
medical education
education was was through
through apprentice-
apprentice-
·ship.
ship. Drugs
Drugs were were abundant
abundant and and various;
various; one one store, centuries ago,
three centuries
store, three sold
ago, sold
thousand dollars'
aa thousand dollars' worth every day.'"
every day." DiagnosisDiagnosis was
was pedantically
pedantically detailed;
detailed;
ten thousand varieties
ten thousand varieties of of fever
fever werewere described,
described, and twenty-four conditions
and twenty-four conditions
of the
of the pulse
pulse were\vere distinguished.
distinguished. Inoculation-not
Inoculation-not vaccination-was
vaccination-was used, prob-used, prob-
ably in imitation of India,
ably in imitation of India, in the treatment
in the treatment of of smaIl-pox; and mercury was
small-pox; and mercury was
administered for
administered for syphilis. This disease seems
syphilis. This disease seems to to have appeared in
have appeared China in
in China in
the kter
the later years
years of the Ming
of the Dynasty, to
Ming Dynasty, have run
to have run wild
wild through
through the the popuk-
popula-
tion, and
tion, and to to have
have left behind its
left behind its course
course aa comparative
comparative immunity
immunity to to its more
its more
serious effects.
serious effects. PublicPublic sanitation,
sanitation, preventive medicine, hygiene
preventive medicine, hygiene and surgery
and surgery
made little
made progress in
little progress China; sewage
in China; sewage and and drainage
drainage systems
systems were were primitive,
primitive,
or hardly
or existed;" and some towns failed
hardly existed;" and some towns failed to to solve
solve the
the primary obligatio~
primary obligations
of an
of an organized
organized society society-to secure good
to secure go?d water,
water, and and toto dispose
dispose of waste.
of waste.
Soap was
Soap was aa rare luxury, but
rare luxury, but lice
lice and
and vermin
vennin were easily secured.
were easily secured. The The
simpler
simpler Chinese
Chinese learned
learned to
to itch
itch and
and scratch
scratch with
with Confucian equanimity.
Confucian equanimity.
Medi~ science
Medical science made made no no ascertainable
ascertainable progress
progress fromfrom ShihShih. Huang-ti
Huang-ti to to the
the
Dowager; perhaps
Dowager; perhaps the same might
the same might be be said
said ofof European medicine between
European medicine between
Hippocrates and
Hippocrates and Pasteur.
Pasteur. European
European medicine
medicine invaded
invaded China
China as as anan annex
annex to to
Christianity; but
Christianity; but the
the sick
sick natives, until our
natives, until our own time, time, confined
confined theirtheir use use ofof it to
it to
surgery, and
surgery, and forfor the
the rest
rest preferred
preferred their own physicians
their own physicians and and their ancient herbs.
their ancient herbs.
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PEOPLE AND THE STATE
THE 783

IV.
IV. RELIGION WITHOUT A CHURCH

Superstition and
Superstition Ilf/,d scepticism
scepticis11t-Ani11ziS111-Tbe
Animism-The 'Worsbip
'worship of Heaven-
of Heaven
Ancestor-worship Confucianism Taoism The elixir of
Ancestor-wOTsbip-ConfucianiS111-Taomlz-The elixir of im-
im-
mortality-Buddhisnz-Religio'lls
mortality Buddhism-Religious toleration toleration and
and eclecti-
eclecti-
cism-Mobtl11Z11Zedlll'lwn-Cbristianity-CmlSes
cimMohammedanisin-ChristianityCaiises of of its
its

fail'llre in
faihire in Cbina
China

Chinese society was

Chinese society was built
built notnot on on science
science but but on on a str~nge and
a strange and unique
unique
mixture of religion, morals and philosophy.
mixture of religion, morals and philosophy. History has History has known no people
no people
more superstitious,
more superstitious,
and
and none
none more
more sceptical;
sceptical;
no
no people
people more
more devoted
devoted to
to
piety,
piety,
and
and none
none more
more rationalistic
rationalistic and and secular;
secular; no
no nation
nation so
so free
free from
from
clerical
clerical domination,
domination, and and none
none but but the Hindus so
the Hindus blessed and
so blessed and cursed
cursed with with
gods.
gods. How shall
shall we explain these
explain these contradictions, except by
contradictions, except by ascribing toascribing to
the philosophers
the philosophers of of China
China a degree of
a degree of influence unparalleled in
influence unparalleled in history,
history,
and
and at the same
at the same timetime recognizing
recognizing in
in the
the poverty
poverty of
of China
China an
an inexhausti-
inexhausti-
ble fountain
ble fountain of of hopeful
hopeful fantasy?
fantasy?
The religion
religion of of the
the primitive
primitive inhabitants
inhabitants was was not unlike the
not unlike the faith
faith of of
nature peoples generally:
nature peoples generally: an
an animistic
animistic fear
fear and
and worship
worship of
of spirits lurking
spirits lurking
anywhere,
anywhere, a
a poetic
poetic
reverence
reverence for
for the
the impressive
impressive forms
forms and
and reproductive
reproductive
powers
powers of
of the
the earth,
earth, and
and an
an awed adoration
adoration of
of a
a heaven
heaven :whose
whose energizing
energizing
sunlight and fertilizing rains were part
sunlight and fertilizing rains
were of the mystic rapport
part of the mystic rapport between
between ter- ter-

restrial life and

restriallife and thethe secret
secret forces
forces of of the
the sky.
sky. Wind and
and thunder,
thunder, trees
trees
and mountains, dragons
and mountains, dragons and and snakes
snakes were worshiped; but
were worshiped; but thethe greater
greater fes- fes-
tivals celebrated
tivals celebrated above above allall the
the miracle
miracle of of growth,
growth, and and in
in the
spring girls
the spring girls
and young men danced
and young danced and mated in
and mated the fields
in the fields toto give example
give example of
of fertility
fertility
to mother
to earth. Kings
mother earth. Kings and and priests were in
priests were those days
in those near allied,
days near allied, and and
the early
the monarchs of China, in
early monarchs of China,
the edifying
in the edifying accounts which tendentious
accounts which tendentious
historians gave
historians gave of
of them
them in
in later
later years,
years, were
were statesmen-saints
statesmen-saints whose
whose heroic
heroic
were always aided by
78
deeds
deeds were always prefaced with prayers, and aided
prefaced with prayers, the gods."
by the gods.
In this
In this primitive theology
primitive theology
heaven
heaven and
and earth were
earth were bound
bound together
together as as

two halves
two halves of of a a great
great
cosmic unity, and were related very
cosmic unity, and were related very much as
as man
and woman, lord
and woman, lord and
and vassal, ytmg and
vassal, yang yin. The order
and ym. order of the heavens
of the heavens and
the moral
the moral behavior
behavior of of mankind
mankind were were kindred processes, parts
kindred processes, parts of of a a uni-
uni-
versal and necessary rhythm called Tao-the
versal and necessary rhythm called heavenly way;
T00-the heavenly way; morality,
morality, like like

the law
the law of of the
the stars,
stars, was
was the
the cooperation
cooperation of
of the
the part
part with
with the
the whole.
whole. The
Supreme
Supreme
God
God was
was this
this mighty
mighty heaven
heaven itself,
itself, this order, this
moral order,
this moral this divine
divine
orderliness,
orderliness, that
that engulfed
engulfed
both
both men and
and things, dictating
things, dictating the
the right
right rela·
rek*
184
784 THE SSTORY
TOR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F CIV IL I ZA T ION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXVI

tionship of children to parents, of ,vi\~es to husbands, of

tionship of children to parents, of wives to husbands,
of vassals
vassals to to lords,
lords,
of
of lords
lords to the emperor,
to the emperor, and
and of
of the
the emperor
emperor to
to God. It It was a a confused
confused
but
but noble conception, hovering
noble conception, hovering betweenbetween personality
personality when the people
the
people
prayed
prayed to
to T'ien-heaven
Tien heaven as
as a deity-and
a deity and impersonality
impersonality when the
the philoso-
philoso-
phers
phers spoke
spoke of of T'ien
Tien as as the
the just
just
and
and beneficent,
beneficent, but hardly human or
but hardly or per-
per-
sonal,
sonal, sum of
of all
all those
those forces
forces that
that ruled
ruled the
the sky,
sky, the
the earth,
earth, and
and men.
men.
Gradually,
Gradually, as as philosophy
philosophy developed,
developed, the the personal
personal conception
conception of of "Heaven"
"Heaven"
was confined to
was confined to thethe masses
masses of of the
the people,
people, and
and the
the impersonal conception
impersonal conception
was
was accepted
accepted by by the the educated
educated classes
classes and and in in thethe official
official religion of
religion of the the
state.'IT
state.
17

Out of of these
these beginnings the orthodox
beginnings grew grew the the two
two elements
elements of of the orthodox re- re-
ligion of China: the nation-\vide
ligion of China: the
nation-wide worship worship of of ancestors,
ancestors, and and thethe Confucian
Confucian
worship
worship of
of heaven
heaven and
and great
great men.
men. Every
Every day day some modest
modest offering-
offering
usually
usually of
of food-\vas
food was made to
to the
the departed,
departed, and
and prayers
prayers were
were sent
sent up
up toto
their
their spirits;
spirits;
for
for the
the simple peasant
simple peasant or
or laborer
laborer believed
believed that
that his
his parents
parents
and
and other
other forbears
forbears still still lived
lived in in some
some ill-defined
ill-defined realm,realm, and and could
could bringbring
him
him goodgood or or evil fortune. The educate~
evil fonune. educated Chinese offered similar
Chinese offered similar sacrifice,
sacrifice,
but
but he he looked
looked upon upon the the ritual
ritual notnot as
as worship so
worship so much as as commemoration;
commemoration;
it wholesome for
was wholesome
it was for the
the soul
soul andand the
the racerace that these dead
that these dead ones
ones should
should
be remembered
be remembered and and revered,
revered, for
for then
then the
the ancient
ancient ways
ways which
which they
they had had
followed
followed wouldwould ~o also bebe revered,
revered, innovation
innovation would would hesitate,
hesitate, and and the
the empire
empire
would be
would be at
at peace. There
peace. There were
were some
some inconveniences
inconveniences in
in this
this religion,
religion, for
for
it littered
littered China
China with inviolable graves,
it graves, impeding
impeding the
with immense
immense inviolable the construc-
construc-
tion of
tion of railroads
railroads and and thethe tillage
tillage of the soil;
of the soil; butbut to to the
the Chinese
Chinese philosopher
philosopher
these were
these trivial difficulties
were trivial difficulties when weighed in
weighed in the balance against'
the balance against the
the
political stability
political stability and spiritualspiritual continuity
continuity which which ancestor
ancestor worship
worship gave gave
to civilization.
to civilization. For For through
through this this profound
profound institution
institution the the nation, which
nation, which
shut out
was shut
was out from physical and
from physical spatial unity
and spatial unity by by great
great distances
distances and and the
the
poverty
poverty of
of ttanspon,
transport, achieved
achieved a
a powerful spiritual
powerful spiritual unity unity in
in time; the
time; the
generations
generations were
were bound
bound together
together with
with the
the tough
tough web
web of
of tradition,
tradition, and and
the individual
the individual lifelife received
received an an ennobling
ennobling share share and significance in
and significance in a drama
a drama
of timeless
of timeless majesty
majesty and and scope.
scope.
religion adopted
The religion adopted by by die
the scholars
scholars and and the
the state
state waswas at once aa widen-
at once widen-
ing
ing and
and a
a narrowing
narrowing of
of this
this popular
popular faith.
faith. Slowly,
Slowly, by by increments
increments of
of rev-
rev-
erence from
erence from century
century to to century,
century, Confucius
Confucius was was lifted
lifted up,up, through
through imperial
imperial
decrees,
decrees, to
to a
a place
place second
second only
only to
to that
that of
of Heaven
Heaven itself; every
itself; every school school
raised a tablet,
raised a every city
tablet, every city aa temple,
temple, in in hishis honor;
honor; and periodically the
and periodically the
emp~or
emperor and
and the
the officials
officials offered
offered ince~
incense and
and sacrifice
sacrifice to
to his
his spirit
spirit
or
or his
his
 CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PEOPLE AND THE STATE
THE 785
785

memory, as the greatest

greatest influence
influence for
good in
for good in all the rich
rich memories
memories of
as the all the of
memory,
the race.
the race. He was not, in
was not, in the
the understanding of
understanding of the
the intelligent,
intelligent,
a
a god;
god; on
on
the contrary
the contrary he he served
served for for many
many Chinese
Chinese as as a a substitute
substitute for for aa god; those
god; those
who attended the
attended services in
the services in his
his honor
honor might be agnostics or atheists, and and
might be agnostics or atheists,
yet-if
yet-if they they honored
honored him
him and
and their
their ancestors-they
ancestors-they \vere
were accepted
accepted by
by their
their
communities
communities as as pious and
pious and religious souls. Officially, however, the faith
religious souls. Officially, however, the faith
of the Confucians
of the Confucians included included a
recognition of
a recognition Sbtmg-ti, the
of Shang-ti, the Supreme
Supreme Ruling
Ruling
Force
Force of of thethe world;
world; and and every year
every year the emperor offered ceremonious
the emperor offered ceremonious
sacrifice,
sacrifice, on the the Altar
Altar of of Heaven,
Heaven, to this impersonal divinity. Nothing
to this impersonal divinity. Nothing
was said,
was said, in
in this
this official
official faith,
faith, of
of immortality.'" 78
Heaven was not a place but
immortality. Heaven was not a place but
the will of
the will of God,
God, or or the
the order
order of of the
the world.
world.
This
This simple
simple and almost
almost rationalistic
rationalistic religion never quite satisfied the
religion never quite satisfied the
people of China. Its doctrines
people of China. Its doctrines gave gave too too little room to
little room to the
the imagination
imagination of of
men, too
men, too little
little answer
answer to to their
their hopes and
hopes and dreams,
dreams, too
too little
little encourage-
encourage-
ment to
ment to the
the superstitions
superstitions that that enlivened
enlivened their their daily
daily life. For the
life. For the people,
people,
here as
here as everywhere,
everywhere, brightened brightened the
the prose
prose of
of reality
reality
with
with the
the poetry
poetry of of
the supernatural;
the supernatural; they they felt
felt a a world
world of
of good
good or
or evil
evil spirits hovering
spirits hovering
in
in the
the
air
air about them and and the earth ben~ath,
die earth beneath, and and longed to appease
appease the
the enmity
about them longed to enmity
or enlist
or enlist the the aid aid ofof these secret powers by
these secret powers by magic magic incantation
incantation or prayer.
or prayer.
They
They paid paid diviners
diviners to to read
read thethe future
future for for them
diem in the lines
in the lines of the [-Ching,
of the I-Ching,
or
or on
on thethe shells
shells of of tortoises,
tortoises, or or inin the
the movements
movements of the stars;
of the stars; they
they hired
hired
magicians
magicians to
to orient
orient their
their dwellings
dwellings and
and graves
graves to
to wind
wind and
and water,
water, and and
sorcerers
sorcerers to to bring
bring them sunshine sunshine or or rain."
rain.
79
They
They exposed
exposed to to death
death such such
children
children as were born
as were born to to them on on "unlucky"
"unlucky*' days,* days,· and
and fervent
fervent daughters
daughters
1I
sometimes
sometimes killed kiIle4 themselves
themselves to bring good
to bring good or or evil
evil fortune
fortune to to their
their parents.
parents."
In the south,
In the particularly, the
south, particularly, the Chinese
Chinese soul soul inclined
inclined to mysticism; it
to mysticism; it was
was
repelled
repelled by
by the
the frigid
frigid
rationalism
rationalism of
of the
the Confucian
Confucian faith,
faith, and
and hungered
hungered
for
for a a creed
creed that that would
would give give China,
China, like
like other
other nations,
nations, deathless
deathless conso-
conso-
lations.
lations.

Therefore
Therefore some some popular
popular theologians
theologians took took the misty doctrine
the misty doctrine ofof Lao-tze
Lao-tze
and gradually
and gradually transformed
transformed it into
it into a
a religion.
religion. To the
the Old Master
Master and
and to to
Chuang-tze
Chuang-tze the the TaoTao had had been
been a waya way of life
of life for the attainment of indi-
for the attainment of indi-
vidual peace
vidual peace on on earth;
earth; theythey do
do not
not seem
seem ever
ever to have dreamed
to have dreamed of it as
of it as a
a
deity,
deity,
much less
less asas a
a price
price
to
to be
be paid
paid here
here for
for a
a life
life beyond the
beyond the grave.-
grave"
But in
But the second
in the second century
century of
of our
our era
era these
these doctrines
doctrines were
were improved
improved upon upon
by
by men
men who claimed
claimed to
to have
have received,
received, in
in direct
direct line
line from Lao-tze,
Lao-tze, an an
elixir that would
elixir that would confer confer immortality.
immortality. This This drink became so
drink became so popular
popular that that
several
several emperors are
emperors are said
said to to have
have died
died fromfrom pious indulgence
pious indulgence in
in it.·
it." A
786
786 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXVI
(CHAP.XXVI

mystagogue in
mystagogue in Szechuan
Szechuan (ca. (ca. 148 A.D.) offered
148 A.D.) offered to cure all
to cure all diseases
diseases withwith
simple talisman
aa simple talisman to to be given in
be given in exchange
exchange for for five
five packages of
packages of rice. rice. Ap-
Ap-
parently
parently miraculous
miraculous cures
cures \vere
were effected,
effected, and
and those
those who
who were
were not
not cured
cured
were
were toldtold that
that their
their faith
faith had had been
been too too ,veak."
weak. The
84
The people flocked to
people flocked to the
the
new religion,
religion, built
built temples
temples for
for it, supported
it, supported its
its priesthood generously,
priesthood generously,
and
and
poured
poured into into the
the new faith faith some
some part of their inexhaustible
part of their
inexhaustible superstitious
superstitious
lore.
lore. Lao-tze
Lao-tze was was made aa god, god, and
and was
was credited
credited with
with a
a supernatural
supernatural con- con-
ception;
ception; he
he had
had been
been born,
born, the
the faithful
faithful believed, already
believed, already old
old and
and wise,
wise,
having
having been
been in
in his
his mother's
mother's womb for
for eighty years.- They
eighty years." They peopled the peopled the
world
world with with new devils devils and and deities, frightened
deities, frightened away away the
the one
one with
with fire-
fire-

crackers
crackers exploding merrily in
exploding merrily in the
the temple
temple courts,
courts, and and with
with mighty
mighty gongs gongs
called
called the the others
others outout of of slumber
slumber to to hear
hear their
their importunate
importunate prayers.prayers.
For
For a a thousand
thousand years years the Taoist faith
the Taoist faith hadhad millions
millions of of adherents,
adherents, con- con-
verted many
verted emperors,
many emperors, and
and fought
fought long long battles
battles of
of intrigue to
to wrest
wrest from
from
intrigue
the spend. In end it it was
the Confucians
Confucians the the divine
divine right tax and
to tax and spend. In the
the end was broken
right to broken
down not not byby the
the logic of
of Confucius,
Confucius, but
but by
by the
the coming of
of a
a new
new religion
logic coming religion
even better
better suited
suited thanthan itself
itself to to inspire and console the common man.
inspire and console the common man.
For the Buddhism that that began
began its migration from India
its migration from India to China in
to China in the
the
:first
first century after
century after Christ
Christ was
was not
not the
the hard
hard and
and gloomy
gloomy doctrine
doctrine that
that thethe
Enlightened
Enlightened One had preached five
had preached five hundred
hundred years years before;
before; it it was
was no no
ascetic creed,
ascetic creed, but but aa bright
bright and happy faith
and happy faith inin helping deities
helping deities and
and a
a flower-
flower-
ing paradise;
ing paradise; it it took
took the form, as
the form, as time
time went
went on, on, ofof the
the Greater
Greater Vehicle,
Vehicle,
or Mahay
or MllbayllTJ4, which Kanishka's
ana, which Kanishka's theologians
theologians had had adapted
adapted to to the
the emotional
emotional
needs of
needs of simple
simple men;
men; it presented China
it presented China withwith freshly
freshly personal
personal and and humane
humane
gods, like
gods, like Amitabha,
Amitabha, Ruler Ruler of of Paradise,
Paradise, and and Kuan-yin,
Kuan-yin, god-then-goddess
god-then-goddess
of mercy;
of mercy; it filled the
it filled the Chinese
Chinese pantheon
pantheon with Loham or
with Lohans or Arhats
Arh,ts-eighteen
eighteen
of the original
of the original disciples
disciples of of Buddha
Buddha-who stood ready
who stood ready at at every
every turn tum to to
give
give of
of their
their merits
merits to
to help
help aa bewildered
bewildered and
and suffering
suffering
mankind.
mankind. When,
When,
after the
after the fall of the
fall of the Han,
Han, ChinaChina found found itself
itself torn
tom with with political chaos,
political chaos,
and life
and life seemed
seemed lost in aa welter
lost in welter of of insecurity
insecurity and and war,
war, the
the harassed
harassed nation
nation
turned to
turned to Buddhism
Buddhism as as the
the Roman world world waswas at the same
at the same time turning to
time turning to
Christianity. Taoism
Christianity. Taoism openedopened its arms to
its arms to take
take inin the
the new
new faith,
faith, andand in in time
time
became inextricably
became mingled with
inextricably mingled with itit in in the
the Chinese
Chinese soul.soul. Emperors
Emperors per- per-
secuted Buddhism,
secuted Buddhism, philosophers
philosophers complained
complained of its superstitions,
of its statesmen
superStitions, statesmen
were concerned
were concemed over over the the fact
fact that some of
that some of the
the best
best blood
blood of China was
of China was
being
being sterilized
sterilized in
in monasteries;
monasteries; but
but in
in the
the end
end the government
the government found found again
again
that religion
that religion isis stronger
stronger than than the the state;
state; the
the emperors
emperors made made treaties
treaties of of
peace
peace with
with the
the new
new gods;
gods; the
the Buddhist
Buddhist priests
priests
were
were allowed
allowed to collect
to collect alms alms
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PPEOPLE
THE AX
E 0 P LEA XD STATE
D THE S T .-\ T E 787
787

and raise
raise temples,
temples, and and the the bureaucracy of
bureaucracy of officials officials andand scholars
scholars \vaswas per-per-
force
force content
content to to keep
keep Confucianism
Confucianism as
as its
its o\\-n
own aristocratic
aristocratic creed.
creed. The
The
religion took
new religion took possession
possession of of many
many old old shrines, placed its
shrines, placed its monks
monks and and
fanes
fanes along
along with with thosethose of of thethe Taoists
Taoists on on the holy mountain
the holy mountain Tai-shan,
Tai-shan,
aroused the people
people to to many pious pilgrimages, contributed pO\\Terfully
aroused the many pious pilgrimages, contributed powerfully to to
painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, and the development of print-
painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, and the development of print-
ing,
ing,
and brought aa civilizing
and brought civilizing
measure
measure of of gendeness
gentleness into the Chinese
into the Chinese soul.soul.
Then, it,
Then, it, too,too, like
like Taoism,
Taoism, fell
fell into
into decay;
decay; its
its clergy
clergy became corrupt, its
became corrupt, its

doctrine
doctrine was was permeated
permeated more more and and more
more by by sinister
sinister deities
deities andand popular
popular
superstitions,
superstitions,
and its
and its political po,,"er, never
political power,
never strong, was practically de-
strong, was practically de-
stroyed
stroyed by by thethe renaissance
renaissance of of Confucianism
Confucianism under under Chu HsL Hsi. Today
Today its its

temples
temples are neglected,
are neglected, its
its resources
resources are
are exhausted,
exhausted, and
and its
its only
only devotees
devotees
1I
are
are its
its impoverished priests.
impoverished priests."
Nevertheless it
Nevertheless it has
has sunk
sunk into into thethe national
national soul,soul, andand is still part of
is still the
part of the
complex
complex but
but infonnaI
informal religion
religion of
of the
the simpler
simpler Chinese.
Chinese. For
For religions
religions in
in
China not mutually
mutually exclusive
exclusive as as in
in Europe
China are are not Europe and America, nor
and America, nor have
have
they
they ever
ever precipitated
precipitated
the
die country
country into
into religious
religious wars.
wars. Normally they tol-
Normally they tol-
erate
erate one
one another
another not not onlyonly in in the
the state but in
state but the same
in the breast; and
same breast; and thethe
average
average Chinese
Chinese is
is at
at once
once an
an animist,
animist, a
a Taoist,
Taoist, a
a Buddhist
Buddhist and
and a
a Confu-
Confu-
cianism He is
cianist. is a modest philosopher,
a modest philosopher, and and knows that nothing is
that nothing is certain;
certain;
perhaps,
perhaps,
after
after all,
all, the
the theologian
theologian may may be
be right,
right, and
and there
there may
may be
be aa para-
para-
dise; the
dise; the best
best policy
policy
'\7ould
would be
be to
to humor all
all these
these creeds,
creeds, and
and pay
pay manymany
diverse priests to
diverse priests to say
say prayers
prayers over over one's
one's grave.
grave. While fortune fortune smiles,
smiles,
however,
however, the
the Chinese
Chinese citizen
citizen does
does not
not pay
pay much attention
attention to
to the
the gods;
gods; be be
honors his
honors his ancestors,
ancestors, but but letslets the
the Taoist
Taoist and and thethe Buddhist
Buddhist temples
temples get get
along
along
with
with the
the attentions
attentions of of the
the clergy
clergy and
and a
a few women.
women. He is
is the
the most
secular
secular spirit
spirit
ever
ever produced,
produced, as
as a type, in
a type, in known history; this life
history; this life absorbs
absorbs
him; and
him; when he
and when he prays he asks not
prays he asks
not for happiness in
for happiness paradise, but
in paradise, but forfor some
profit
profit
here
here on on earth.
earth." sr H
If the
the god
god does
does not
not answer
answer his
his
prayers he may
prayers may
overwhelm
overwhelm him him with
with abuse,
abuse, and and endend by throwing
by throwing him
him into
into the
the river.
river. "No

image-maker worships the gods," says aa Chinese

image-maker worships the gods," says
proverb; "he knows
Chinese proverb;
8
what stuff
what they are
stuff they are made of."" of."*

Hence
Hence the the average
average Chinese
Chinese has
has notnot taken passionately to
taken passionately to Mohamme-
danism or Christianity;
danism or Christianity; these these offered
offered him
him a
a heaven
heaven that
that Buddhism
Buddhism had
already he really of happi-
really wanted was a guarantee
promised, but what he was a guarantee of
already promised, but what happi-
ness here. Most
ness here. Most of of the
the fifteen
fifteen million
million Chinese
Chinese Moslems are
are not
not really
really
*
Chinese,
Chinese, but
but people
people
of
of foreign origin
foreign origin or
or parentage.-
parentage Christianity
Christianity entered
entered
China with the
China with the Nest~rians
Nestorians about about 636 636 A.D. The Emperor Emperor Tai Tsung Tsung gave gave
788 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP. 23CVI
(CHAP. IrVI

it aa sympathetic
it sympathetic hearing,
hearing, and
and protected its preachers
protected its preachers from persecution.
from persecution.
In 781
In the Nestorians
781 the Nestorians of China raised
of China raised aa monument
monument on
on which they recorded
which they recorded
their appreciation of this enlightened tolerance, and their hope Chris-
that Chris-
their appreciation of this enlightened tolerance, and their hope that
so
tianity
tianity
would soon \vin the whole land. Since then Jesuit missionaries
would soon win the whole land.
80
Since then Jesuit missionaries
with heroic
with heroic zeal
zeal and lofty learning,
and lofty learning, and Protestant missionaries
and Protestant backed
missionaries backed
with great American
\vith great American fortunes,
fortunes, have
have labored
labored toto realize
realize the
the hope
hope ofof the
the
Today there
Nestorians. Today
Nestorians. there are
are three million Christians
three million Christians in China; one
in China; per
one per
cent of
cent of the population has
the population has been converted in
been converted in aa thousand years.·
thousand years.*

v.
V. THE RULE OF MORALS
1\10RALS

The
The high place of
bigh place of morals
1110Tals in
in Chinese
Cbinese societyThe ftrmily-Chil-
society-Tbe iamly Chil-
dren-Chastity-Prostimtirm-P,emarital relations-Marriage
dren-Chastity-Prostitution-Premarital relations-Marriage
I11ld 10'lJe-Mo1logtl11ZY
and love Monogamy and polygamy-Concuhinage- .
tmd polygamy Concubinage
DivOTce-A Cbinese empress-TlJe patriarchal male
Divorce-A Chinese empress The patriarchal male-
The subjection of
Tbe subjection of woman
womtl'{l-Tbe character
Chinese character
The Chinese

Confucianism and
Confucianism and ancestor worship survived
ancestor worship so
survived so rivals and
many rivals
many and so
many attacks,
many attacks, during t\l"enty centuries,
during twenty because they
centuries, because were felt
they were to be
felt to

indispensable
indispensable
to that
to that intense
intense and
and exalted
exalted moral
moral tradition upon which China
tradition upon China
had founded
had founded its
its life.
life.. As these
these were
were the
the religious sanctions,
religious sanctions, so
so the
the family
family
was the
was the great
great
vehicle,
vehicle, of
of this
this ethical
ethical heritage.
heritage. From parents
parents to
to children
children
the
the moral code was
moral code was handed across the
handed down across the generations,
generations, and became the the
invisible government
invisible government of
of Chinese
Chinese society;
society; a
a code
code so
so stable
stable and
and strong
strong th.at
dxat
that
that society
society
maintained
maintained its
its order
order and
and discipline
discipline through
through nearly
nearly the vicis-
all the
all vicis-
simdes
situdes of
of the
the unsteady
unsteady state.
state. "What the the Chinese,"
Chinese," said
said Voltaire,
Voltaire, "best
"best
know,
know, cultivate
cultivate the
the most,
most, and
and have
have brought
brought to
to the
the greatest perfection, is
greatest perfection, is

•* Christianity lost its opportunity early in

Christianity lost its opportunity early
in the
the eighteenth century, when a qua.ml
eighteenth century, quarrel arose
arose
between
between the the Jesuits
Jesuits and
and other
other Roman Catholic
Catholic orders
orders in China. The Jesuits
in China. Jesuits had,
had, with
characteristic statesmanShip,
characteristic statesmanship, found
found formulas
formulas byby which the the essential
essential elements
elements of of Chinese
piety-ancestor
piety ancestor wonhip
worship and
and the
the adoration
adoration of
of heaven-could be
be brought
brought under Christian
Christian
fonns without disrapting
forms without deep-rooted institutions
disrupting deep-rooted
institutions or endangering the
or endangering the moral stabnity
stability of
of
China;
China; but the Dominicans
but the Dominicans andand FranciscaDs
Franciscans demanded a stricter interpretation, and de-
a strieter interpretation,
DOunced all Chinese ritual as
as inventions
inventions ofof the devil. The en1ighteD.ed
the deviL
nounced all theology and ritual
Chinese theology enlightened
Emperor K'ang-hsi
Emperor K'ang-hsi was highly
highly sympathetic
sympathetic to Christianity; he
to Christianity; entrusted his
he entrusted his children
children toto
Jesuit
Jesuit tutors,
tutors, and
and offered
offered on certain
certain conditions
conditions to
to become a
a Christian.
Christian. When the
the Church
officially adopted the
officially adopted
the rigid
rigid attitude
attitude of
of the Dominicans and the
the Dominicans Franciscans, K'ang-bsi
the Franciscans, Kang-lisi
withdrew his
withdrew his support
support of of Christianity,
Christianity, and his SUCcessOR
and his successors decided
decided to to oppose
oppose itit actively.-
91
actively.
In later days
In later days the
the greedy
greedy imperialism
imperialism ofof the
the West weakened the the persuasiveness
persuasiveness of of Chris-
Chris-
tian preaching,
tian preaching, and and precipitated the passionate
precipitated the passionate anti-Christianism
fr nti-Chris 'i?T"y
t i
Tii of
of the
the revolutiona.ry
revolutionajcy
Chinese.
Chinese*
 CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PEOPLE
THE PEOPLE AND
AND THE
THE STATE
STATE 789
93

morality." "By
morality."OS "Bybuilding
building the the house
house on on aa sound
sound foundation,"
foundation," Confucius
Confucius had had
said,
said, "the
"the ,vorld
world is
is made secure."OO
made secure." 08

The
The Chinese
Chinese proceeded
proceeded on on thethe assumption that the purpose of a moral
assumption that the purpose of a moral
code
code waswas to to transfonn
transform the the chaos
chaos of of sexual relations into
sexual relations into anan orderly insti-
orderly insti-
. totion for the rearing
. tution for the rearing of of children.
children. The The family's reason for being lay in
family's reason for being lay in
tile
tfie child.
child. There
There could could not,not, fromfrom the the viewpoint of China, be too many
viewpoint of China, be too many
children;
children: a a nation
nation was was always
always subject to attack, and needed
subject to attack, and needed defenders;
defenders; the the
soil was rich,
soil rich, andand could
could support
support many many millions;
millions; e\Ten
even if
if there
there should
should be
be
aa bitter
bitter struggle for
struggle for existence
existence in
in large
large
families
families and
and crowded
crowded communi-
communi-
ties,
ties, the
the weakest
weakest would would be be eliminated,
eliminated, and and the the ablest
ablest would
would survive
survive and and
multiply
multiply to
to be aa support
support and
and an
an honor
honor to
to their
their aging parents,
aging parents,
andand to
to tend
tend
the graves religiously. worship forged
the ancestral
ancestral graves
religiously. AncestorAncestor worship an endless chain
forged an endless chain
it a
of reproduction,
reproduction, and gave gave it a double
double strength; the husband must beget
of
strength; the husband must beget
sons not only
sons only to
to sacrifice
sacrifice to
to him after
after his
his death,
death, but
but to
to continue
continue the the sacri-
sacri-
fices to his
fices .to his ancestors.
ancestors. "There "There are are three things
three things which are unfilial," said
which are unfilial," said
Mencius;
Mencius; "and the the greatest
greatest of
of them
them is
is to
to have
have no
no posterity.''''
posterity."
84
.
Sons were prayed prayed for, for, and mothersmothers were were shamed forever if
shamed forever if they had
they had
none;
none; for sons
for sons could work better
could better than than girls in the fields, and could :fight
girls in the fields, and could fight
better in
better war; and a regulation of this had long
in war;
regulation not not unconscious
unconscious of this had since
long since
decreed that that only
only sons
sons should
should be
be permitted to offer the ancestral
permitted to offer the ancestral sacri- sacri-
fice. Girls
fice. Girls were aa burden, burden, for for oneone had had to to rear
rear them patiently only
them patiently to see
only to see
them go
them go off,
off, atat maturity,
maturity, to their husbands'
to their husbands' homes, homes, to to labor
labor there,
there, andand
beget laborers,
beget laborers, for another family.
for another family. If too many
If too many daughters
daughters came, came, and and
times were
times were veryvery hard,
hard, the infant girl
the infant girl might
might withoutwithout sin sin be left exposed
be left exposed ih in
the furrows,
the furrows, to to be
be killed
killed by by thethe night's
night's frost
frost or or eaten
eaten by prowling swine.
by prowling swine.II
85

Such progeny
Such progeny as as survived
survived the hazards and
the hazards and ailments
ailments of of childhood
childhood were were
brought
brought up up with
with the
the tenderest
tenderest affection;
affection; exampleexample took
took the
the place of blows
place of blows
in their
in their education;
education; and and occasionally
occasionally they they were were exchanged
exchanged for for aa while
while forfor
the children
the children pf ~dred families,
Qf kindred families, so so that
that they might not
they might not bebe spoiled
spoiled by by an an
1I
indulgent
indulgent love.
love.
8*
The
The children
children were
were kept
kept in
in the
the women's division
women's division of the of the
home, all{1. seldom
home, aflftl. mingled with
seldom mingled with the the adult
adult malesmales until
until the
the age
age ofof seven.
seven.
Then the
Then boys, ifif the
the boys, the ffanlily
aniily could
could afford
afford it,
it, were
were sent
sent to
to school,
school, and
and were
were
severely separated
severely separated from from the the girls;
girls; from
from the the age
age of of ten they would
ten they would be be
limited in
limited in their
their choice
choice of of associates
associates to to men
men and and courtesans;
cpurtesans; and and thethe fre-
fre-
quency of
quency homosexuality and
of homosexuality and male male prostitution sometimes made
prostitution sometimes made this this
choice unreal."
choice unreal." . ,

Chastity
Chastity was was exalted
exalted and and rigidly enforced in
rigidly enforced in daughters,
daughters, and and was incul-
was incul-
cated with
cated with suchstich success
success thatthat Chinese
Chinese girls girls have
have been
been known
known to to kill
kill them-
them-
790
79 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXVI
XXVI

selves because they

selves because
they believed
believed that that they
they had had been
been dishonored
dishonored by by thethe acci-
acci-
dental
dental touch
touch of of a a man,~
man." But But no no effort
effort \vaswas made
made to to maintain
maintain chastity
chastity in in the
the
unmarried
unmarried man; man; on
on the
the contrary,
contrary,
it
it \vas
was considered
considered nonnal
normal and
and legitimate
legitimate
that he
that should visit
he should visit brothels;
brothels; sex (in the
sex (in the male)
male) was
was an an appetite like
like hunger,
appetite hunger,
and might
might be
be indulged
indulged in
in without
without any
any other
other disgrace
disgrace than
than that
that which
which
would in in any case attach immoderation.-· * The supply of women to
09

any case attach to

to immoderation. supply of to
meet
meet these
these demands
demands had had long institution in
long since
since been
been an an established
established institution in Chipa;
China;
the
the famous
famous premier
premier of
of T's~
T'si, Kuan Chung,
Chung, had
had provided
provided a
a lupanar
lupanar where where
traders
traders from
from other states might leave
other states might leave their their gains before departing
gains before departing for for their
their
181181
homes.
homes. Marco Polo Polo described
described the the courtesans
courtesans of of Kublai
Kublai Khan's
Khan's capital
capital
as
as incredibly numerous
incredibly numerous and and ravishingly
ravishingly beautiful.
beautiful. They They were were licensed,
licensed,
regulated
regulated and segregated; and
and segregated; and thethe most
most beautiful
beautiful of of them
them were were supplied
supplied
without
without chargecharge to
to the
the members
members of
of foreign
foreign
embassies.
embassies.
1OI
109
In
In later
later times
times a a
special variety
special variety of
of charmers
charmers was
was developed,
developed, known as
as "sing-song
"sing-song girls," girls,"
who, if
who, if that
that were
were preferred,
preferred, would would provideprovide educated
educated conversation
conversation for for
young
young men or or forfor respectable
respectable husbands
husbands entertaining guests.
entertaining guests.
Such
Such girls
girls
were often
often versed
versed in in literature
literature and and philosophy, as well as skilled in music
philosophy, as well as skilled in music
and
and the
the dance.-
dance.
308

Premarital relations were

Premarital relations were so so free
free for for men,
men, and premarital association
and premarital association
with
with men was so restricted
was so restricted for for respectable
respectable women, women, that that small
small opportunity
opportunity
was given
was given for for the
the growth
growth of
of romantic
romantic love.
love. A literature
literature of such
of tender
such tender
affection appeared
affection appeared underunder the the T'angs,
T'angs, and and some indication of
some indication of the
the sentiment
sentiment
may be
may be found
found as as far back as
far back the sixth
as the sixth century before
century before Christ
Christ in
in the
the legend
legend
of Wei Sheng,
of Sheng, who,who, having
having promised
promised to to meet
meet aa girl
girl under
under aa bridge,
bridge, waited
waited
vainly for
vainly for her
her there,
there, though
though the the water
water rose rose above
above his his head
head and and drowned
drowned
him.- Doubtless
him.
104
Doubtless Wei Sheng Sheng knew better better than
than this, but it
this, but it is
is significant
significant
,that the poets
that the poets thought
thought that that hehe might
might not. not. InIn general,
general, however,
however, love love as as aa
tender solicitude and
tender solicitude and attachment
attachment was was moremore frequent
frequent between
between men men thanthan
between the
between the sexes;
sexes; in this matter
in this matter the the Chinese
Chinese agreed
agreed with with the the Greeks.
Greeks.· 105

Marriage had
Marriage had litde
little toto do do with
with love;love; since
since its
its purpose
purpose was was to to bring
bring
healthy
healthy mates
mates together
together for
for the
the rearing
rearing of
of abundant
abundant families,
families, it
it could
could not,not,
the Chinese
the Chinese thought,
thought, be be left
left toto the
the arbitrament
arbitrament of of passion.
passion. Hence Hence the the
sexes were
sexes were kept kept apart
apart while
while the the parents
parents sought
sought eligible
eligible mates
mates for for their
their
children. It
children. It was considered
considered immoralimmoral for for aa man
man not not toto marry;
marry; celibacy
celibacy
was aa crime
was against one's
crime against one's ancestors,
ancestors, the the state
state and
and thethe race,
race, and and waswas never
never
*
• Men
Men sometimes
sometimes prepared
prepared themselves openly for
themselves openly night in
for aa night in aa brothel by pictures,
brothel by pictares,
aphrodisiacs and It should
songs.1GO
aphrodisiacs and songs.
100
added that this
this knimcc
be added that
It should be toWards marital
lenience towards dmaticms
marital deviations
disappearing today.
is disappearing
is today.
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE
T PEOPLE
BE P AND
E 0 P LEA STATE
N D THE S TAT E 79
791I

quite condoned even in the case of the clergy. In the ancient days aa
quite condoned even in the case of the clergy. In the ancient days
special
special official
official was was appointed
appointed to to see
see to to it
it that
that e,"ery
every man was was married
married
by the
the age
age of of thirty,
thirty, and everyevery woman by by twenty.
nventy.- With \Vith or or without
308

by without
the help
the help of professional intennediaries
of professional (wei-ren, "go-betweens"), parents
intermediaries (1Jlei-rell, "go-benveens"), parents
arranged
arranged the
the betrothal
betrothal of
of their
their children
children soon after
soon puberty, sometimes
after puberty, sometimes
before puberty,
before puberty, sometimes
sometimes before birth.un Certain
before birth.
367
Certain endogamic
endogamic and and ex- ex-
agamic
ogamic limits
limits werewere placed
pkced on
on the
the choice:
choice: the
the mate
mate had
had to
to be
be of
of a
a family
family
long
long known to to the
the match-seeking
match-seeking parents, parents, and and yetyet sufficiently
sufficiently distant distant in in
relationship to
relationship to be be outside
outside thethe clan.
clan. The father father of the boy
of the boy usually
usually sentsent a a
substantial present to
substantial present to the father of
the father the girl,
of the girl,
but
but the
the girl
girl
in
in her
her turn was
was
expected
expected to bring aa considerable
to bring considerable do\vry, chiefly in
dowry, chiefly the form
in the form of of goods,
goods, to to
her husband;
her husband; and and gifts
gifts of
of some
some value were ordinarily
value were exchanged between
ordinarily exchanged between
the families
the families at the marriage.
at the marriage. The girl
girl
was
was kept
kept in
in strict
strict seclusion
seclusion until until the the
wedding.
wedding. Her future
future mate
mate could
could not
not see
see her
her except by stratagem-though
except by stratagem though
that was
that was often
often managed;
managed; in in many
many casescases hehe saw
saw herher for the first
for the first time
time when
he removed
removed her veil in
her veil cermony. This \vas a complex
he in the
the wedding
wedding cennony. This was a complex and and
symbolic ritual,
symbolic ritual, in
in which
which the
the essential
essential matter
matter was
was that
that the
the bridegroom
bridegroom
should
should be be sufficiently
sufficiently winedwined to to guard
guard against
against the the chance
chance of of aa criminal
criminal
bashfulness on on hishis part;- as for the gir~ she had been trained to be at
at once
8
bashfulness part;" as for the girl,
she had been trained to be once
shy
shy and
and obedient.
obedient. After
After the
the marriage
marriage the
the bride
bride lived
lived with
with her
her husband
husband
in
in or near the
or near the house
house of of his
his father;
father; there
there she labored in
she labored in servitude
servitude to to herher
mate and
mate and his mother, until
his mother, until suchsuch time
time as as the normal course
the normal course of of life
life and
and
death
death liberated
liberated her from this
her from this slavery and
slavery and left her
left her ready
ready to
to impose
impose it
it upon
upon
the wives
the wives of of herher SODS.
sons. .
The poor ~ere monogamous;
poor were monogamous; but but soso eager was China
eager was China for for vigorous
vigorous chil- chil-
dren that such
dren that such men as as could
could afford
afford it it were pennitted by
were permitted by custom
custom to
to take
take
concubines,
concubines, or
or "secondary
"secondary wives."
wives." Polygamy
Polygamy was
was looked
looked upon
upon as
as eugenic,
eugenic,
on the ground
on the ground that that those
those who could bear its
could bear its expense would
expense would on on the
the average
average
be the
be abler men in
the abler in their communities. If
their communities. If the first wife
the first wife remained
remained child- child-
less
less she would in
she would in most
most cases
cases urge
urge her
her husband
husband to
to take
take an
an additional
additional mate,
mate,
and would often
and would often adopt adopt as
as her
her own the
the child
child of
of the
the concubine.
concubine. There were
many instances
many instances in in which
which wives,
wives, anxious
anxious to keep their
to keep their husbands
husbands home, home,
sugge:u
suggested ed that
that they
they should
should marry
marry the
the courtesans
courtesans to
to whom they
they were giv-
giv-
ing
ing
their
their attention
attention and
and their
their substance,
substance, and should
should bring
bring them home as
as
secondary wives.- The wife wife of of the
the Emperor Chuang-tchu was much
Emperor Chuang-tchu
9

secondary wives."
praised
praised
in
in Chinese
Chinese tradition
tradition because
because she she was reported
reported to have
to have said:said: "I"I have
have
never ceased to send
never ceased to send people people to
to all
all the
the neighboring
neighboring to'vns
towns to
to look
look for
for beau-
beau-
tiful women in
tiful women in order
order that
that I I might
might represent
represent them as
them as concubines
concubines to to mymy
 791
79* THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXVI
(CHAP.XXVI

lord. Families rivaled

'nJO Families
lord."* rivaled one one another
another in in seeking the honor of providing a
seeking the honor of providing a
daughter
daughter for the royal
for the royal harem.
harem. To guard guard the harem, and
the harem, and to to attend
attend to to other
other
duties
duties at his court,
at his court, the
the emperor
emperor was
was entitled
entitled to
to three
three thousand
thousand eunuchs.
eunuchs.
Most
Most of these had
of these had been mutilated by
been mutilated by their
their parents before
parents
before the
the age
age ofof eight,
eight,
D1
in
in order
order to to ensure
ensure their
their livelihood.
livelihood."
1

In
In this
this paradise of
paradise
of the
the male
male the the secondary
secondary wives wives werewere practically
practically slaves,
slaves,
and the chief
and the chief wifewife \vas
was merely
merely the
the head
head of
of a
a reproductive
reproductive establishment.
establishment.
Her prestige
prestige depended
depended almost almost entirely on the number
entirely on the
number and and sex sex of
of her
her
children.
children. Educated
Educated to to accept
accept her her husband
husband as as aa lord,
lord, she might win
she might win some
some
modest happiness by
modest happiness falling
by falling quietlyquiedy into
into the
the routine
routine expected
expected of
of her;
her; and
and
so
so adaptive is the human soul that the wife and husband, in these pre-
adaptive is the human soul that the wife and husband, in these pre-
arranged
arranged unions, seem
unions, seem to to have lived in
have lived in a peace no
a peace no more violent than
more violent than that
that
which follows
which follows the the happy
happy endings
endings of of Western
Western romanticromantic love. love. The woman

could be divorced
divorced for almost any
for almost cause, from barrenness to
to loquacity;UI
319
could be any cause, from barrenness loquacity;
she herself could
she herself could never
never divorce
divorce her her husband,
husband, but but she might leave
she might leave himhim and
and
return to
return to her
her parents-though
parents though
this
this was
was a
a matter
matter of
of rare
rare resort.
resort. Divorce
Divorce
in any case
in was
was infrequent; partly because the the lotlot of the divorced
of the divorced woman
any case infrequent; partly because
was too
was too unpleasant
unpleasant to to be be thought of,
thought of, partly partly because
because the
the Chinese
Chinese were were
natural philosophers,
natural philosophers, and and tooktook suffering
suffering as as thethe order
order of of the the day.
day.
Very probably, in
Very probably, in pre-Confucian
pre-Conf ucian times,
times, the
the family
family had
had centered
centered around
around
the mother
the mother as as the
the source
source of of its
its existence
existence and and its its authority. In In the
the earliest
earliest
authority.
period, as
period, as we have have seen,
seen, the people "knew
the people "knew their mothers but
their mothers but notnot their
their
fathers";
fathers"; and
and the
the character
character for
for a
a man's
man's family
family name
name is
is still
still formed
formed from
from
the radical
radical forfor "woman."UI
"woman."" The word word for for "wife" meant "equal"; and the
8
the "wife" meant "equal"; and the
wife preserved
wife preserved her her own name after after marriage. As
marriage. As late
late as
as the
the third
third century
century
of
of our
our eraera women held held highhigh administrative
administrative and and executive
executive positions in
positions in
m
China,
China, even
even to
to ruling
ruling the
the state;114
state; the
the "Dowager
"Dowager Empress" merely followed
Empress" merely followed
in the steps
in the
steps of that
of that Empress
Empress Lu who ruled ruled ChinaChina so so severely
severely from from 19 195S
to 180
to 180 B.e.
B.C Lu, Lu, "hard
"hard and and inflexible,"
inflexible," killed
killed and
and poisoned
poisoned her
her rivals
rivals and
and
enemies with all deposed kings,
all the
the gusto
enemies with gusto of of aa Medicean;
Medicean; she she chose
chose and and deposed kings,
and
and hadhad herher husband's
husband's favorite
favorite concubine
concubine shorn shorn of of ears
ears and and eyes 'and
eyes and
12I
Though hardly one in
5
thrown into
thrown into a a latrine.
latrine." Though hardly one in ten thousand Chinese
ten thousand Chinese werewere
literate under the
literate under the Manchus,
Manchus, ue education
136
education was
was customary among
customary among the women the women
of the upper classes in
upper classes ancient days;
in ancient many
of the days; many of them wrote
of them wrote poetry;poetry; and
and
Pan Chao,
Chao, the
the gifted
gifted sister
sister of
of the
the historian
historian P'an
P'an Ku (ca. 100 .A.D.),
(ca. 100 A.D.), com- com-
pleted
pleted his
his history after
history after his
his death,
death, and
and won high recognition from
high recognition from thethe
m*
emperor.
emperor*
1
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE
T PEOPLE
BE P AND
E 0 P LEA STATE
N D THE S TAT E 793
793

Probably
Probably the the establishment
establishment of of the
the feudal system in
feudal system in China
China reduced
reduced the the
political
political
and
and economic
economic status
status ofof woman,
woman, and
and brought
brought \vith
with it
it an
an especially
especially
rigorous
rigorous form
form of
of the
the patriarchal
patriarchal family. Usually
family. Usually
all the
all the male
male descendants,
descendants,
and their wives
and their wives andand children,
children, lived
lived withwith thethe oldest male; and
oldest male; and though
though thethe
family
family owned its
its land
land in
in common, it acknowledged the complete
common, it acknowledged the complete authority authority
of the patriarch
of the patriarch over over both
both thethe family
family and its property. By the
and its property. By the time time of of
Confucius
Confucius the the power of
of the
the father
father was
was almost
almost absolute:
absolute: he
he could
could sell his
sell his
power
wife or
wife or his
his children
children into
into servitude,
servitude, thoughthough he he did so only
did so only under
under great
great
need;
need; and
and if
if he
he wished
wished he
he could
could put
put his
his children
children to
to death
death with
with no
no other
other
us
restraint thanthan public
public opinion.
opinion." He ate his ineals
ate his meals alone, not inviting either
8
restraint alone, not inviting either
his wife or
his wife his children
or his children to to table with him
table with him except
except on
on rare
rare occasions.
occasions. When
he died his
he died widow was
his widow was expected
expected to to avoid remarriage; formerly
avoid remarriage; formerly she she had
had
been required
been required to to commit suttee in
commit suttee in his
his honor,
honor, andand cases
cases of this occurred
of this occurred in in
China
China to to the
the end
end ofof the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century.11t
century."
9
He was
was courteous
courteous to
to his
his
wife, as
wife, to everybody,
as to everybody, but but hehe maintained
maintained a a severe
severe distance,
distance, almost
almost a a separa-
separa-
tion of caste.
tion of between himself
caste, between himself and and hishis wife
wife and
and children.
children. The women lived lived
in distinct qUarters
in distinct quarters of
of the
the home,
home, and
and seldom
seldom mingled
mingled with
with the
the men;
men; social
social
life was exclusively
life was exclusively male,
male, except
except for
for promiscuous
promiscuous women.
women. The man
thought
thought of
of his
his wife
wife as
as the
the mother
mother of his
of his children;
children; he
he honored
honored her
her not
not for
for
her beauty
her beauty or her culture,
or her culture, butbut for
for her
her fertility,
fertility, her industry
her industry and and her
her obe-
obe-
dience. In
dience. In aa celebrated
celebrated treatise the Lady
treatise the Lady Pan Ho-pan,
Ho-pan, from
from the
the same
same eleva-
eleva-
tion of
tion of aristocracy, wrote with
aristocracy, wrote with edtfying
edifying humility
humility of the proper
of the proper condition
condition
of women:
of women:

We occupy
occupy the last place in
the last place in the human species,
the species,
we are the weaker
are the weaker
part
part
of
of humanity;
humanity; the
the basest
basest functions
functions are,
are, and
and should
should be,
be, our
our por-
por-
tion. • . . Rightly
tion. . .
Rightly and
. justly does
and justly does the
the Book of the Laws of
of the of the
the
Sexes make use
Sexes make use of
of these words: "If
these words: "If aa woman has husband after
has aa husband after
her own heart,
her it is
heart, it is for
for her
her whole life; if
whole life; if a
a woman hashas aa husband
husband
against
against
her heart,
her it is
heart, it is also for life.'"
also for life/"*

Hsiian sang:
And Fu Hsiian sang:

How sad is to
it is
sad it to be
be aa woman!
woman!
Nothing on
Nothing on earth is held
earth is held soso cheap.
cheap.
Boys
Boys stand
stand leaning
leaning at
at the
the door
door
Like
Like gods
gods fallen
fallen out
out of
of heaven.
heaven.
Their hearts brave
Their hearts brave the
the Four Oceans,
Oceans,
The wind
wind and
and dust
dust of
of aa thousand
thousand miles.
miles.
7~
794 STORY
THE S TOR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F C I V I LIZ A T ION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXVI

one is
No one is glad ,vhen
glad when
aa girl
girl
is born:
is born:

By
By her
her the
the family
family sets
sets no store.
store.

When sheshe gro\\"s

grows upup she hides in
she hides in her room,
her room,
Afraid to
Afraid to look
look aa man in in the
the face.
face.
No one
one cries
cries \vhen
when she
she leaves
leaves her
her home-
Sudden
Sudden asas clouds
clouds \vhen
when the rain stops.
the rain stops.
She bows her
She bows her head and composes
head and composes herher face,
face,
Her teeth
teeth are
are pressed on
pressed on her
her red
red lips:
lips:
She bows and
She bows and kneels
kneels coundess
countless times.
times.
m
Ul

Perhaps
Perhaps such
such quotations do injustice to the Chinese home. There was
quotations do injustice to the Chinese home. was
rank subjection
rank subjection in
in it,
it, and
and quarrels
quarrels
were
were frequent
frequent between
between man and
and woman,
woman,
and
and among
among the the children;
children; but but there
there were
were alsoalso much kindness
kindness andand affection,
affection,
mutual helpfulness,
much mutual helpfulness, and and constant
constant cooperation
cooperation in
in the
the busy
busy function-
function-
ing
ing of
of a natural home.
a natural home. ThoughThough economically
economically subordinate
subordinate the the woman en- en-
joyed the
joyed the franchise
franchise of of the
the tongue,
tongue, and
and might
might scold her man into
scold her into fright
fright or or
flight
flight in
in the
the best
best Occidental
Occidental style.
style.
The patriarchal family
patriarchal family
could
could not
not be
be de-
de-
mocratic, much less
mocratic, less egalitarian, because
egalitarian,
because thethe state
state left the family
to the
left to family thethe task
task
of maintaining social
of maintaining social order;
order; thethe home was was atat once
once a nursery, aa schoo~
a nursery, school, a a
workshop
workshop and
and aa government.
government. The relaxation
relaxation of
of family discipline
family discipline in
in Am~r­
Amer-
ica has been
ica has been made
made possible only by the economic
possible only by the
unimportance of
economic unimportance of the
the
urban home, and
urban home, and thethe appropriation
appropriation of of family functions by
family functions the school,
by the school, thethe
factory
factory and
and the
the state.
state.

The typetype of of character

character produced
produced by by these
these domestic
domestic institutions
institutions hashas won
the highest
the praise of
highest praise of many
many travelers.
travelers. Allowing
Allowing for many exceptions
the many
for the exceptions
that weaken
that weaken every every social
social generalization,
generalization,
the
the average
average Chinese
Chinese was aa model
model
of filial obedience and
of filial obedience and devotion, ofdevotion, of wholesome
wholesome respect
respect and
and willing
willing care
care
for the old.·
for the old.* He accepted patiently
accepted patiently the
the character-forming precepts
character-forming precepts of
of the
the
Li-chi or
Li-chi Book of
or Book of Ceremonies,
Ceremonies, carried
carried easily
easily its
its heavy
heavy burden
burden of
of etiquette,
etiquette,
regulated
regulated
every
every phase
phase of
of his
his life
life with
with its
its rules
rules of passionless
of passionless courtesy,
courtesy, and
and
acquired
acquired under
under it an
it an ease
ease and
and excellence
excellence of of manners,
manners, a poise
a poise and
and dignity
dignity
of bearing, unknown
of bearing, unknown to to his
his compeers
compeers of of the
the West-so
West so that coolie carry':'
that aa coolie carry-
ing dung through
ing dung through
the
the streets
streets might show better
might better breeding,
breeding, and
and more self-
self-

respect, than
than the
the alien
alien merchant
merchant who sold him
sold him opium.
opium. T,he
The Chinese
Chinese learned
learned
respect,
the art
the art ofof compromise,
compromise, and and graciously
graciously "saved the face"
"saved the face" of of his
his worsted
worsted

•* Chinese
Chinese legend
.
*

this with
legend illustrates
illustrates this with characteristic
characteristic humor byby the
the story
story of
of Hakuga,
Hakuga, who
was whipped daily
was whipped daily by his mother,
by his but never
mother, but cried. One diy,
never cried. however, he
day, however, cried as
he cried as he
he
was being beaten;
was being beaten; and being
being asked
asked the
the cadse
cause of
of this
this unusual
unusual disturbance
disturbance he
he answered
answered
that he
that because his
wept because
he wept his mother
mother,t now old weak, was
old and weak, was unable
unable toto hurt him with
hurt him with her
her
blows.
blows."
w1
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PPEOPLE
THE EO P LEAAND THE SSTATE
:N D THE TAT E 795
795
enemy.
enemy. He was occasionally
He \vas occasionally violent violent in in speech and always loquacious,
speech and always loquacious,
often
often unclean
unclean andand not
not invariably
invariably sober, given to gambling and
sober, given to gambling and gluttony,·
gluttony,*
to petty peculation
to petty peculation and and courteous
courteous mendacity;1SU he \\Torshiped the God of
mendacity;'" he worshiped the God of
\Vealth with too
Wealth '\l7ith too frank
frank an an idolatry,lS and
and waswas as as hungry for gold as a
125

idolatry, hungry for gold as a

caricatured
caricatured American;
American; he
he ,\'as
was capable occasionally
capable occasionally of cruelty and
of cruelty and bru-
bru-
tality,
tality, and accumulating injustices
accumulating injustices sometimes
sometimes provoked
provoked him
him to
to mass
mass out-
out-
breaks
breaks of of pillage
pillage and
and slaughter.
slaughter. But
But in
in nearly
nearly
all
all cases
cases he
he \vas
was peaceable
peaceable
and kindly,
kindly, ready
ready to help his
to help his neighbors, disdainful
neighbors, disdainful of of criminals
criminals and and ,var-
war-
riors,
riors, thrifty industrious, leisurely
thrifty and industrious, leisurely but
but steady
steady at
at his
his work,
work, simple and
simple and
unassuming.in
unassuming in his
his mode of
of life,
life, and
and comparatively
comparatively honest
honest in
in commerce
commerce
and finance. He "ras
and finance. and patient
was silent
silent and
patient underunder the whip of
the Whip of adversity,
adversity, and
and
took
took good
good and evil
evil fortune
fortune alike
alike ~ith
with aa wise
wise humility;
humility;
he
he bore
bore bereave-
bereave-
ment and agony agony with fatalistic
fatalistic self-control,
self-control, and showed li~e
and showed little sympathy
sympathy
for those
for those who suffered them audibly;
suffered them audibly; he he mourned
mourned long long
and
and loyally for his
loyally for his
departed
departed relatives,
relatives, and (\vhen
(when all
all his
his compromises
compromises had
had failed
failed to
to elude
elude it)
it)
faced his
faced his own death
death with philosophic
philosophic calm.
calm. ~e
He was
was as
as sensitive
sensitive to ~eauty
to beauty
as he
brightened his
as he was
was insensitive
insensitive toto pain;
pain; he he brightened his cities with colorful
cities with colorful decora-
decora-
tion, and adorned his
tion, his life with the
life with the maturest
maturest art. art.

H we wish to
If to understand
understand this civilization we must
this civilization must forget for a moment
forget for a moment
the bitter
the bitter chaos and helplessness
chaos and helplessness into into which
which it has been
it has been thrown
thrown by by its
its own
own
internal weakness
internal weakness and by by contact
contact with
with the
the superior
superior guns guns and
and machines
machines of
of
the West;
the West; we must must seesee it at any
it at of
of its
its many apogees-underunder the Chou
the Chou
any many apogees
princes, or
princes, Ming Huang,
or Ming Huang, or Hui Tsung,
or Hui Tsung, or or K'ang-hsi.
K'ang-hsi. For For in those quiet,
in those quiet.
and beauty-loving
and beauty-loving daysdays diethe Chinese
Chinese represented
represented without
without doubtdoubt thethe highest
highest
civilization and
civilization and the
the ripest
ripest culture
culture that Asia, or
that Asia, or perhaps
perhaps any any continent,
continent, had had
yet achieved.
yet achieved.
*
3UD
VI. A GOVERNMENT PRAISED BY VOLTAIRE
VL VOLTAIBE

submergence
The submergence of the
of the individual
individual-Self-go'lJernl1Ztnt-Tbe 'Village
Self-government The village
the province
tmd the
and province-The luity of
The laxity of the
the law
law-The severity of
The severity of punish-
punisb-
'me1lt- The Emperor
mentThe Emperor-The Censor-Ad'/12inimllti'lJe
The Censor boards-
Administrative boards
Educati01J, for
Education for public
pztblic office-Nomination
Nomination by
office education-The
by education-The
examination system
examination system-Its defects-Its
Its defects virtues
Its virtues

The most
The moSt impressive
impressive aspect
aspect of this civilization
of this civilization was
was its
its system
system of
of govern-
govern-
ment. If the
ment. If ideal state
the ideal state is aa combination
is combination of
of democracy and aristocracy,
democracy and aristocracy,
the Chinese have had itit for
the Chinese have had for more
more than
than aa thousand years; ifif the
thousand years; the best
best gov-
gov-
*
• In many cities
In many cities hucksters
hucksten stood
stood at
at the
the roadside with saucer,
roadside with saucer, dice
dice and
and cup in hand,
cup in hand,
ready for
for the casual gambler.
the casual gambler.-* 3
ready
796 STORY
THE S CIVILIZATION
OFF C
TOR Y 0 I V I LIZ A T ION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXVI

ernment is
ernment that \vhich
is that which governs
governs least,
least, then
then the
the Chinese
Chinese havehave had
had the
the best.
best.

Never has
Never has aa government
government governed
governed so so many people, or
many people, governed them so
or governed so
little,
little, or
or so
so long.
long.
that individualism,
Not that individualism, or or individual
individual liberty,
liberty,
flourished in
flourished in China;
China; on on
the contrary,
the the concept of the individual was weak, and lost him in the
contrary, the concept of the individual was weak, and lost him in the
groups
groups to
to which
which he
he belonged.
belonged. He was, was, first
first ofof all,
all, a member of
a member of aa family
family
and
and a passing unit
a passing unit in
in a stream of
a stream of life between his
life between his ancestors
ancestors andand his pas-"
his pos-

terity;
terity; by
by law
law and
and custom
custom he
he was
was responsible
responsible
for
for the
the acts
acts of
of the
the others
others
of his
of household, and
his household, and they were responsible
they \vere for his. Usually he belonged
responsible for his. Usually he belonged
to some
to some secret
secret society,
society, and,
and, in
in the
the town,
town, to
to a
a guild; these limited his rights
guild; these limited his rights
to do as he pleased.
to do as he pleased. A web of ancient custom bound
of ancient custom bound him, him, and
and a a powerful
powerful
public opinion
public opinion threatened
threatened him
him with
with ostracism
ostracism if he
if he seriously
seriously
violated
violated the
the
morals or
morals traditions of
or traditions of the
the group.
group. It
It was
was precisely
precisely
the
the strength
strength of
of these
these
popular organizations, rising
popular organizations, rising naturally naturally out
out of
of the
the needs
needs and
and voluntary
voluntary
cooperation
cooperation of
of the
the people,
people, that
that made it
it possible for
possible for China
China to
to maintain
maintain
itself in
itself in order
order andand stability despite the weakness of law and the state.
stability despite the weakness of law and the state.
But within the
But within the framework
framework of of these
these spontaneous
spontaneous institutions
institutions ofof self-gov-
self-gov-
ernment
ernment the the Chinese
Chinese remained politically and
remained politically and economically
economically free. free. The great
great
distances
distances thatthat separated
separated one one city
city from
from another,
another, and and allall of them from
of them from thethe
imperial capital,
imperial capital, the
the dividing
dividing effect
effect of
of mountains, deserts,
mountains, deserts, and
and unbridged
unbridged
or unnavigable streams,
or unnavigable streams, thethe lack
lack ofof transport
transport and
and quick
quick communication,
communication,
and
and thethe difficulty
difficulty ofof supporting
supporting an an anny
army large
large enough
enough to to enforce
enforce some
some
central will upon
central will upon four
four hundred
hundred million people, compelled
million people,
compelled the state to leave
the state'to leave
to each
to each district
district anan almost
almost complete autonomy.
complete autonomy.

The unit
unit ofof local
local administration
administration was the village, loosely
the village, ruled by
loosely ruled by the
the
family
family heads
heads under
under the
the eye
eye of
of a
a "headman" named
named by
by the
the government;
government; a a
group
group of
of villages gathered
villages gathered
about
about a
a town constituted
constituted a a bien,
hien, or
or county,
county,
of
of
which there
which were some
there were some thirteen
thirteen hundred
hundred in in China; two or
China; two more bien,
or more hien, ruled
ruled
together
together from
from a
a city,
city, constituted
constituted a
a fu;
fu; two or
or more
more fu
fu formed
formed a tao,
a tao, or
or
circuit; two or
circuit; two or more taotao made a sbeng, or
a sheng, province; and
or province; and eighteen
eighteen provinces,
provinces,
under the
under the Manchus,
Manchus, made the the empire.
empire. The state state appointed a magistrate to
appointed a magistrate to aet
act
as
as administrator
administrator,t tax-colleetor
tax-collector and judge in
and judge each hien;
in each hien; a
a chief
chief officer
officer for
for
each
each fufu and each tao;
and each tao; and a a judge, ~easurer, a
judge, 'aa treasurer, a governor,
governor, and and sometimes
sometimes a a
"
viceroy,
viceroy, for
for each
each province}·
province.
1
But these
these officials
officials normally contented
normally contented them- them-
selves with collecting
selves with collecting taxes
taxes and
and "squeezes," judging such
"squeezes," judging such cases
cases as
as volun-
volun-
tary arbitration
tary arbitration had
had failed
failed to
to settle, and, for
settle, and, for the rest, leaving
the rest, leaving
the
the maintenance
maintenance
of ,order
of to custom,
order to the family,
custom, the family, the
the clan
clan and
and thethe guild. Each province was a
guild. Each province was a
semi-independent
semi-independent state,
state, free from imperial interference
free imperial interference or
or central
central legislation
legislation
CHAP.n\1I)
CHAP.XXVl) THE PEOPLE
THE PEOPLE AND THE THE STATE
A~D STATE 797
797
soso long
long as it paid its
as it
paid its tax-allotment
tax-allotment and
and kept
kept
the
the peace. Lack of facilities
peace. Lack of facilities for
for
communication
communication made made thethe central
central government more an idea
government more an idea than
than aa reality.
reality.
The patriotic emotions of the people
The patriotic people ,vere
were spent upon their districts and
emotions of the
spent upon their districts and
provinces,
provinces, and and seldom
seldom extended
extended to
to the
the empire as a \vhole.
empire as a whole.

In
In this
this loose structure law
loose structure law was
wasweak,
weak, unpopular, and diverse. The people
unpopular, and diverse. The people
preferred
preferred to
to be
be ruled
ruled by custom,
by custom, and
and to
to settle their disputes by face-sav-
settle their disputes by face-sav-
ing
ing compromises
compromises out of court.
out of court. They expressed their
They expressed their view of
view of litigation by
litigation by
such
such pithy
pithy proverbs
proverbs as
as "Sue
"Sue a
a flea
flea and
and catch
catch aa bite,"
bite," or
or "Win
"Win your
your
law-
law-
suit, lose your
suit, lose money." In
your money." In many
many towns towns of of several
several thousand
thousand population
population
us*
years
years passed
passed without
without aa case case coming into
coming into the the courts.
courts.
1
The
The lawslaws had
had been
been
codified
codified under
under the the T'ang emperors,
Tang emperors, but
but they dealt almost entirely
they dealt almost entirely with with
crime, and
crime, and attempted
attempted no formulation
formulation of of a a civil
civil code.
code. Trials
Trials werewere simple,
simple,
for
for nono lawyer
lawyer was allowed
allowed to
to argue
argue a
a case
case in
in court, though licensed
court, though licensed
notaries
notaries might occasionally prepare, and
might occasionally prepare, and read read to the magistrate,
to the a state-
magistrate, a state-
*
UI
ment in
ment in behalf
behalf of of aa client.
client.
1
There
There were were no no juries,
juries,
and
and there
there was
was scant
scant
protection
protection in
in the
the law against
against the
the sudden
sudden seizure
seizure and secret retention of
and secret retention of a a
person by
person by the officers
the officers of of the
the state.
state. Suspects were
Suspects were finger-printed,·
finger-printed,"
and
and
elicited by tortures
by tortures slightly more physical
confessions were
confessions were sometimes
sometimes elicited
slightly more physical
than those
than those now used for such
used for purposes in
such purposes the most
in the most enlightened
enlightened cities.
cities.

Punishment was
Punishment was severe,
severe, but hardly as
but hardly as barbarous
barbarous as in most
as in most other
other countries
countries
of Asia;
of Asia; itit began
began withwith cutting
cutting off off the
the hair,
hair, andand wentwent on on to
to flogging,
flogging, ban-
ban-
ishment or death;
ishment or death; if the
if the criminal
criminal had had exceptional
exceptional merits merits or or rank,
rank, hehe might
might
m
be allowed
be allowed to to kill himself.-
kill himself . There were
There were generous
generous commutations
commutations of of sen-
sen-
tences, and capital
tences, and capital punishment
punishment could could in in normal
normal times times be be imposed
imposed only only by by
the emperor.
the emperor. Theoretically,
Theoretically, as with us,
as with all persons
us, all persons were were equal
equal before
before thethe
law. These
law. These laws never availed
laws never availed to to prevent
prevent brigandage
brigandage on on the highways or
the highways or
corruption in office and the
corruption in office and the courts,
courts, but but theythey cooperated
cooperated modestlymodestly with with
custom and
custom and the family to
the family to give China aa degree
give China degree of of social order and
social order and personal
personal
security not
security not equaled
equaled by by anyany other nation before
other nation before our our century.
century.-
1 1 *

Poised precariously
Poised precariously above above thesethese teeming
teeming millions
millions sat sat the
the emperor.
emperor. In In
theory
theory hehe ruled
ruled by
by divine
divine right;
right; he
he was
was the
the "Son
"Son of
of Heaven," and
Heaven," and repre- repre-
sented the
sented the Supreme
Supreme Being Being on earth.· By
on earth.* By virtue
virtue of his godlike
of his godlike powers
powers he he
ruled the
ruled the seasons
seasons and and commanded
commanded men men to to coordinate
coordinate their with the
lives with
their lives the
divineorder
divine orderof ofthe
theuniverse.
universe. His Hisdecrees
decreeswere werelaws,laws,and andhis judgmentswere
hisjudgments were
*
•Hence his realm
Hence his realm was sometimes called
was sometimes called Tien-Chcm, the "heaven-ruled."
Tim-Chflll, the "heaven-ruled." Europeans
Europeans .
translated this into the "Celestial Kingdom,"
translated this into the "Celestial Kingdom," andand spoke the Chinese
spoke ofof the Chinese learnedly
learnedly asas
"Celestials."
*
"Celestia1s.nul
1
i98
798 THE STORY
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXVI
(CHAP. XXVI

the tinal
the final court;
court; he he administered
administered the the state
state and
and \vas
was thethe head
head ofof its
its religion;
religion;
he
he appointed
appointed all all officials, examined the
officials, examined the highest contestants for
highest contestants
for office,
office, and
and
chose his
chose his successor
successor to to the throne. Actually
the throne. Actually his
his po\vers were
powers were wholesomely
wholesomely
limited
limited byby custom
custom and and la,v.
law. He ,vas was expected
expected to to rule
rule without
without contraven-
contraven-
ing
ing the
the regulations
regulations that
that had
had come dO'''ll
down from
from the
the sacred
sacred past;
past; he
he might
might at at
any
any moment be
be rebuked
rebuked by a
a strange dignitary
by strange dignitary known as
as the
the Censor;
Censor; he
he
was inin effect
effect imprisoned by a
imprisoned by ring a ring of
of counsellors
counsellors and
and commissioners
commissioners \vhose
whose
advice it
advice was usually
it \vas expedient
usually expedient for
for him
him to
to accept;
accept;
and
and if
if he
he ruled
ruled very
very un-
un-
justly
justly oror unwell
unwell he lost, by
he lost, by common custom custom and and consent,
consent, the the "mandate
"mandate
of
of Heaven,"
Heaven," and and might
might be
be violently deposed
violently deposed without
without offense
offense to
to religion
religion or
or
morality.
morality.
The Censor
Censor was was head
head of of aa board
board whose
whose function
function it it was
was to to inspect
inspect all
all
officials in the administration
officials in the administration of of their
their duties;
duties; andand thethe emperor
emperor was was notnot
exempt
exempt from this
this supervision.
supervision. Several
Several times
times in
in the
the course
course of
of history
history the
the
Censor hashas reproved
reproved the
the emperor
emperor himself.
himself. For
For example, the Censor
example, the Censor Sung Sung
respectfully suggested
respectfully suggested to
to the
the Emperor
Emperor Chia
Chia Ch'ing (1796-1821 A.D.)
Ch'ing (1796-1821 A.D.) a a
moderation in
moderation in his
his attachment
attachment to to actors
actors and and strong drink.
drink. Chia
Chia Ch'ing
strong Ch'ing
summoned Sung Sung to
to his
his presence, and
presence, and angrily
angrily asked
asked him
him what
what punishment
punishment
was proper
proper for
for soso insolent
insolent an official. Sung answered,
an official. "Death by
was Sung answered, "Death by thethe slic-
slic-

ing process." Ordered to select a milder

ing process." Ordered to select a penalty, he
milder penalty, he answered,
answered, "Let "Let me
be beheaded."
be beheaded." Ordered
Ordered to to select
select a a milder penalty, he
milder penalty, he recommended
recommended that that
he be
he be strangled.
strangled. The Emperor, impressed by
Emperor, impressed by his
his courage and disturbed
courage and disturbed
by
by his
his propinquity,
propinquity, made him
him governor
governor of
of the
the province
province of of ill. W
18*
Hi.

The imperial government

The imperial government had had come to to be highly complex
be aa highly complex administra-
administra-
tive machine. Nearest
tive machine. Nearest to to the
the throne
throne was was the
the Grand
Grand Council,
Council, composed
composed of of
four "Great
four "Great Ministers," usually headed
Ministers," usually headed by by aa prince
prince ofof the royal blood;
the royal blood; byby
custom it
custom it met daily, in
met daily, in the
the early
early hours
hours of of the
the morning,
morning, to determine the
to determine the
policies
policies
of
of the
the state.
state. Superior
Superior in
in rank
rank but
but inferior
inferior in
in infiuence
influence was
was another
another
group of
group of advisers
advisers called
called the celnner Cabinet."
the "Inner Cabinet." The work work of of administration
administration
was headed
was headed by by "Six
''Six Boards":
Boards": of of Civil Office, of
Ovil Office, of Revenue,
Revenue, of of Ceremonies,
Ceremonies, of of
War, of
War, of Punishments,
Punishments, and and ofof Works.
Works. ThereThere was was aa Colonial
Colonial Office,
Office, for
for
managing such
managing distant territories
such distant territories asas Mongolia,
Mongolia, Sinkiang
Sinkiang and
and Tibet;
Tibet; but
but there
there
Foreign Office:
was no Foreign China recognized
Office: China recognized no no other
other nations
nations as
as its
its equals,
equals, and
and
made nono provisions
provisions for dealing with
for dealing with them
them beyond
beyond arrangements
arrangements for for the
the re-
re-
ception of tribute-bearing
ception of tribute-bearing embassies.
embassies.
The weakness
The weakness of of the
the government
government lay lay in
in its
its limited
limited revenues,
revenues, its
its inadequate
inadequate
defenses, and
defenses, its rejection
and its rejection of any instructive
of any instructive intercourse with the
intercourse with the outside
outside
world. It
world. It taxed
taxed thethe land,
land, monopolized
monopolized the the sale
sale of
of salt,
salt, and
and impeded
impeded the the
 i
, !
~. . 1 '-I

";~~<';"i
:~ . , I ' ..

~~~A:!~'oloolooUa. . . . . .IlAliillDo; oiIlIiilIw.IO~_.-..;;

......... . . .IIiiI.ii...... ~~~~.~~~lli
73-A
FIG. 73
FIG. A hawthorn vase from
btnJ1tbom vase from the
the K?ang-hsi
K' Il'/lg-hsi period
period
Meuopolitan Museum
Metropolitan Museum of Art
of Ait
 xx\et)
CHAP. XXVl)
CHAP. THE PEOPLE
P E 0 P LEA ~ D THE
AND SS T
T A.:\ TT KE 799
799
development of
development of commerce
commerce by by' levying,
le,-)·ing, after
after 1852, du~· on
ISS2, aa duty on the
the transit
transit
of goods
of goods along
along the
the main
nlain routes
routes ofof the
the country; but the
country; but the poverty of the
po\·erty of the
people,
people,
the
the difficulty
difficulty
of
of colleetion~
collection, and
and the
the dishonest}·
dishonesty
of
of the
the collectors
collectors kept
kept
the national
the revenue at
national revenue at too
too low
lo\v aa point
point to finance the
to finance nayal and
the naval and military
militaI)"
forces that
forces might have
that might have saved
saved China
China from invasion and
from invasion shameful defeat*
and shameful defeat.·
Perhaps the
Perhaps the basic
basic defect
defect was in the
,vas in the personnel
personnel of
of the
the government;
government; the
the ability
ability
and honesty
and honesty of
of its officials deteriorated
its officials deteriorated throughout
throughout the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century,
century',
and
and left the
left the nation
nation essentially
essentially leaderless
leaderless when
,vhen half
half the
the wealth
,vealth and
and power
po,ver of
of
the world
the world were in an
joining
were joining in an assault
assault upon its independence,
upon its independence, its
its resources
resources and
and
institutions.
its institutions.
its

Nevertheless those
Nevertheless those officials
officials hadhad been
been chosen
chosen by by thethe most
most unique,
unique, andand
all in all the most admirable,
all in all the most admirable, method ever method e\rer developed for the selection
developed for the selection of of
public servants.
public
servants. It It was
was aa method
method thatthat would
would havehave interested
interested Plato;
Plato; andand
despite
despite
its
its failure
failure and
and abandonment
abandonment today today it
it still
still endears
endears China
China to
to the
the
philosopher. Theoretically, the plan provided a perfect reconciliation
philosopher. Theoretically, the plan provided a perfect
reconciliation of of
aristocracy
aristocracy and
and democracy:
democracy: all
all men
men were
were to
to have
have an
an equal opportunity to
equal opponunity to
make themselves
make themselves fit fit for
for office,
office, but office ,vas
but office was toto be
be open
open onlyonly toto those \vho
those who
had made
had themselves fit. Practically,
made themselves fit. Practically, the the method
method produced
produced good good results
results

for
for a thousand years.
a thousand years.
It
It began in
began in the the village
village
schools-simple
schools simple privateprivate institutions,
institutions, often
often no no
more than a room in
more than a room in a cottage a cottage-wherewhere an
an individual
individual teacher,
teacher, out
out of
of his
his own
meager
meager remuneration,
remuneration, provided
provided an
an elementary
elementary education
education for
for the
the sons
sons ofof
*
the prosperous;
the prosperous; the
the poorer
poorer
half
half of
of the
the population
population remained
remained illiterate.-
illiterate,
1

These schools were

These schools were not financed by
not financed by the
the state,
state, nor
nor were they they conducted
conducted
by
by the
the clergy; education,
clergy; education,
like
like marriage, re~ed,
marriage, remained, in
in China, independent
China, independent
of
of religion, except
religion, except
in
in so
so far
far asas Confucianism
Confucianism ,vas
was its
its creed.
creed. Hours
Hours werewere
long and discipline was severe in
was severe in these
these modest schoolhouses: the
modest schoolhouses: the children
children
long and discipline
reported to
reported to the
the teacher at sunrise,
teacher at sunrise, studied
studied with
with him
him till
till ten,
ten, had breakfast,
breakfast,
resumed
resumed their studies till
their studies till five,
five, and
and then
then were
were free for the
free for the day.
day. Vacations
Vacations
were
were few few and
and brief:
brief: there
there were
were no no lessons after noon in
lessons after in the
the summer,
summer, but to to
atone
atone for for this
this leisure
leisure to work in
to work in the
the fields
fields there
there were school sessions in
school sessions in the
the

winter evenings.
winter The
The chief
chief instruments
instruments of of instruction
instruction were the the writings
writings
evenings.

The imperial
•* The revenue towards
imperial revenue
towards the
the close
dose of the last
of 'the last century
century averaged $75,000,000 a
averaged $75,000,000
year; the revenues collected for *
for local
local purposes amounted
amounted to to an additional
additional $175,000,000.-
a

year; the revenues collected purposes $i75,ooo,ooo.

If these' national receipts,
If these 'national receipts, essential
essential to
to the
the maintenance
maintenance of
of order,
order, are
are compared
compared with
with the
the

$150,000,000 exacted
$150,000,000 exacted of China by
of China Japan in
by Japan 1894, and the
in 1894t $300,000,000 indemnity
the $300,000,000 indemnity asked
asked by
by
the Allies after
the Allies after the
the Boxer
Boxer Rebellion,
Rebellion, the
the collapse
collapse ofof China
China becomes aa meremere manu
matter ofof
bookkeeping.
bookkeeping.
800
8(X> THE
THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION
STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXVI
(CHAP.XXVI

of Confucius,
of Confucius, the poetry of
the poetry of the
the Tang,
T'ang, and
and aa whip
whip of
of clinging
clinging bamboo.
bamboo.
The method
The method was
was memory:
memory: dayday after
after day
day the young students
the young students learned
learned by
by
heart, and
heart, and discussed
discwsed with ,vith their
their teacher,
teacher, the philosophy of
the philosophy of K'ung
K'ung the the Mas-
Mas-
ter, until
ter, until almost every word
almost every word of of itit hadhad sunk
sunk into into their
their memories,
memories, and and some
some
of itit into
of into their
their hearts;
hearts; China
China hopedhoped that that in in this joyless and
this joyless and merciless
merciless way way
even aa peasant
even peasant kd lad might
might be be turned
turned into into aa philosopher
philosopher and and a gentleman.
a gentleman.
The graduate
The graduate emergedemerged with '\vith little
little information
information and and much
much understanding,
understanding,
factually ignorant and mentally mature,·
factually ignorant and mentally mature.*
It was
It was on on the basis of
the basis of this
this education
education that China established
that China established-first tenta-
first tenta-

tively under the Han, then

tively under the Han, then definitely
definitely under
under the
the T'ang, dynasties-its
Tang, dynasties its sys-
sys-
tem of
tem of examinations
examinations for for public
public office.
office. It It isis an
an evil
evil for
for the
the people,
people, said said

China,
China, that
that its
its rulers
rulers should
should learn
learn toto rule
rule by ruling;
by ruling; as
as far
far as
as possible
possible theythey
should learn
should learn to to rule
rule before
before ruling.
ruling. It It isis an evil for the people
an evil for the people that they
that they
should have
should have no no access
access to to office,
office, and
and that that government
government should should be be the privi-
the privi-
lege of an hereditary few; but it
lege of an hereditary few; but
it isis good
good for for the
the people
people that
that office
office should
should
be confined
be confuled to to those
those whowho havehave been
been prepared
prepared for for it by ability
it by ability and training.
and training.
offer to
To ojSFer all men
to all men democratically
democratically an an equal
equal opportunity
opportunity for for such training,
such training,
and to
and to restrict
restrict office
office aristocratically
aristocratically to to those
those who proved proved themselves best,
themselves best,
was the
was the solution
solution thatthat China
China proposed
proposed for
for the ancient and
the ancient and insoluble
insoluble problem
problem
of
of government.
government.
Therefore
Therefore it it periodically arranged,
periodically arranged,
in
in each
each district,
district, a public examina-
a public examina-
tion to which
tion to which all all males
males of
of any
any ageage were
were eligible.
eligible. It
It tested
tested the
the applicant
applicant in in
his
his memory
memory and and understanding
understanding of of thethe writings
writings of of Confucius,
Confucius, in in his
his knowl-
knowl-
edge
edge
of
of Chinese
Chinese poetry
poetry and
and history,
history, and
and in
in his
his capacity
capacity to
to write
write intelli-
intelli-

gendy on the issues of moral

gently on the issues of
moral and and political
political
life.
life. Those who failed might
failed
might
study
study more
more and
and try again;
try again; those
those who succeeded
succeeded received
received the
the degree
degree of of
Hsiu ts'ai, entitling
Hsiu tfai, entitling them
them to
to membership
membership in
in the
the literary class,
literary class, and to
to pos-
pos-
sible
sible appointment to
appointment to minor
minor local offices;
local offices; but
but more important
important than
than this,
this, they
they
became e1igible-either
became either atat once
once or or after
after further
further preparation-for
preparation for the the tri-
tri-
eligible
ennial
ennial provincial examinations, which offered offered similar
similar butbut harder
harder tests.tests.
provincial examinations,
Those
Those who failed failed here
here might try
might try again, again, and many
many did,
did, so
so that
that some
some men
passed these tests
tests after
after eighty years of living
eighty years of living and studying,
and studying, and not
and not a a few
few
passed these
died in
died the midst
in the midst of of the
the examinations.
examinations. Those who succeeded succeeded were were eligi-
eligi-

From these
•*From these local
local schools
schools the
the children
children might
might gogo on
on to
to one
one of
of the
the rare and poorly-
rare and
equipped
equipped coneges
colleges ofof the
the empire;
empire; more
more frequendy they studied
frequently they with aa tutor,
studied with
poorly-
or
with aa
tutor, or with
few precious books,
few precious at home.
books, at home. Needy
Needy students
students were
were often
often financed
financed through
through such
such school-
school-
ing by men
ing by men of
of means,
means, onon the
the understanding
understanding that they would
that they would retarD. the loan
return the loan with
with interest
interest
on their
OD their appointment
appointment to to office
office and
and their
their access
access to
to "squeeze."
"squeeze."
CHAP. XXVI)
CHAP.XXVl) THE POPL
THE P EO P LEA:S
AX D THE SSTATE
TAT E 801
8oi

ble
ble for
for 3ppointment
appointment to to minor
minor positions in the national service; and at the
positions in the national service; and at the
same time they
same rime they \vere admitted to
were admitted to aa final
final andand especially severe examination
especially severe examination
at
at Peking.
Peking. There in
in the
the Examination
Examination Hall
Hall were
were ten
ten thousand
thousand cells,
cells, in
in which
which
the
the contestants,
contestants, cribbed
cribbed and
and confined,
confined, lived
lived \vith
with their
their O\vn
own food
food and
and
bedding
bedding for for three separate days,
three separate
days, \vhile
while theythey \vrote
wrote essays or theses on sub-
essays or theses on sub-
jects
jects
announced
announced to
to them
them after
after their
their imprisonment.
imprisonment. The
The cells
cells were
were un- un-
heated,
heated, uncomfortable,.ill-lighted
uncomfortable,. ill-lighted and and unsanitary; only the spirit mattered!
unsanitary; only the spirit mattered!
Typical
Typical tests
tests were the the composition
composition of
of a
a poem
poem on
on the
the theme:
theme: "The
"The sound
sound
of
of the
the oars,
oars, and
and the
the green
green of
of the
the hills
hills and
and water";
water"; and the writing of
and the writing of an
an
essay this passage from the Confucian
essay on this passage from the Confucian Classics:
Classics: "Tsang Tsze
"Tsang Tsze said, said, 'To
To
possess ability,
possess ability, and
and yet
yet ask
ask of
of those
those who do
do not;
not; to
to know much,
much, and
and yet
yet
inquire
inquire of those
of those who know little; little; to
to possess,
possess,
and
and yet
yet appear
appear
not
not to
to possess;
possess;
"
to be full,
to be full, and yet yet appear
appear empty.'"
empty/ There
There was was not
not a a word
word in in any
any ofof the
the
tests
tests about
about science,
science, business
business or
or industry;
industry; the
the object was to reveal
object was to reveal not
not
knowledge
knowledge but
but judgment
judgment and
and character.
character. Those
Those \vho
who survived
survived the the testS
tests

were
were at at last
last eligible for for the
the higher offices
offices in
in the
the state.
state.
eligible higher
The defects
defects of of the
the plan grew in
plan grew in the
the course
course of of time.
time. Though
Though dishonesty
dishonesty
in
in taking
taking or
or judging
judging the
the tests was
tests was sometimes
sometimes punished
punished with with death,
death, dis-dis-

honesty
honesty found
found a
a way.
way. The purchase
purchase of
of appointments became
appointments became frequent frequent
and
and flagrant
flagrant in
in the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century;-
century;
188
an
an inferior
inferior officer,
officer, for
for example,
example,
sold twenty thousand
sold twenty thousand forged diplomas
forged diplomas before
before he
he was
was exposed.-
exposed.
189
The fonn
form
of the trial
of the trial essay came
essay came to to be
be a a matter
matter of of custom,
custom, and and students
students prepared
prepared
themselves for
themselves for it it mechanically. The curriculum curriculum of
of studies
studies tended to
tended to for-
for-
mechanically.
malize culture
malize culture and and impede
impede the
the progress
progress of
of thought,
thought, for
for the
the ideas
ideas that
that cir-
cir-

culated in
culated it had
in it had been
been standardized
standardized for hundreds of
for hundreds years., The
of years. The graduates
graduates
became an
became an official
official and and intellectual naturally arrogant
bureaucracy, naturally
intellectual bureaucracy, arrogant and and
humanly selfish, occasionally
humanly selfish, occasionally despotic
despotic and and often corrupt, and
often corrupt, and yetyet immune
immune
to public
to public recall
recall or or control
control except
except through
through the the desperate
desperate resort
resort of of the boy-
the boy-
cott or the strike.
cott or the strike. In
In short,
short, the
the system
system had
had the
the faults
faults that
that might be
might be ex- ex-
pected of any governmental structure
pected of any governmental
structure conceived
conceived and operated by
and operated men.
by men.
The faults
The faults of of the
the system
system belonged
belonged to to the
the men,
men, notnot toto the
the system;
system; and and no no
other had
other less.·
had less.*
The merits
The merits of of the
the system
system were
were abundant.
abundant. Here Here werewere nono manipulated
manipulated
nominations, no
nominations, vulgar campaigns
no vulgar campaigns of misrepresentation and hypocrisy,
of misrepresentation and hypocrisy, no no

• "Seldom,"
*
says Dr.
"Seldom," says Dr. Latourette,
Latourette, "has any large
"has any large group
group ofof mankind
mankind been
been so
so prosperous
prosperous
and so
and nearly contented
so nearly contented as were
as were the
the Chinese
Chinese under
under this
this governmental machinery when
governmental machinery
it was
it dominated by
was dominated the
by the ablest of
ablest the xnonarchs."
of the monarchs." This likewise the
This was likewise the opinion of the
OpiDiOl1 of the
1*
learned Capt
learned Brinkley.w
Capt. Brinkley.
80%
802 THE
THE STORY 0 F CIVILIZATION
S TOR Y OF C I V I LIZ A T ION ((CHAP.
CHAP. XXVI
XXVI

sham battles
sham battles of ~'Tin
of twin parties, no
parties,
noisy or
no noisy or corrupt elections, no
corrupt elections, no ascent
ascent to to
office through a meretricious popularity.
office through a meretricious popularity. It was It was aa democracy
democracy in
in the
the best
best
sense of
sense the term,
of the term, asas equality
equalit}· of of opportunity
opponunity for for all in the
all in the competition
competition for for
leadership
leadership
and
and place;
place;
and
and it
it ,,·as
was an
an aristocracy
aristocracy in
in its
its finest
finest form,
form, as
as a
a gov-
gov-
ernment by
ernment by the
the ablest
ablest men,
men, democratically
democratically selected
selected from from every
every rank
rank inin
every generation.
every generation. By By this
this s~~stem
system the
the national
national mind
mind and
and ambition
ambition were
were
turned in
turned in the
the direction
direction of of study, and the
studY, and the national
national heroes
heroes andand models
models were
were
men of
men of culture
culmre rather
rather than m~sters of
than masters of wealth.*
,vealth.· It It was admirable that
"vas admirable that aa
society
society
should
should make
make the
the experiment
experiment of
of being ruled, socially
being ruled, socially and
and politically,
politically,
by
by men
men trained
trained in
in philosoph)1
philosophy
and
and the
the humanities.
humanities. It
It was
was an
an act
act of high
of high
tragedy
tragedy
,,"hen
when that
that sy'stem,
system,
and
and the
the entire
entire civilization
civilization of
of which
which it
it formed
formed
the guiding
the part, were
guiding part, ,,"ere struck
struck down and destroyed
do"rn and destroyed by by thethe inexorable
inexorable forces
forces
of evolution
of evolution and history.
and history.
*• "The
"The Chinese,"
Chinese,,. said
said Sir
Sir Robert
Robert Hart, "\vorship talent;
Hart, "worship talent; they delight in
they delight in literature,
literature, and
everywhere they
everywhere they
have
have their
their little
little clubs
clubs for
for learning,
learning, and for
for discussing
discussing each other's
each other's
essa)'S and verses."
essays and verses."
 CHAPTER
CHAPTER XXVII
XXVII

Revolution and
Revolution and Renewal
I. THE WHITE
I. PERIL
\VHITE PERIL

The conflict
The conflict of
of Asia
Asia and
and Europe
EUTope-Tbe POTttlguese-The
The Portuguese Spanisb-
The Spanish
The Dutch
The Dutch-The English-Tbe opium
The English-The trade-The
opizl1n trade OpiU1J'l
The Opium
Wars-The
Wars T'ai-p'i1zg Rebellion-The
The Tai-p'ing Rehelli01l-Tbe War lVaT with Japan
'With Japan
-The atte1npt to
The attempt to dismember
dimze11zber China-The "Open
Cbi1lQ-Tbe "Open
Door"-The E11zpress Dowager-The
DooT"-Tbe Empress Dowager-The reforms
reforms
of Kuang
of Kwmg HsuHsu-His re1noval from
His removal power
fro111 po'wer
-The "Boxerr"-The l'nde111nity
"Boxers"-The Indemnity

T
npHOSE
JL
HOSE forces
forces took
took the
vitaIized and
vitalized
the form of
of the
rejuvenated by
and rejuvenated
the Industrial
the discovery
by the
Revolution. A Europe
Industrial Revolution.
of mechanical
discovery of
Europe
power and
mechanical power
its
its application to
application to ever-multiplying machinery, found itself capable
ever-multiplying machinery, itself capable of
of pro-
pro-
ducing
ducing goods more cheaply
goods more cheaply than than any
any nation
nation oror continent that still
continent that still relied
relied on

handicrafts; it
handicrafts; it was unable
unable to to dispose of all these
dispose of all
these machine products
products to its its

own population, because

because it
it paid itsits \\~orkers
workers somewhat less
less than the full full
population, paid
value
value ofof their labor; it
their labor; it was forced
forced to to seek
seek foreign
foreign markets
markets for the surplus,
surplus,
and
and was driven, by imperialist
was driven, by imperialist necessity, to conquer the
necessity, to conquer the \vorid.
world. Under the the
compulsions of invention and circumstance
compulsions of invention and circumstance the the nineteenth
nineteenth century
century became
aa world-wide
world-wide dramadrama of conflict betWeen
of conflict between thethe old,
old, mature and and fatigued
fatigued
civilizations
civilizations of handicraft Asia,
of handicraft Asia, and the young,
and the young, jejune,
jejune,
and invigorated
invigorated
civilizations of
civilizations of industrial
industrial Europe.
Europe.
The Commercial
Commercial Revolution
Revolution of of Columbus'
Columbus' time time cleared
cleared the routes and and
prepared
prepared the
the way
way for
for the
the Industrial
Industrial Revolution.
Revolution. Discoverers
Discoverers refound
refound old old
lands, opened
lands, opened up up new ports,
ports,
and
and brought
brought to
to the
the ancient
ancient cultures
cultures the
the novel
novel
products
products and ideas of
and ideas of the West. Early
the 'Vest. Early inin the
the sixteenth
sixteenth century
century the the ad-
ad-
venturous
venturous Portuguese,
Portuguese, having
having established themselves in India,
established themselves in India, captured
captured
Malacca,
Malacca, sailed around the
sailed around the Malay
Malay Peninsula,
Peninsula, and
and arrived
arrived with
with their
their pic-
pic-
turesque ships
turesque ships and
and terrible
terrible guns
guns at
at Canton
Canton (15 1 7). "Truculent
(1517). "Truculent and and law-
law-
less, little if
less, regarding all Eastem peoples as legitimate prey, they were were little if any
any
regarding all Eastern peoples as legitimate prey, they
better than
better than ..• pirates";l and the natives
natives treated
treated them as
as such.
such. Their
Their rep-
1
. . .
pirates"; and the them rep-
resentatives
resentatives were
were imprisoned, their demands for
imprisoned, their demands
for free
free trade
trade were
were refused,
refused,
and their settlements were
and their settlements were periodicallyperiodically cleansed
cleansed with
with massacres
massacres by
by thethe
80
8033
804
804 STORY OF CIVILIZATION
THE STOR'Y (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXVII

frightened
frightened and and infuriated
infuriated Chinese.
Chinese. But But in in return
return for their aid
for their aid against
against other
other
pirates, the
pirates,
the Portuguese
PortUguese \\"ere rewarded in
were re\varded 1557 by'
in 1557 receiving from Peking
by receiving Peking
full
full liberty to
liberty
to settle
settle in
in ~Iacao,
Macao, and
and to
to gO\7em
govern
it
it as their
as their own.
own. There
There they
they
built great
built opium factories, employing
great opium factories, employing men, men, \vomen
women and
and children;
children; one fac-
fac-

tory alone
tory alone paidpaid to to the
the Portuguese provincial government a revenue of
Portuguese provincial government
a revenue of
s
$1,560,000
$1,560,000 per per year.
year.
8

Then came came the the Spanish, conquering the

Spanish, conquering
the Philippines
Philippines (1571),
(157 1), and setting
setting
themselves up
themselves up in the Ghinese
in the Chinese island
island ofof Formosa;
Formosa; then
then the
the Dutch;
Dutch; then,
then, in
in

1637, five
1637, five English vessels sailed up the river to
English vessels sailed up the river
to Canton,
Canton, silenced
silenced with su- su-
a
perior
perior guns
guns the
the batteries
batteries that
that opposed
opposed them,them, and
and disposed
disposed of
of their
their cargo.
cargo.
3

The
The Ponuguese
Portuguese taught the Chinese to smoke and buy tobacco, and,' early
taught the Chinese to smoke and buy tobacco, and, early
1

in the eighteenth
in the century, began the importation of
eighteenth century, began the importation
of opium
opium from India India into
into
China.
China. The The Chinese
Chinese Government
Government forbade forbade its use by
its use
by thethe people,
people, but but thethe
habit became
habit became so so widespread
widespread that
that the
the annual
annual consumption
consumption of
of the drug in
the drug in
China
China had had raised
raised its import to ~ooo
its import to 4,000 chests
chests by by the year 1795.-
the year 1795.* The Gov-
ernment prohibited its
ernment prohibited its importation in
importation in that year,
that year, and
and reiterated
reiterated the
the prohi-
prohi-
bition in
bition 1800, appealing
in 1800,
appealing to
to importers
importers and
and population
population alike
alike against
against the the
weakening of national
weakening of national vitality by vitality by this
this powerful
powerful opiate. opiate. The trade
trade pro-
pro-
ceeded briskly despite
ceeded briskly despite
these
these discouragements;
discouragements; the
the Chinese
Chinese were
were as
as anxious
anxious
to buy
to buy as the Europeans
as the
Europeans were were eager
eager to
to sell,
sell, and
and the
the local:
local officials
officials gratefully
gratefully
pocketed
pocketed the
the bribes
bribes connected
connected with
with the
the trade.
trade.

In
In 1838
1838 the the Peking
Peking Government
Government ordered ordered the strict enforcement
the strict enforcement of of the
the
edict
edict against the importation of opium, and aa vigorous
against the importation of opium, and
vigorous official,
official, Lin
Lin Tze-
Tze-
hsii, commanded the foreign
hsii, commanded the foreign importers importers at
at Canton
Canton to
to surrender
surrender such
such quan-
quan-
tities as
tities they held
as they held in in their
their stores.
stores. When they they refused
refused he
he surrounded
surrounded the
the
foreign
foreign quarters, forced them to turn
quarters, forced them to
turn over
over to to him 20,000 chests
him 2,0,000 chests ofof the
the drug,
drug,
and,
and, in
in a
a kind
kind of
of Canton
Canton Opium Party,
Opium Party, destroyed destroyed the
the contents
contents com-
com-
pletely. The British
pletely.
British withdrew
withdrew to to Hong
Hong Kong,Kong, and began
and began the First "Opium
the First
"Opium
War."
War." They protested
They protested that
that it
it was
was not
not an
an opium
opium war; war; that
that their
their anger
anger waswas
rather at
rather the insolent
at the insolent pride
pride with
with which
which the the Chinese
Chinese Government
Government had had re-re-
ceived-or
ceivedor refused refused to to receive-their
receive their representatives,
representatives,
and
and at
at the
the impediments,
impediments,
in the form
in the form of of severe
severe taxation
taxation !lJ1d
and corrupt
corrupt courts, which Chinese
courts, which Chinese law law and
and
custom
custom had had raised
raised against
against an
an orderly import
orderly import trade.
trade. They bombarded
They bombarded those
those
cities
cities ofof China
China which
which they they could
could reach
reach from
from the
the coast,
coast, andand compelled
compelled
peace by capturing
peace by capturing control, control, at
at Chinkiang,
Chinkiang, of
of the
the Grand
Grand Canal.
Canal. The Treaty
Treaty
•* The meaning
meaning of this may be felt by recalling that
of this may be felt by recalling that a vest-pocket package
a vest-pocket package of
of opium
opium
costs $30.'
COltS $30.*
 CHAP. XXVII)
CHAP.XXVIl) R E\"O L t; T I 0 ~ A
REVOLUTION ~ D R ENE \V A L
AND RENEWAL 80S
805

of Nanking avoided
of Nanking avoided all all mention
mention of of opium, ceded the island of Hong Kong
opium, ceded the island of Hong Kong
to the
to the British,
British, forced
forced Chinese
Chinese tariffs
tariffs do\vn
down to to five
five per cent, opened five
per cent, opened five
"treaty pons" (Canton, Amoy,
"treaty ports" (Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo Foocho\v, Ningpo and
and Shanghai)
Shanghai) to to
foreIgn levied upon China
trade, levied
foreign trade, upon China an an indemnity
indemnity to to cover
cover thethe cost
cost ofof the
the war
war
and the destroyed
and the destroyed opium,opium, and
and stipulated
stipulated
that
that British
British citizens
citizens in
in China,
China, when
when
accused
accused of violating laws,
of violating laws, should
should be be tried
tried and judged only
and judged only by by British
British
1S
8
courts.
courts. Other Other countries, including
countries, including the
the United
United States
States and
and France,
France, askedasked
and
and obtained
obtained the the application
application of of these
these "extra-territorial rights" to
"extra-territorial rights" to their
their
traders and
traders nationals in
and nationals in China.
China.
This
This war war was
was the the beginning
beginning of of the
the disintegration of the ancient regime.
disintegration of the ancient regime.
The Government
Government had had lost
lost "face"
"face" in in its
its dealings with with Europeans;
Europeans; it it had'
had
dealings
first
first scorned,
scorned, then then defied,
defied, thenthen .yielded; and no courtly phrases could
.yielded; and no courtly phrases
could con-con-
.ceal the facts
ceal the facts from educated natives
from educated natives or or gloating foreigners.
gloating foreigners. At once
once the
the
authority
authority of the Government
of the Government was was weakened
weakened whereverwherever the the newsnews of of its
its

defeat penetrated, and

defeat penetrated, forces that
and forces that might
might have
have held
held their
their peace
peace broke
broke out
out
now in in open rebellion against
open rebellion Peking. In
against Peking. 1843 an
In 1843 an enthusiast
enthusiast named Hung Hung
Hsiu-ch'iian,
Hsiu-ch'iian, after after a a brief
brief acquaintance with
acquaintance with Protestantism,
Protestantism, and
and some
some vi-
vi-

sions,
sions, came
came to
to the
the conclusion that he had
conclusion that he had been chosen by been chosen by God to
to rid
rid China
China
of
of idolatry
idolatry and
and convert
convert it to
it to Christianity. Beginning with this modest
Christianity. Beginning with this
modest pur- pur-
pose, Hung
pose, Hung finally finally led
led a
a movement
movement to
to overthrow
overthrow the
the Manchus
Manchus and
and estab-
estab-
lish
lish a
dynasty the T'ai
a new dynasty-the P'i'1lg, or
T*oi Ping, or Great
Great Peace.
Peace. His followers, actuated
His followers, actuated
partly by religious fanaticism,
partly by religious fanaticism, pardy by partly by desire
desire to
to reform
reform China
China on
on West-
West-
ern
ern lines, fought valiandy,
lines, fought valiantly, smashed
smashed idols, slaughtered Chinese,
idols, slaughtered Chinese, destroyed
destroyed
many
many old
old libraries
libraries and and academies
academies and
and the
the porcelain
porcelain works
works at
at Ching-te-
Ching-te-
chen,
chen, captured
captured Nanking,Nanking, held
held it for
it for twelve
twelve years
years (1853-65),
(1853-65), marched
marched on
on
Peking
Peking while
while their
their leader
leader wallowed
wallowed in
in luxury
luxury and
and safety
safety behind
behind them,
them,
broke into
broke into disorder because of
disorder because of incompetent generalship,
incompetent generalship, were
were defeated,
defeated,
and fell
and back intointo the
the indiscriminate
indiscriminate ocean ocean of of Chinese humanity.' 4
fell back Chinese humanity.
In midst of
the midst
In the this dangerous T'ai-p~ing Rebellion
of this Government was
the Government was
dangerous T'ai-p!ing Rebellion the
called upon to
called upon to defend itself against Europe in
defend itself in the
the Second
Second "Opium War"
against Europe "Opium
(1856-60). Great
(1856-60). Great Britain,
Britain, supported
supported in
in varying
varying degrees by France
degrees by France and and
the United
die United States,
States, demanded
demanded the
the legalization
legalization of
of the
the opium
opium traffic
traffic (which
(which
had continued,
had continued, despite prohibitions,
despite prohibitions,
between
between the
the wars),
wars), access
access to
to more
more
cities,
cities, and
and the
the honorable
honorable admission
admission of
of Western
Western envoys
envoys to
to the
the court
court at
at
Peking. the Chinese refused, 'the
Peking. When the Chinese refused,
the French
French and and English captured Can-
English captured Can-
ton,
ton, sent
sent its
its Viceroy
Viceroy in
in chains
chains to
to India,
India, took
took the
the forts
forts at
at Tientsin,
Tientsin, ad-
ad-
vanced upon
vanced upon the the capital,
capital,
and
and destroyed
destroyed the the Summer Palace in
Palace in revenge
revenge for for
806
806 THEE STO
TH STORY
R. Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F eI VI LI ZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXVII

the
the torture
torture and and execution
execution of of Allied emissaries in
Allied emissaries in Peking.
Peking. The victors victors
forced
forced uponupon the the defeated
defeated a a treaty that opened ten new ports
treaty that opened ten ports and the Yang-
and the Yang-
tze
tze River
River to to foreign trade, arranged
foreign trade, arranged for
for the
the reception
reception of
of European
European and and
American
American ministers
ministers and and ambassadors
ambassadors on on terms
terms of of equality
equality with with China,
China,
guaranteed
guaranteed toleration
toleration of
of missionaries
missionaries and
and traders
traders in
in every
every part of the
part of the
country, removed missionaries from
country, removed missionaries from the jurisdiction the jurisdiction of
of Chinese
Chinese officials,
officials,

further
further freed
freed \Vestern nationals from
Western nationals from the the operation
operation of
of Chinese
Chinese laws,
laws, ceded
ceded
to
to Great
Great Britain
Britain a a strip
strip
of
of the
the mainland
mainland opposite
opposite Hong Kong, legalized the
Hong Kong, legalized the
importation
importation of of opium,
opium, and and charged
charged China China with with anan indemnity
indemnity to to pay
pay forfor
the
the cost
cost ofof her tuition in
her tuition in Occidental
Occidental ways. ways.
Encouraged
Encouraged by by their
their easy victories, the
easy victories, the European
European nations
nations proceeded
proceeded to to
help
help themselves
themselves to
to one
one piece
piece of
of China
China after
after another.
another. Russia
Russia took
took the
the terri-
terri-

tory
tory north
north of of the
the Amur and and east
east of of the
the Ussuri
Ussuri River (1858); the
River (1858); the French'
French
1

revenged
revenged the
the death
death of
of a
a missionary by appropriating
missionary by appropriating Indo-China
Indo-China (1860);
(1860);
Japan
Japan pounced
pounced upon upon herher neighbor
neighbor and and civilizer
civilizer in in aa sudden
sudden war war (1894),
(1894),
defeated
defeated her her in a year,
in a year, took
took Formosa,
Formosa, liberated
liberated KoreaKorea fromfrom China
China for for later
later

(1910) absorption
(1910) absorption by Japan, by Japan, and
and charged
charged China
China an
an indemnity
indemnity of
of $170,-
$170,-
000,000 for
000,000 for causing
causing so
so much trouble."
trouble.
7
On condition
condition that
that China
China pay
pay an an
additional
additional indemnity
indemnity to
to Japan,
Japan, Russia
Russia prevented
prevented Japan Japan from
from also
also taking
taking
the Liaotung
the Peninsula, ,vhich
Liaotung Peninsula, three years
which three years later
later Russia
Russia tooktook over
over andand forti-
forti-
fied
fied as her own.
as her own. The murdermurder of missionaries by
of two missionaries by Chinese
Chinese enabled
enabled Ger-
Ger-
many
many to
to seize
seize the
the peninsula
peninsula of
of Kiaochow (1898).
(1898). The realm
realm of
of the once
the once
po\\~erful government
powerful government ,vas
was divided
divided into
into "spheres
"spheres of
of influence,"
influence," in
in which
which
one or
one or another
another European
European power power secured
secured special privileges for mining and
special privileges for mining and
trade. Alarmed by
trade. Alarmed the prospects
by the prospects of of anan actual
actual partition,
partition, Japan,
Japan, foreseeing
foreseeing
her own later
her later need
need of of China, joined
China, joined with
with America
America in
in a
a demand for
demand for an an
"Open Door": that
"Open Door": that is, that
is, that while
while certain
certain "spheres
"spheres of of interest"
interest" might
might be be
recognized,
recognized, all
all nations
nations should
should be
be allowed
allowed to
to trade
trade in
in China
China on
on equal
equal
terms
terms
-tariffs and transport
tariffs and transport charges
charges to to be
be thethe same
same for all. To put
for all. herself in
put herself in a a
proper position
proper position for
for bargaining
bargaining in
in these
these matters,
matters, the
the United
United States
States took
took over
over
the Philippines
the Philippines (1898),
(1898), and and declared
declared by this act
by this aet her
her intention
intention to to share
share in in
the struggle
the struggle for for Chinese
Chinese trade.
trade.
l\leanwhile another
Meanwhile another andand simultaneous
simultaneous act act ofof the
the drama
drama was was being
being played
played
behind palace walls in Peking.
behind palace walls in Peking. When the the Allies
Allies entered
entered the the capital
capital in in
triumph
triumph at
at the
the close
dose of
of the
the Second
Second "Opium
"Opium War" (1860),
(1860), the
the young
young em-
em-
peror, Hsien
peror, Hsien Feng,
Feng, fled
fled toto Jehol;
Jehol; there,
there, aa yearyear later,
later, he he died,
died, leaving
leaving the toe
throne to
throne to his
his five-year-old
five-year-old son. SOD. The secondarysecondary wife wife who who had had been
been the the
mother of
mother this boy
of this boy took
took thethe reins
reins ofof empire
empire in in her
her own
own hands,hands, and
and as Tz'u
as Tz'it
CHAP. XX"I!)
CHAP.XXVIl) REVOLUTION
REV 0 L UTI 0 X A ~ D REX
AND E \\" .~ L
RENEWAL 807
807
Hsi-kno\vn
Hsi-known to to thethe \vorId
world as as the
the "Do\\·ager Empress"*-go\gemed China
"Dowager Empress"*~governed China
ruthlessly, cynically
ruthlessly, cynically and and well
well for for a a generation. In her )·outh she had ruled
generation. In her youth she had ruled
by beauty;
by beauty; now she
she ruled
ruled by
by her
her \vits
wits and
and her
her will. \\Yhen
,vill. When the son con-
the son con-
veniendy approaching his
veniently died on approaching his majority (1875),
majority (1875), the the Empress, careless
died on
Empress, careless
of
of precedent
precedent and objection,
objection, placed placed another
another minor-Kuang
minor-Kuang Hsu-on
Hsu-on the
the
throne,
throne, and continued
continued to
to rule.
rule. For
For a
a generation, with the help
generation, with the help of clever
of cle\t'er
statesmen
statesmen like like Li
Li Hung-chang, the
Hung-chang, the doughty
doughty Empress
Empress kept China at peace
kept China at peace
and
and won for for itit a a cenain
certain respect from the predatory Powers. But the
respect from the predatory Powers, But the
sudden invasion
invasion of of China
China by by Japan, and the rapid series of rene\ved
Japan, and the rapid series of renewed
spoliations by
spoliations by EuropeEurope after
after the
the triumph
triumph of of the
the Japanese, caused a strong
Japanese, caused a strong
movement to to rise
rise in in the
the capital in favor of imitating Japan's imitation of
capital in favor of imitating Japan's imitation of
the organizing large army, railroads and factories,
the West-i.e.,
West i.e., for for organizing a large
a army, building
building railroads and factories,
and striving
and striving to acquire
to acquire the the industrial
industrial wealth wealth \\rith
with \vhich
which Japan Japan and and Europe
Europe
had financed
financed their
their victories.
victories. The Empress and
Empress and her
her advisers
advisers opposed
opposed this
this
tendency with all their influence,
tendency with all their influence, but but itit secretly ,von the adherence of
secretly won the adherence of
Kuang
Kuang Hsu,
Hsu, who had
had now been
been permitted
permitted to
to ascend
ascend the
the throne
throne as
as emperor
emperor
in his own right. Suddenly Kuang, without
in his consulting "Old Buddha" (as
right. Suddenly Kuang, without consulting "Old Buddha" (as
her
her court
court called
called the the Empress),
Empress), issued issued to to the
the Chinese
Chinese people (1898) a series
people (1898) a series
of
of astonishing
astonishing decrees
decrees which,
which, if
if they
they could
could have
have been
been accepted and en-
accepted and en-
forced, would have
forced, would have advanced
advanced China China vigorously
vigorously and and yet peaceably on
yet peaceably on the
the
road to
road to Westernization,
Westernization, and might have
and might averted the
have averted the fallfall ofof the
the dynasty
dynasty
and the
and the collapse
collapse of the nation
of the nation into into chaos
chaos and misery. The
and misery. The youngyoung emperor
emperor
ordered the
ordered the establishment
establishment of of a a new systemsystem of of schools,
schools, to to teach
teach not not only
only
the old
the old Confucian
Confucian Classics,Classics, but but the the scientific
scientific culture
culture of of the West; the
the West; the
translation into
translation Chinese of
into Chinese all the
of all the important
important worksworks of of Occidental science,
Occidental science,
literature and
literature and technology;
technology; the the encouragement
encouragement of of railroad
railroad building;
building; and and thethe
reform of
reform of the army and
the army and the navy with
the navy with aa definite
definite view'''iew to to meeting
meeting the the
"crisis,"
"crisis," as
as he
he put
put it, it, "where
"where we are
are beset
beset on
on all
all sides
sides by po\verful
by powerful
neighbors
neighbors who craftily
craftily seek
seek advantage
advantage from
from us,
us, and
and who are
are trying to
trying to
8
combine together
combine together in in overpowering
overpowering us." us."· The Dowager
Dowager Empress, Empress, shocked
shocked
what seemed
by what
by seemed to to her
her the precipitate radicalism
the precipitate radicalism of of these
these edicts,
edicts, impris-
impris-
oned Kuang Hsu
oned Kuang Hsu in in one
one of of thethe imperial
imperial palaces,
palaces, annulled
annulled his his decrees,
decrees, and and
made
made herself
herself again
again the
the government
government of
of China.
China.
reaction now set
A reaction set inin against
against all all Western
Western ideas,
ideas, and and the subde Dow-
the subtle
ager
ager diverted
diverted it
it amiably
amiably to
to her
her purposes.
purposes.
An organization
organization known as the
as the
Ho CJb'z^-literally
1I Ho Cb'uan-literally "Righteous uRighteous Harmony Harmony Fists," historically the
Fists," historically "Box-
the "Box-
• A dowager
*
dowager
A is aa widow
is widow endowed-usually
endowed-usually with
with aa tide
title coining
coming down
down to her from
to her her
from her
dead husband.
dead husband.
808
8o8 THE STORY
THE OF CIVILIZATION
S TOR Y OF CIVIL I ZA T ION (CHAP. XXVII
(CHAP. XXVII

ers"-had been
ers"-had been formed
formed by some rebels
by some rebels who wished
wished toto overthrow
overthrow thethe
Empress and her dynasty. She persuaded its
Empress and her dynasty. She persuaded
its leaders
leaders to
to turn fury of
the fury
turn the of
their movement
their movement against invading
invading foreigners
against
foreigners rather
rather than
than against
against herself.
herself.
The Boxers
The Boxers accepted
accepted the
the mission,
mission, called
called for
for the
the expulsion
expulsion of all aliens
of all aliens
from China, and,
from China, and, in aa frenzy
in frenzy ofof patriotic
patriotic virtue,
virtue, began.
began. toto kill
kill Christians
Christians
indiscriminately in many sections
indiscriminately in many sections of
of the
the country (1900).
country (1900). Allied
Allied soldiers
soldiers

again marched on Peking, this time to

again inarched on Peking, this time
to protect
protect their
their nationals hiding in
nationals hiding in
terror in the
terror in the narrow
narrow quarters
quarters ofof the
the foreign
foreign Legations.
Legations. The Empress
Empress and and
her court
her court fled
fled to
to Hsianfu,
Hsianfu, andand thethe troops
troops of of England,
England, France,
France, Russia,
Russia,
Germany, Japan
Germany, Japan and
and the
the United
United States
States sacked
sacked the
the city,
city, killed
killed many
many Chi-Chi-
nese in revenge, and looted or
nese in revenge, and looted or ruined ruined valuable
valuable property.·
property.* The Allies
Allies im-
im-
posed upon the broken Leviathan an indemnity of
posed upon the broken Leviathan an indemnity
of $330,000,000,
$330,000,000, to to be
be col-
col-
lected by European
lected by European control
control of
of Chinese
Chinese import
import customs
customs and
and the
the salt
salt mo-
mo-
nopoly.
nopoly.
Considerable
Considerable portions
portions
of
of this
this indemnity
indemnity were later
were later remitted
remitted to to
China by
China the United
by the United States,
States, Great
Great Britain,
Britain, Russia
Russia andand Japan,
Japan, usually
usually
with the
with the stipulation
stipulation that the remitted
that the remitted sumssums bebe spent
spent inin educating
educating students
students
from China in
from China in the
the universities
universities of the remitting
of the remitting nation*
nation. ItIt was
was aa gesture
gesture ofof
generosity, which
which proved more
more effective in
effective the
in the undoing
undoing of
of old
old China
China
generosity, proved
than almost
than almost anyany other
other single
single
factor
factor in
in this historic
this historic and tragic conffiet
and tragic conflict ofof
East
East and West.
and West

II.
H. THE DEATH OF A CIVILIZATION

The l'f!'lmmity
The Indemnity students-Their
students Their Westemization-Their
Westernization Their disintegra-
dismtegra-
tive
tive effect
effect in
in China-The
China The ,dle
rdle of
of the missionary Sun Yat-sen,
the missi01JllTY-SU'lJ Yat-sen, the
the
Christitm-His
Christian-His Y01J,thful
youthful adventures-His
adventures His meeting
meeting with Li Hung-
with Li Hung-
chtmg-His plans
changHis plans for for Il
a re'lJolution--Their
revolution^-Their S1J,Ccess-Y1JIl1l,
success-Yuan Shi-
Shi-
k'ai-Tbe death of SU'lJ Yat-sen-Chaos rmd
k'ai-The death of Sun Yat-sen-Chaos and pillage Com- pillage-Com-
'f1lZl1lism-"The
munism-"The north north pacified" -Chitmg Kai-shek-J
pacified"-Chiang Kai-shek JapanIlpan
m Manchuria-At
in Manchuria-At Sbtmghai
Shanghai
*

These
These "indemnity
"indemnity stUdents"
students" and
and thousands
thousands of
of others left China
others now left China
to
to explore the civilization
civilization of its conquerors. Many went
its to England,
explore the of conquerors* Many went to England, more
more
to Germany,
to Germany, more
more to America, more to Japan;
to America, more to every year
Japan; every year hundreds
hundreds ofof
them
them were
were graduated
graduated from
from the
the universities
universities of
of America
America alone.
alone. They
They came
came

•* Captain
Captain Brlnldey writes: "It
Brinldey writes: sends a thrDl
"It sends thrill of
of horror through every
horror through every white man's bosom
white man's bosom
to
to learn that forty
learn that forty missionary
missionary women and and twenty-five
twenty-five little
little children
children were butchered by
were butchered by
the
the Boxers. But in
Boxers. But in Tungchow
Tungchow alone,
alone, a city where
a city where the
the Chinese
Chinese made no no resistance,
resistance, and
and
where there
there was no fighting,
was DO fighting, five hundred
five hundred and and seventy-three
seventy-three Chinese
Chinese women
women of of the
die
upper
upper classes
classes committed
committed suicide rather than
suicide rather than survive
survive the
the indignities they had
indignities they had suffered'"
suffered"*
CHAP. XXVII)
CHAP.XXVIl) REV 0 L t: T I 0 ~ A
REVOLUTION AND
XD R E :s E 'V A L
RENEWAL 809
809

at
at an early
early and impressionable
impressionable age, before they had matured to the point
age, before they had matured to the point
of understanding
of understanding the depth
the depth and
and values
values of
of their
their o'vn national culture.
own national culture.
They
They drank
drank in
in with
with gratitude
gratitude and
and admiration
admiration the
the novel
novel education
education given
given in in
the science,
the methods, history
science, methods, history and
and ideas
ideas of
of the
the 'Vest; they
West; they were
were amazed
amazed at
at
the ~omforts and
the qomforts and vigorous
vigorous life life they saw
they saw about them, the
about them, freedom of
the freedom of the
the
Western individual,
individual, and
and the
the enfranchisement
enfranchisement of
of the
the people.
people. They
They studied
studied
philosophy, lost
Western philosophy, faith in
lost faith in the
the religion of
of their
their fathers,
fathers, andand enjoyed
religion enjoyed
the position
the position of of respectable
respectable radicals
radicals encouraged
encouraged by by their
their educators
educators and
and
their environment in
their new environment in their
their rebellion against all the elements in the
rebellion against all the elements in the
civilization
civilization of of their native land.
their native Year by
land. Year year
by year thousands
thousands of
of such
such deraci-
deraci-
nated youths
nated youths returned
returned to to China,
China, fretted
fretted against
against thethe slow tempo and
slow tempo and ma-
ma-
terial backwardness
terial backwardness of of their
their country,
country, and sowed in
and sowed every city
in every the seeds
city the seeds
of inquiry
of inquiry and
and revolt.
revolt.

An endless
endless chain
chain of of circumstances
circumstances helped helped them.them. For For twotwo generations
generations
the merchants
the merchants and and missionaries
missionaries who had had conquered
conquered China
China from
from the
the West
had acted,
had willingly
acted, willingly or
or not,
not, as
as centers
centers of
of foreign infection; they had
foreign infection; they had lived
lived
in
in aa style,
style, and
and with
with suchsuch comforts
comforts and and conveniences,
conveniences, as made the
as made the young
young
Chinese
Chinese about
about them
them anxious
anxious to to adopt
adopt so
so promising a
a civilization;
promising civilization; they they hadhad
undermined, in
undermined, in an
an active
active minority,
minority, the the religious faith that had supponed
religious faith that had supported
the old
the moral code;
old moral they
code; they had set
set one
one generation
generation against another
against another by by advo-
advo-
cating
cating the
the abandonment
abandonment of
of ancestor
ancestor worship;
worship; and
and though they preached a
though they preached a
gentle
gentle Jesus
Jesus meek
meek and
and mild,
mild, they
they were
were protected
protected in
in emergencies
emergencies by gunsby guns
whose size
whose and efficacy
size and efficacy offeredoffered thedie dominating
dominating lesson lesson of Europe to
of Europe to the
the
Orient.
Orient. Christianity,
Christianity, which which had been in
had been its origin an
in its uprising of
origin an uprising of the
die op-
op-
pressed,
pressed,
became
became once
once more,
more, in
in these
these Chinese
Chinese converts,
converts, a
a ferment
ferment of
of revolu-
revolu-
tion.
tion.

One of the convd

converts was a tenant fanner Canton. In
near CantOIL 1866 this
In 1866
10
of the a tenant farmer near this
simple peasant
simple peasant
became
became the
the father
father of of a
a troublesome
troublesome boy
boy whom the
the world,
world,
with no
with no conscious
conscious sarcasm,
sarcasm, would later later christen
christen Sun Yat-sen-Le., Sun,
Sun Yat-sen-ie., Sun,
the Fairy
the Fairy of
of Tranquillity.
Tranquillity. Sun became
became so
so Christian
Christian that
that he
he defaced
defaced the
the
images of the
images of the gods gods in
in the
the temple
temple of
of his
his native
native village.
village.
An older brother,
older brother,
who had migrated to
had migrated to Hawaii, brought the
Hawaii, brought the boyboy toto Honolulu
Honolulu and placed him
and placed him
in
in a
a school
school conducted
conducted by
by an
an Anglican
Anglican bishopbishop and.
and offering
offering a
a thoroughly
thoroughly
ll
Occidental
Occidental education.
education. Returning
31

Returning to
to China,
China, Sun entered
entered the
the British
British Medical
Medical
College,
College,
and
and became
became its first
its first Chinese
Chinese graduate. Largely
graduate. Largely as
as a
a result
result of
of these
these
studies he lost all religious
studies he lost all religious faith;" faith;u and
and at
at the
the same
same time
time the
the indignities
indignities to
to
which he
which found himself
he found himself and and hishis fellow
fellow Chinese
Chinese subjected
subjected at at the
the foreign-
foreign-
controlled customs
controlled customs offices
offices and
and in
in the
the foreign quarters
foreign quarters of
of the
the treaty
treaty ports
ports
810
8lO THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
( CHAP. XXVII

turned
turned his
his thoughts
thoughts to
to revolution.
revolution. The inability
inability
of
of a
a corrupt
corrupt and
and reaction-
reaction-
ary
ary government
government to
to prevent
prevent the
the defeat
defeat of
of great China by little Japan, or the
great China by little Japan, or the
commercial
commercial partition of the country by European pO\\Ters, filled him with
partition of the country by European powers, filled with
humiliation
humiliation and and resentment,
resentment, and and made him him feel that the
feel that first step in
the first in the
the
step
liberation
liberation of of China
China must
must be be the
the overthrow
overthrow of of the
the Manchu dynasty.
dynasty.
His
His first
first move was characteristic of
was characteristic of his self-confidence, his
his self-confidence, his idealism,
idealism, and and
his
his simplicity. He boarded
simplicity. boarded a
a steamer
steamer and
and traveled
traveled sixteen
sixteen hundred
hundred miles
miles

north, at
north, at his own e~llense,
his O\vn
expense, to to lay
lay before
before Li Li Hung-chang,
Hung-chang, vice-regent
vice-regent of of
the
the Empress Do\vager,
Empress Dowager, his
his plans
plans
for
for refonning
reforming the
the country
country and
and restoring
restoring
its prestige. Refused
its prestige. Refused a a hearing,
hearing, Sun Sun began
began a lifetime of
a lifetime of adventure
adventure and and
wandering
wandering in in the
the quest
quest of of funds
funds for for a a Chinese
Chinese revolution.
revolution. He won the the
suppon
support of
of many
many mercantile
mercantile guilds
guilds
and
and powerful
powerful secret
secret societies,
societies, whose
whose
leaders
leaders were
were envious
envious of of the
the imperial
imperial aristocracy, and longed for
aristocracy, and longed
for a a govern-
govern-
ment in in which
which the the ne,v
new manufacturing
manufacturing and
and trading
trading classes
classes would
would play
play a a
role
role commensurate
commensurate \vith with their
their rising
rising
wealth.
wealth. Then he
he traveled
traveled overseas
overseas to
to
America and and Europe,
Europe, gathering
gathering modest
modest sums sums from
from a a million
million laundrymen
laundrymen
and
and a a thousand
thousand ChineseChinese merchants.
merchants. In In London
London the the Chinese Legation il-
Chinese Legation il-

legally
legally arrested
arrested him,
him, and
and was about
about to
to send
send him
him secretly
secretly to
to China
China in
in chains
chains
as to his a missionary
taught him
as aa traitor
traitor to his go\remment,
government, \yhen when a missionary \vhowho had had taught him inin
his Y'outh aroused
his youth aroused the the British
British Government to him. For
rescue him.
to rescue fifteen years
For fifteen years
more he
more he passed
passed fromfrom city
city to
to city
city over
over the
the world,
world, collecting
collecting all
all in
in all
all two
two
half million
and aa half million dollars
dollars for
for thethe Revolution;
Revolution; and
and apparently
apparently he
he spent
spent
almost none of
almost none of this himself. Suddenly,
this money on himself.
money Suddenly, in midst of
the midst
in the of his
his travels,
travels,
a message
a message informed
informed him him that
that the
the revolutionary
revolutionary forcesforces hadhad won the the south,
south,
were winning the
\vere winning the north,
north, andand had chosen him
had chosen him asas Provisional
Provisional President
President of the
of the
Chinese Republic.
Chinese Republic. A few weeks later
weeks later he landed in
he landed in triumph at
triumph at Hong Hong
Kong,
Kong, where,
where, twenty years
twenty years back,
back, he
he had
had been
been humiliated
humiliated by
by the
the British
British
officials of
officials of the
the port.
port.
Empress Dowager
The Empress Dowager had had died
died in in 1908, having arranged
1908, having arranged the the death
death
of the
of the imprisoned
imprisoned emperor emperor KuangKuang Hsu the the day
day before.
before. She She was was suc-
suc-
ceeded by
ceeded by Kuang's
Kuang's nephew,
nephew, P'u y~ now Emperor
P'u Yi, Emperor of of Manchukuo.
Manchukuo. In In the
the
last years
last years of the great
of the great Dowager
Dowager and and thethe fim
first of
of her
her infant
infant heir,
heir, manymany
reforms in
reforms in the
the direction
direction of of modernizing
modernizing China China were
were effected
effected by by the
the Gov-
Gov-
ernment: railways
ernment: railways were,vere built,
built, chiefly
chiefly with
with foreign
foreign capital
capital andand under
under for- for-
eign management;
eign management; examinations
examinations for for public
public office
office were
were abandoned;
abandoned; aa new new
system
system of
of schools
schools was
was established,
established, a
a National
National Assembly
Assembly was
was called
called for
for
1910,
1910, and
and a
a nine-year program
nine-year program was
was laid
laid down for the gradual establish-
for the gradual establish-
ment of
ment of aa constitutional
constitutional monarchy,
monarchy, culminating
culminating in in universal
universal suffrage
suffrage
growing step
growing step by step by step with
with universal
universal education.
education. The
The decree
decree announcing
announcing
CHAP. L\:VII)
CHAP.XXVU) REVOLUTION
REV 0 L UTI 0 N A:S RENEWAL
ANDD REX E 'V A L 88ll
II

this program
this program added:
added: "Any
"Any impetuosity
impetuosity sho\vn
shown in in introducing
introducing these
these re-
re-
fo~ \vill, in the end, be so much labor lost."~ But the Re\90lution could
13
forms will, in the end, be so labor lost." But the Revolution could
not be
not be halted
halted by by this
this deathbed
deathbed repentance
repentance of of an
an ailing dynasty. On
ailing dynasty.
February 12, 1911,
February 12, 1912, the
the young Emperor,
young Emperor, faced
faced by
by revolt
revolt on
on every
every side
side and
and
finding
finding no
no army \villing
army willing to
to defend
defend him, abdicated;
him, abdicated; and
and the
the Regent,
Regent, his
his

mother, issued
mother, issued one
one of
of the
the most
most characteristic
characteristic edicts
edicts in
in Chinese
Chinese history:
history:

Today
Today the the people
people of
of the
the ,vhole
whole Empire
Empire havehave their
their minds
minds bent
bent

upon Republic.... The ,vill

upon aa Republic will of
of Providence
Providence isis clear,
clear, and the people's
and the people's
plain. How could I, for the sake of the glory
wishes are
wishes are plain. Ho\v could I, for the sake of the glory and and the
the
honor of
honor one family,
of one family, thwart
thwart the
the desire
desire of
of teeming
teeming millions?
millions? \Vhere-
Where-
fore
fore I, with the
I, with the Emperor,
Emperor, decide
decide that
that the
the form
form ofof government
government in in
China
China shall
shall be
be a constitutional republic, to
a constitutional republic,
to eomfon
comfort the
the longing
longing of
of all
all

within the
within the Empire,
Empire, and
and to
to act in harmony
act in harmony ,vith the ancient
with the ancient sages,
sages,
u
regarded the
who regarded the throne
throne asas a public heritage.
a public heritage.
1*

The Revolutionists
Revolutionists behaved behaved magnanimously
magnanimously to to P'u
P'u Yi:Yi: they gave him
they gave him
his life,
his life, a rural palace,
a rural palace, aa comfortable
comfortable annuity,
annuity, and
and a
a concubine.
concubine. The
Manchus
Manchus had come in
had come in like
like lions,
lions, and had gone
and had gone out out like
like lambs.
lambs.
The new republic
repUblic paid paid for its peaceful birth
for its peaceful birth ,vithwith a a stormy
stormy life.
life. Yuan

Shi-kai, a
Shi-kai, a diplomat
diplomat of
of the
the old
old school,
school, possessed
possessed an
an anny
army that
that might have
might have
impeded
impeded the
the Revolution.
Revolution. He demanded
demanded the
the presidency
presidency as
as the
the price
price of
of his
his

support;
support; and and SunSun Yat-sen,
Yat-sen, only beginning to
only beginning to enjoy
enjoy hishis office,
office, yielded
yielded andand
retired magnificently
retired magnificendy to to private
private life.
life. Yuan,
Yuan, encouraged by
encouraged by strong strong financial
financial

groups native and

groups native and foreign,
foreign, plotted
plotted to to make himself
himself emperor
emperor and and toto found
aa new dynasty,
dynasty, on on the
the ground
ground that that only
only inin this way could
this way could the the incipient
incipient
break-up
break-up of
of China
China be
be stayed.
stayed. Sun
Sun Yat-sen
Yat-sen branded
branded him
him as
as aa traitor,
traitor, and
called upon
called upon his
his followers
followers to
to renew
renew the
the Revolution;
Revolution; but
but before
before the
the issue
issue

could
could come
come to to battle
battle Yuan took took sick
sick and
and died.
died.
China
China has has not
not known order order or unity since.
or unity since. Sun Yat-sen
Yat-sen proved
proved too too
idealistic, too
idealistic, too goodgood an
an orator
orator and
and too
too poor a
a statesman,
poor statesman, to
to take
take the
the reins
reins
and
and guide
guide his
his nation
nation to
to peace.
peace. He passed from one
passed plan and theory
one plan theory to to an-
an-
other,
other, offended
offended his
his mid41e-class
middle-class supporters
supporters by by his
his apparent
apparent acceptance of
acceptance of
communism, and retired
communism, and retired to Canton to Canton to
to teach
teach and
and inspire
inspire its
its youth
youth and occa-
occa-
sionally
sionally
to
to rule
rule its people.· China,
its people.* China, left
left without
without a
a government
government that
that allall

sections would recognize,

sections would deprived
recognize, deprived of
of the
the Unifying symbol
unifying symbol of
of the
the mon-
archy, broken of its habit
archy, broken of its
habit of of obedience
obedience to to custom
custom and law, law, and weak
in the patriotism
in the patriotism that that attaches
attaches thethe soul
soul not
not toto aa district but to
district but to the
the country
country
•* He died
died at Peking in
at Peking in 1925, at the
1925, at the most opportune for his
opportune moment for conservative me-
his conservative ene-

miea.
mies.
812
8l2 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXVII
(CHAP. XXVH

as
as a whole, fell
a whole, fell into
into an an intermittent
intermittent war \var of north against'
of north south, of
against south,
of sec-
sec-
tion against
tion section,
against section, of
of property against
property against hunger, hunger, of
of old
old against young.
against young.
Adventurers organized
Adventurers organized annies,armies, ruled
ruled as tuchum over
as tuc],zlns over isolated
isolated provinces,
provinces,
levied their own taxes,
levied their taxes, raised their own opium,lD
raised their opium,"
and
and sallied
sallied forth
forth occa-
occa-
sionally
sionally to
to annex
annex new victims
victims to
to their
their subject population.
subject population. Industry and
Industry and
trade, taxed by one victorious general after
trade, taxed by one victorious general after another, fell into disorderanother, fell into disorder
and
and despair; bandits exacted tribute, stole and killed, and no organized
despair; bandits exacted tribute, stole and killed, and no organized
force
force could
could control
control them.them. 1\1en became soldiers
Men became soldiers or thieves lest
or thieves lest they
they should
should
starve,
starve, and ravaged the
and ravaged the fields
fields ofof men who,\vho, so so despoiled,
despoiled,
became soldiers
became soldiers oror
thieves lest
thieves they should
lest they should starve.
starve. The savingssavings of
of a
a lifetime
lifetime or
or the
the modest
modest
stores
stores ofof a thrifty family
a thrifty family \vere,
were, as as often
often as appropriated by
not, appropriated
as not, by a a general
general
or looted by
or looted by a a robber band. In
robber band. In the province of
the province of Honan alone, alone, in in 193 1, there
193 I, there
were 400,000
were bandits.lI
400,000 bandits"
In
In die midst of
the midst of this
this chaos (1922) Russia
chaos (1911) Russia sent sent twotwo of its ablest
of its ablest diplo-
diplo-
mats, Karakhan
mats, Karakhan and and Joffe,
Joffe, with
with orders
orders to bring China
to bring China into into thethe circle
circle of
of
the Communist
the Communist Revolution.
Revolution. Karakhan prepared the
Karakhan prepared way by
the way surrendering
by surrendering
Russia's
Russia's claims
claims to to "extra-territoriality,"
"extra-territoriality," and and by by signing
signing a treaty that
a treaty that rec-
rec-
ognized
ognized the the full
full authority
authority and and international
international status status of of thethe revolutionary
revolutionary
government.
government. The subtle
subtle Joffe
Joffe found
found little
little difficulty
difficulty in
in converting
converting Sun Sun
Yat-sen to
Yat-sen to sympathy
sympathy with with communism,
communism, for for SunSun had had been rebuffed by
been rebuffed by
every
every other
other po~er.
power. In
In an
an incredibly
incredibly short
short time,
time, with
with the
the help
help of
of seventy
seventy
Soviet
Soviet officers,
officers, a Nationalist army
a new Nationalist army was was formed
formed and trained. Under
and trained. Under
command of of Sun's
Sun's former
former secretary
secretary Chiang
Chiang Kai-shek,
Kai-shek, but guided largely
but guided largely
by
by a
a Russian
Russian adviser,
adviser, 1\1ichael
Michael Borodin,
Borodin, this
this army
army marched
marched northward
northward
from
from Canton,
Canton, conquered
conquered one one city
city after
after another,
another, and finally established
and finally established its its

power
power in Peking.·
in Peking.* In
In the
the moment of
of victory
victory the
the victors
victors divided;
divided; Chiang
Chiang
Kai-shek
Kai-shek attacked
attacked the communist movement in
the communist in Oriental
Oriental style, and estab-
style, and estab-
lished
lished a military dictatorship
a military dictatorship realistically
realistically responsive
responsive to to the
the will
will of of business
business
and
and finance.
finance.

It is
It is as
as difficult
difficult forfor a a nation
nation as as for
for an
an individual
individual to to take
take no no comfort
comfort from from
aa neighbor's
neighbor's misfortune.
misfortune. Japan, Japan, which in the plans
which in the plans of of Sun Vat-sen, was
Sun Yat-sen, was toto
be the
be the friend
friend and and ally
ally of
of China
China against
against the
the West,
West, and
and which
which had
had stimu-
stimu-
lated
lated thethe Chinese
Chinese revoltrevolt by her swift
by her swift andand successful:
successful imitation
imitation of of Europe .
Europe
in
in industry,
industry, diplomacy
diplomacy and war, saw in
and war, in the
the disorder
disorder and weakness of
and weakness of her
her

•* From that time on the

that time city, whose name had
the city, had meant
meant "northern
"northern capital," was renamed
capital," was renamed
Peiping, Le., "the
Peiping, i.e., north pacified";
"the north pacified"; while
while the Nationalist Government,
the Nationalist Government, inin order to be
order to be near
near
its financial sources
its financial sources at Shanghai,
Shanghai, maintained
maintained its
its headquarters at the "southern
"southern capital,"
headquarters at the capital,"
Nanking.
Nanking.
CHAP.xn~I)
CHAP. XXVIl) REVOLUTION ASD
REVOLUTIOS RENEWAL
AND RESE"·AL 813
813

ancient teacher an
ancient teacher an opportunity
opportunity for for SO!'9ing the problems that had arisen
solving the problems that had arisen
out
out of her very
of her very success.
success. For For Japan
Japan couldcould not not discourage
discourage the the gro\\"th
growth of of
her population without
her population without endangering
endangering her
her capacity
capacity
for
for self-defense
self-defense against
against
obviously possible aggression;
obviously possible aggression; she she could
could not not support
support an
an increasing
increasing popu-
popu-
lation unless she
lation unless she developed industry
developed industry and
and trade;
trade; she
she could
could not
not develop
develop
industry without importing
industry without importing iron, iron, coal
coal andand other resources in
other resources in ,vhich
which her her
own soil was deficient,
soil was deficient, nor nor could
could she she develop
develop trade
trade profitably
profitably
unless
unless she
she
had aa large
had large share
share in
in the
the only
only greatgreat market
market left
left free
free by
by the
the European
European
colonization
colonization of the globe.
of the globe. But
But China
China was
was supposedly
supposedly rich
rich in
in iron
iron and
and coal,
coal,
and
and offered,
offered, at
at Japan's door, potentially
Japan's door, potentially the
the greatest
greatest
market
market in
in the
the world.
world.
What nation,
nation, faced
faced withwith thethe apparent
apparent choice benveen returning
choice between returning to to agri-
agri-
culture
culture andand subjection,
subjection, or
or advancing
advancing to
to industrial
industrial imperialism
imperialism and
and con-
con-
quest,
quest, could
could have
have resisted
resisted the
the temptation
temptation to
to snatch
snatch the
the prizes
prizes
of
of pros-
pros-
trate China
trate while the
China while other imperial
the other imperial vultures
vultures were
were tearing
tearing one
one another's
another's
throats on
throats on thethe fields
fields of of France?
France?
So
So Japan,
Japan, soon
soon after
after thethe outbreak
outbreak of of the
the Great
Great War,War, declared
declared herself
herself
at war with
at war with Germany,
Germany, and
and pounced
pounced upon upon the
the Kiaochow
Kiaochow territory which
territory which
Gennany
Germany had had "leased"
"leased" from China sixteen
from China sixteen yearsyears before*
before. Then she she pre-
pre-
sented
sented toto the
the government
government of
of Yuan Shi-kai
Shi-kai "Twenty-One
"Twenty-One Demands"
Demands" \vhich
which
would have
would have made
made China
China a a political
political
and
and economic
economic colony colony of of Japan;
Japan; and and
only
only the
the protest
protest of
of the
the United
United States
States and
and the
the boycott
boycott of
of Japanese
Japanese goods goods
in
in China under the
China under the leadership of its enraged students prevented these
leadership of its enraged students prevented these
commands
commands from from being
being enforced.
enforced. Students
Students wept wept in the streets,
in the streets, or or killed
killed
themselves,
themselves, in
in shame
shame at
at the
the humiliation
humiliation of
of their
their country.lf
country," The Japanese
Japanese
listened with cynical
listened with cynical humor to
to the
the moral
moral indignation
indignation of
of a
a Europe
Europe that that
had been gnawing
had been gnawing at
at China
China for
for half
half a
a cenmry,
century, and
and waited
waited patiently
patiently
for
for another
another opportunity.
opportunity. It It came
came when Europe Europe and America were
and America were en- en-

gulfed in
gulfed the debacle
in the debacle of of an
an imperialist
imperialist industry
industry that that had
had depended
depended upon upon
foreign
foreign markets
markets for
for the
the absorption
absorption of
of "surplus"
"surplus" products unpurchasable
products unpurchasable
by their producers
by their producers at at home.
home. Japan Japan marched
marched into into Manchuria,
Manchuria, set set up the
up the
former emperor
former emperor of
of China,
China, pt
P'u u y~
Yi, :first
first as
as president,
president,
then
then as
as emperor,
emperor, of of
the new
the new state
state ofof Manchukuo,
Manchukuo, and and by political alliance,
by political alliance, economic
economic penetra-
penetra-
tion and
tion military contro~
and military control, placed herself in
placed herself in a a favored position for
favored position for thethe
exploitation
exploitation
of
of Manchuria's
Manchuria's natural
natural resources, employable
resources, employable population population and
commercial possibilities. The European
commercial possibilities. European world, world, which
which had had proposed
proposed a a
moratorium on
moratorium on robbery
robbery after
after it had
it had gathered
gathered in
in all
all available
available spoils, joined
spoils, joined
America feebly
America feebly in
in protests
protests
against
against this
this candid
candid plunder,
plunder, but
but prepare~
prepared, as as

always,
always,
to
to accept victory
accept victory as
as justification
justification
in
in the
die end.
end.
814
814 THE SSTORY
THE TOR Y 0OF CIVILIZATION
F C IV IL IZA T I ON (CHAP.
(CHAP. X:\··VII
XXVII

The final
final humiliation
humiliation came
came atat Shanghai. Angered by the
Shanghai. Angered by the successful
successful
boycott
boycott ofof her
her goods,
goods, Japan
Japan landed
landed her
her undefeated
undefeated troops
troops at
at the
the richest
richest
port
port in
in China,
China, occupied
occupied and
and destroyed
destroyed the
the district
district of
of Chapei,
Chapei, and
and de-
de-
manded thethe restraint of the
restraint of the boycott associations by
boycott associations the Chinese
by the Chinese Govern-
Govern-
ment.
ment. The Chinese
Chinese defended themselves \v·ith
defended themselves with aa ne\v
new heroism,
heroism, and
and the
the
Nineteenth Route .~v
Nineteenth Route from Canton, almost unaided,
Army from Canton, almost unaided, held
held the
the \vell-
well-
equipped
equipped forces
forces of
of Japm;
Japan at
at bay
bay for
for two
two months.
months. The Nanking
Nanking Govern-
Govern-
ment offered
offered aa compromise,
compromise, Japan withdrew from
Japan withdrew from Shanghai,
Shanghai, and
and China,
China,
nursing
nursing its
its ,vounds,
wounds, resolved
resolved to
to build
build from
from the
the bottom
bottom aa new and
and more
more
vigorous civilization, capable
vigorous civilization, capable of
of preserving
preserving and
and defending
defending itself
itself against
against
aa rapacious
rapacious world.
world.

w.
III. BEGI~~INGS
BEGINNINGS OF A NEW ORDER

Change in
CI,mzge in tbe
the village-11z
village-ln tbethe tOtU,~-Tbe factories-Co1l1lnerce-Labor
toim-The factories Commerce Labor
unio'lZs-IVages-
unions WagesThe The 1Z~lJ)
new goveT1rment-Na'tio'nlllism
government Nationalism 'Vs.
vs. Westemization
Westernization
-The
The dethrone111e1lt
dethronement of of Conf'llcius-Tbe
Confucius The reacti01l
reaction agai'llSt
against religion-Tbe
religion The
new 1Jlorality-Jlarriage
morality Marriage in
in trfl7Zsitirm-Birth
transition-Birth cantrol-Co-educatio1l-
control-Co-education
The "New Tide"
Tide" i1l1iterature
in literature Q1zd philosophy-The
and philosophy The new
new lany;uage
language
of
of literature-Hu
literature-Hu Sbib-Ele1nents
Shih Elements of of destruction-Elements
destruction Elements of
of
renewal
renewal

Once everything
Once everything changed
changed except
except the East; now there
the East; there is is nothing in
nothing in the the
East that does
East that does not
not change.
change. The most
most conservative
conservative nation
nation in
in history has
history has
suddenly become,
suddenly become, afterafter Russia,
Russia, thethe most
most radical,
radical, and
and is is destroying
destroying withwith aa
will customs
will customs andand institutions
institutions once
once held inviolate. It
held inviolate. It isis not merely the
not merely the end
end
of a dynasty, as in 1644;
of a dynasty, as in 1644; it is the moulting
k k the moulting ofof aa civilization.
civilization.
Change
Change comes
comes last
last and
and least
least to
to the
the village,
village,
for
for the slow
the slow sobriety
sobriety of of the
the
soil does
soil does notnot encourage
encourage innovation;
innovation; even even the
the new
new generation
generation must must plant
plant
in order
in order toto reap.
reap. But But now sevenseven thousand
thousand miles
miles of of railroad
railroad traverse
traverse the
the
countryside;
countryside; and
and though
though a
a decade
decade of
of chaos
chaos 'and
and native
native management
management has has
left them
left them in in bad repair, and
bad repair, and war has conscripted
war has conscripted them them too too often
often for
for its
its
purposes, yet
purposes, yet they they bind
bind the
the eastern
eastern villages
villages with
with the
the cities
cities of
of the
the coast,
coast,
and daily bear
and daily bear their
their trickle
trickle of of Western
Western novelties
novelties intointo aa million
million peasant
peasant
homes. Here
homes. Here oneone may may find
find such
such foreign-devilish importations as
foreign-devilish importations as kero-
kero-
sene,
sene, kerosene
kerosene lamps, matches, cigarettes, even American
lamps, matches, cigarettes, even American wheat; for wheat; for
sometimes, so
sometimes, poor isis transport,
so poor costs more
transport, itit costs more to carry goods
to carry goods fromfrom the
the
Chinese interior
Chinese interior to to the
the marine
marine provinces than itit does
provinces than does to to bring
bring them
them toto
18
these from
these from Australia
Australia or or the
the United
United States.
States. It
18
It becomes
becomes clear clear that
that the
the
CHAP. XXVII)
CHAP.XXVH) REVOLt:TIOX AND RE~E"\·AL
REVOLUTION ASD RENEWAL 81S
815
economic
economic gro,vth growth of of aa civilization
civilization depends upon transportation. T,,·ent}·
depends upon transportation. Twenty
thousand miles
thousand miles of of dirt
dirt roads
roads havehave beenbeen built,
built, o\'er
over ,vhich,
which, \vith with Oriental
Oriental
irregularity,
irregularity, si~
six thousand
thousand buses
buses tra'geI, al\\"ay's
travel, always full.
full ''''hen
When the
the gasoline
gasoline
engine
engine has has bound
bound these innumerable villages
these innumerable together
villages together
it
it ,viII
will have
have accom-
accom-
plished
plished one
one of
of the
the greatest changes
greatest changes in
in Chinese
Chinese history-the
history-the
end
end of
of famine.
famine.
In
In the
the to,vns
towns the the triumph of
triumph of the the "'est
West goes goes on
on more
more rapidly'.
rapidly. Handi-
Handi-
crafts
crafts areare dying under under the
the competition of
of cheapl)T-transponed machine-
dying competition cheaply-transported machine-
made goods
made goods from abroad;
from abroad; millions
millions of artisans flounder
of artisans flounder about
about in in unemplo}·-
unemploy-
ment,
ment, and and are are dra\vn
drawn into into thethe ja\vs of
of the factories that foreign and do-
foreign and do-
jaws the factories that
mestic
mestic capital
capital is
is building along the coast. The hand
building along the coast. The hand loom, still spinning loom, still spinning
in
in the
the village,
village, is
is silent
silent in
in the
the city; imponed cotton and cotton cloths flood
city; imported cotton and cotton cloths flood
the
the country,
country, and textile
textile factories
factories rise
rise to induct impoverished
to induct Chinese into
impoverished Chinese into
the novel
the novel serfdom
serfdom of the mill.
of the Great blast-furnaces
mill. Great blast-furnaces bum burn at at Hangcho\v,
Hangchow,
as
as weird and horrible horrible as as anv in
any in the
the "rest.
West. Canneries,
Canneries, bakeries, cement
bakeries, cement
works,
works, chemical
chemical works, works, bre~eries,
breweries, distilleries,
distilleries, power
power works,
works, glass works.
glass works,
shoe
shoe factories,
factories, paper paper mills,
mills, soap
soap and
and candle
candle factories,
factories, sugarsugar refineries-all
refineries all

of them have no\v been

of them have now planted on
been planted on Chinese
Chinese soil, soil, and
and slo\vly transform the
slowly transform the
domestic
domestic artisanartisan into into a a factory
factory hand.
hand. The development
development of
of the new in-
the new in-
dustries is
dustries retarded because
is retarded because in\?estment hesitates in a world disordered by
investment hesitates in a ,vorid disordered by
pennanent revolution;
revolution; it it is
is obstnleted
obstructed further
further by the difficulty
difficulty and and cost-
permanent by the cost-
liness of
liness of transport,
transport, by the inadequacy
by the inadequacy of of local
local rawraw materials,
materials, and and by that
by that
amiable Chinese
amiable Chinese habit habit which
\vhich places
places the family above
the family above every
every other other loyalty,
loyalty,
and turns every
and every nativenative office
office and factory into
and factory into aa nestnest of of genial nepotism
genial nepotism
1D
*
and incompetence.
and
1
incompetence. Commerce, Commerce, too, too, isis impeded
impeded by by inland
inland tariffs
tariffs andand
coastal customs,
coastal customs, and and the
the universal
universal demanddemand for for bribes
bribes or or "squeeze";*
"squeeze";- but but
it 'is growing
it is growing more rapidly
more rapidly than industry,
than industry, and plays the
and plays the central
central rolerole in in
the economic
the economic transformation
transfonnation of of China.*
China.·
The new
The new industries
industries have destroyed the
have destroyed guilds, and
the guilds, and have
have thrown
thrown into into
chaos the
chaos the relations
relations of employer and
of employer employee. The
and employee. guilds had
The guilds had lived
lived
by regulating
by regulating wages wages and
and prices through
prices through agreementsagreements between
between owners
owners and
and
workers whose
workers whose productsproducts had had no rivals in
no rivals in local
local trade;
trade; butbut as as transport
transport and and
commerce increased,
commerce increased, and and brought distant goods
brought distant goods to to compete
compete in in every
every town
town
with the
with the handiwork
handiwork of of the guilds, itit was
the guilds, was found
found impossible
impossible to to control
control
prices
prices or
or to
to regulate
regulate wageswages without
without surrendering
surrendering to
to the
the dictates
dictates of
of fforeign
oreign

*
• Once Great Britain
Once Great Britain dominated
dominated die
the import
import trade;
trade; now
now itit accounts
accounts for
for 14%, the United
14%, the United
States for 17%, Japan
States for 17%, Japan for 27%f1
for 27% n and
and the
the Japanese
Japanese leadership
leadership in this field
in this field mounts
mounts with
with
;

every year.
every year. Between
Between 1910 and 1930
1910 and Chinese trade
1930 Chinese increased 600%
trade increased 600';' toto approximately
approximately
one and
one half billion
and aa half billion dollars."
dollars.·
816
8l6 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXVII
XXVII

competitors
competitors and and capital.
capital.
The guilds
guilds havehave therefore
therefore disintegrated
disintegrated and and
divided
divided into chambers of commerce on the one side and labor unions on
into chambers of commerce on the one side and labor unions on
the
the other.
other. The chamberschambers discuss
discuss order,
order, loyalty
loyalty and
and economic
economic liberty,
liberty,
and
and
the
the workers
workers discuss starvation. Strikes
discuss staryation. Strikes and and boycotts are frequent,
boycotts are frequent, but but they
they
have
have been
been more
more successful
successful in in compelling foreign concessions
compelling foreign concessions to
to the
the Chin-
Chin-
ese
ese Government
Government than than in in raising
raising the the remuneration
remuneration of labor. In
of labor. 1928 the
In 1918 the
Department
Department of
of Social
Social Affairs
Affairs of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese Municipality
Municipality of
of Shanghai
Shanghai
computed
computed the the average
average weekly
weekly wage wage of of the
the textile-mill
textile-mill workers
workers as as varying
varying
from $1.73 to
from $1.73 $2.76 for
to $1.76 for men,
men, and and from
from $1.10$1.10 to $1.78 for
to $1.78 for women.
women. In In
flour mills
flour milk the
the male
male weekly average
weekly average pay pay was
was $1.96;
$1.96; in
in cement
cement mills
mills $1.72;
$1.72;
in
in glass
glass works $1.84; in
works $1.84; in match-factories
match-factories $2.1 $2.11;I; among
among the the skilled
skilled workers
workers
of
of the
the electric power plants, $3.10; in
electric po\ver plants, $3.10; in the machine shops,
the machine shops, $3.
2 4; among
$3*24; among
11
the
the printers, 14.55.
printers, $4.55.* The wealth
wealth enjoyed
enjoyed by by the
the printers
printers was
was doubtless
doubtless
due
due toto their
their better
better organization,
organization, and and thethe cost
cost of
of suddenly
suddenly replacing
replacing them.
them.
The first
first unions
unions were formed in
were fonned in 1919; they
1919; they grew grew in
in number
number and
and power
power
until, in
until, in the
the days
days of of Borodin,
Borodin, they they proposed
proposed to to take
take over
over thethe management
management
of China; they
of China; they were repressed ruthlessly
were repressed ruthlessly after after Chiang Kai-shek's
Chiang Kai-shek's break break
with Russia;
with Russia; today
today the the laws
kws against
against them them are are severe,
severe, butbut they
they multiply
multiply
nevertheless as
nevertheless as the
the sole
sole refuge
refuge of
of the
the workers
workers against
against an
an industrial
industrial system
system
has only
that has
that begun
only begun to
to pass
pass labor
labor legislation,
legislation,
and
and has not yet begun to
has not yet begun to
enforce
enforce it." The bitter
it.** bitter destitution
destitution of of the
the city proletaires, working
city proletaires, working twelve
twelve
hours aa day,
hours hovering on
day, hovering on the
the margin
margin of of subsistence,
subsistence, and and facing
facing starvation
starvation
if
if employment should
employment should fail,
fail, is
is worse
worse than
than the
the ancient
ancient poverty
poverty of
of the
the vil-
vil-

lage,
lage, where
where the
the poor
poor could
could not
not see
see the
the rich,
rich, and
and accepted
accepted their
their lot
lot as
as the
the
natural and
natural and immemorial
immemorial fate of mankind.
fate of mankind.

Perhaps
Perhaps some
some of
of these
these evils
evils might have
might have been avoided if
been avoided the politi-
if the politi-
cal transfonnation of eastern
cal transformation of eastern ChinaChina had had notnot been
been so so rapid
rapid and and com- com-
plete.
plete.
The mandarin
mandarin aristocracy,
aristocracy, thoughthough it
it had
had lost
lost vitality
vitality
and
and was
was dis-
dis-
honored with
honored corruption, might
with corruption, might have have heldheld thethe new industrial
industrial forcesforces in in
check until
check China could
until China could accept
accept them them without
without chaoschaos or or ~very;
slavery; and
and
then the
then the growth
growth of of industry
industry wouldwould have have generated
generated year year by by year
year aa new new
class that
class might have
that might have stepped peaceably into
stepped peaceably into political
political power,
power, as as the
the man-
man-
ufacturers had
ufacturers had displaced
displaced the the landed aristocracy of
landed aristocracy ~land. But
of England. But the the newnew
government found
government found itself without
itself without an army,
an anny, without
without experienced
experienced leaders, leaders,
and without
and without funds;
funds; the Kuomintrmg, or
the Kuowmtmg, or People's
People's Party,
Party, established
established to to liber-
liber-
ate aa nation,
ate nation, found
found thatthat it must stand
it must stand by while foreign
by while foreign and and domestic
domestic capitalcapital
subjugated it;
subjugated conceived in
it; conceived in democrary
democrary and and baptized
baptized withwith the the blood
blood of of
communism,
communism, it
it became
became dependent upon Shanghai
dependent upon Shanghai bankers, bankers, abandoned
abandoned
CHAP. XXVII)
CHAP.XXVIl) AND RE~E'VAL
REVOLUTION AND RENEWAL 81
BlJ7
democracy
democracy for for dictatorship, and
dictatorship, and tried tried toto destro}p the unions.· For the
destroy the unions.* For the
Party
Party depends
depends upon upon the the ann}",
army, and and thethe ann)·
army upon upon money',money, and and money
money
upon
upon loans;
loans; until
until the
the Army is
is strong enough to
Army strong enough to conquer China
conquer China the Gov-
the Gov-
ernment
ernment cannot
cannot tax tax China;
China; and until it
and until it can
can taxtax China
China the the Gov'ernment
Government
must take advice where it
take advice takes its
it takes its funds.
funds. E\·en
Even so so it it has
has accomplished
accomplished
much. It
much. It has
has brought
brought back back to China full
to China full control
control o,·er over her her tariffs
tariffs and and
-within
within the the internationalism
internationalism of of nnance-o,·er
finance over her her industries;
industries; it
it has
has or-
or-
ganized,
ganized, trained
trained and
and equipped
equipped an
an Army \\?hich may
Army which may some day be usedsome day be used
against
against others
others than than Chinese;
Chinese; it it has
has enlarged the area that acknowledges
enlarged the area that acknowledges
its
its authority, and has
authority, has reduced,
reduced, in
in that
that area,
area, the
the banditry that was stiffing
banditry that was stifling
the nation's economic life.
the nation's economic life. ItIt takes
takes a a day
day to to make
make aa revolution,
revolution, and and a a
generation
generation to
to make a
a government.
government.
The disunity
disunity of of China
China reflects
reflects and and follows
follows fromfrom the the division
division thatthat lies
lies

in
in the
the Chinese
Chinese soul. soul. The most most powerful feeling
powerful feeling in
in China
China today
today is
is hatred
hatred
of foreigners; the process in in China
today is imitation of
of foreigners; the most powerful
powerful process China today is imitation of
foreigners.
foreigners. China
China knows that
that the
the West
West does
does not
not desenpe
deserve this
this Battery,
flattery,
but
but
China is
China is forced
forced by by the very spirit
the very and
and impetus
impetus of of the the times
times to to give it, for
for
spirit give it,

the
the age
age offers
offers to
to all
all nations
nations the
the choice
choice of
of industrialism
industrialism or
or vassalage.
vassalage. So
So
the Chinese
the Chinese of of the
the eastern
eastern cities
cities pass from
pass from fields
fields to
to factories,
factories, from
from robes
robes
to trousers,
to trousers, from the the simple
simple melodies
melodies of of the past to
the past to the sa.~ophone sym-
the saxophone sym-
phonies
phonies of
of the
the West;
West; they
they surrender
surrender their
their own fine
fine taste
taste in
in dress
dress andand
furniture and
furniture and art,
art, adorn
adorn their
their walls
walls with
with European paintings,
European paintings, and erect and erect
office buildings in
office buildings the least
in the least attractive
attractive of of American
American styles. Their
styles. Their women
have ceased
have ceased to to compress
compress theirtheir feet
feet fromfrom north
north to to south,
south, and begin, in
and begin, the
in the
superior manner
superior manner of of the
the Occident,
Occident, to to compress
compress them them from from easteast to west. t
to west.f
Their philosophers
Their philosophers abandon abandon the the unobtrusive
unobtrusive and mannerly rationalism
and mannerly rationalism
of Confucius,
of Confucius, and and taketake upup with
with Renaissance
Renaissance enthusiasm
enthusiasm the pugnacious
the pugnacious
rationalism of
rationalism of Moscow,
Moscow, London, Berlin, Paris
London, Berlin, Paris and
and New York. York.
The dethronement
dethronement of of Confucius
Confucius has has something
something of of the
the character
character of of
both the
both the Renaissance
Renaissance and and the
the Enlightenment;
Enlightenment; it it isis atat once
once the the overthrow
overthrow
of the
of Chinese Aristotle,
the Chinese Aristotle, and and the
the rejection
rejection of of the
the racial
racial gods.
gods. For For aa timetime
the new state
the state persecuted
persecuted Buddhism
Buddhism and and thethe monastic
Iponastic orders; orders; likelike thethe
Revolutionists of
Revolutionists of France,
France, the the Chinese
Chinese rebelsrebels were
were freethinkers
freethinkers without without
concealment, openly
concealment, openly hostile
hostile to
to religion,
religion, and and worshiping
worshiping only only reason.
reason. Con- Con-
tolerated the
fucianism tolerated
fucianism the popular faiths on
popular faiths on the
the assumption, presumably, that
assumption, presumably, that
-In 1927
*In 1927 alone
alonemany thousands
many thousands ofof workers
workers were
were executed
executed for
for belonging
belonging to labor
to labor
unions.-
unions,*
tt Some
Some Chinese women pad
Chinese women their shoes
pad their shoes to conceal the
to conceal the fact
fact that
that their feet were
their feet were bound."
bound.·
818
8l8 CIVILIZATION
THE STORY OF C I \"1 LIZ A T lOX (CHAP.
(CHAP. XXVII

there is is po\·ert~" there the Revolution,

as
as long
long as as there
poverty there ,,-ill will be be gods;
gods; the Revolution, fondly fondly be- be-
lieving that povcrt}., can be destro)-ed, had no need of gods. Confucianism
lieving that poverty can be destroyed, had no need of gods. Confucianism
took
took agriculture
agriculture and and thethe famil}·
family for for granted, and formulated an ethic
granted, and formulated an
ethic de-de-
signed to maintain order and content
signed to maintain order and content within the circle of the \vithin the circle of the home and
and
the
the field;
field; the Revolution is
the Re\·olution is bound
bound for for industry',
industry, and
and needs
needs a
a new morality
morality
to
to accord
accord \,"ithwith urban
urban and and indi,"idual
individual life. life. Confucianism
Confucianism endured endured because because
access
access to to political office
political
office and
and scholarl}· occupations demanded aa knowledge
scholarly occupations demanded knowledge
and
and acceptance
acceptance of
of it;
it; but
but the
the examinations
examinations are gone,
are gone, andand science
science takes takes thethe
place
place ofof ethical
ethical and and political philosoph)· in
political philosophy
in the schools; man is
the schools; is no\v
now to to be
be
moulded
moulded not not to to go\"emment
government but
but to
to industry.
industry.
Confucianism
Confucianism ,vas
was con-
con-
sen-ative,
servative, and and checked
checked the the ideals
ideals of of Y'outh
youth ,vith
with the caution of
the caution of oldold age;
age;
the Revolution is
the Re'Tolurion is made
made of of v'outh,
youth, and
and ,viII
will have
have none
none of
of these
these ancient
ancient
restraints;
restraints; it it smiles
smiles at the old
at the old sage's warning that "he
sage's warning that
"he who thinks thinks the the old
old
embankments useless
embankments useless and and destro}·s
destroys them
them is
is sure
sure to
to suffer
suffer from
from the
the desola-
desola-
tion caused by
tion caused
by overflo\ving
overflowing ,,"ater."·"'"
7
water."*"
The Re,"olution
Revolution has, has, of
of course,
course, put put an an end
end toto official
official religion, and
religion, and no
no
sacrifice mounts any'
sacrifice mounts longer
any longer from
from the
the Altar
Altar of
of Heaven
Heaven to
to the
the impersonal
impersonal
and silent T'ien.
and silent Ancestor \\l'orship
Tien. Ancestor worship is is tolerated,
tolerated, but but visibly decays; more
visibly decays; more
and more the
and more the men tend tend toto lea\"e
leave it it to
to the \vomen, who
the women, \vho were\vere once
once thought
thought
unfit to
unfit to officiate
officiate at at these sacred rites.
these sacred rites. HalfHalf of the Revolutionary
of the Revolutionary leaders leaders
\\gere educated
were educated in in Christian
Christian schools;
schools; but but thethe Revolution,
Revolution, despitedespite
the
the Meth-
Meth-
odism
odism of of Chiang
Chiang Kai-shek,
Kai-shek, is
is unfavorable
unfavorable to
to any
any supernatural faith, and
supernatural faith, and
gi,"es
gives to to itsits schoolbooks
schoolbooks an atheistic tint.J!D
an atheistic tint.* The new religion, which
ne\v religion, which tries tries
to fill the
to fillthe emotional
emotional void left by the
void left by the departure
departure of
of the
the gods,
gods,
is
is nationalism,
nationalism,
as in Russia
as in Russia it it is
is communism.
communism. Meanwhile ~lean\vhile this this creed
creed doesdoes notnot satisfy
satisfy all;
all;
many' proletaires
many proletaires seek seek in in the
the adventure
adventure of of oracles
oracles andand mediums
mediums aa refuge refuge
from the
from prose of
the prose their daily
of their daily toil;coil; and
and the
the people
people of
of the
the village still
village still find
:find
some solace
some solace from from their poverty in
their poverty the mystic
in the quiet of
mystic quiet of the
the ancient
ancient shrines.
shrines.
Shorn of
Shorn its sanctions
of its sanctions in in government,
government, religion religion andand economic
economic life, life, the
the
traditional moral
traditional moral code, code, which
,vhich seemedseemed aa generation
generation ago ago unchangeable,
unchangeable,
disintegrates
disintegrates \vith
with geometrical
geometrical acceleration.
acceleration. Next
Next to
to the
the invasion
invasion of in-
of in-
dustry the most striking
dustry the most change in the China
striking change in the China of today is
of today is the destruetio~
the destruction
of the
of the old family system,
old family system, and and its its replacement
replacement with with an an individualism
individualism that that
leaves every man free
lea,·es every free and
and alone
alone to to face
face the
the world. Loyalty to
world. Loyalty to the
the fam-
fam-
ily, on
ily, on which
\vhich the the old old order
order was founded, isis superseded
was founded, superseded in in theory
theory by by
loyalty
loyalty to
to the
the state;
state; and
and as
as the
the novel
novel loyalty
loyalty has
has not
not yet graduated
yet graduated from
from
*
• P.
P. 673 abo-re. Latterly
613 above. Latterly the
the "New Life" movement, let
Life" movement, let Chiang
by Chiang
by Kai-shek, has at-
Kai-shek, has at-
tempted, \\"ith some
tempted, with some success,
success, to Confucianism.
restore Confucianism.
to restore
CHAP. XXVII)
CHAP.XXVIl) REVOLUTION
REVOLUTION AND AND RENEWAL RENEWAL 819
819

theory into
theory into practice,
practice, the the newnew society
society lacks lacks aa moral
moral base.base. Agriculture
Agriculture
favors the
favors family because,
the family because, before
before the the coming
coming of of machinery,
machinery, the the land
land
could most
could economically be
most economically be tilled
tilled by by aa group
group united
united by by blood
blood andand paternal
paternal
authority; industry
authority; industry disrupts disrupts the
the family,
family,
because
because it
it offers
offers its
its
places and
places and
rewards to
rewards to individuals
individuals rather
rather than
than to to groups,
groups, does does notnot always
always offer
offer them
them
these rewards
these rewards in in the
the same
same place,
place, and and recognizes
recognizes no no obligation
obligation to to aid
aid the
the
weak out of the resources of the strong; the natural communism of the
weak out of the resources of the strong; the natural communism of the

family :finds no
family finds no support
support in in the
the bitter
bitter competition
competition of of industry
industry and and trade.
trade.
The younger
younger generation, always irked
generation, always irked by by the the authority
authority of of the
the old,
old, takes
takes
with aa will
with will toto the
the anonymity
anonymity of of the
the city
city andand thethe individualism
individualism of of the
the
"job." Perhaps
"job." Perhaps
the
the omnipotence
omnipotence of
of the
the father
father helped
helped to
to precipitate the
precipitate the
Revolution; the
Revolution; the reactionary
reactionary isis alwaysalways to to blame
blame for for thethe excesses
excesses of of the
the
radical. So
radical. So China
China has has cut
cut itself
itself off off from
from all all roots,
roots, andand no no oneone knows
whether itit can
whether can sink
sink new
new roots
roots in in time
time to to save
save itsits cultural
cultural life.
life.
The old
The old marriage
marriage formsforms disappear
disappear with with the the authority
authority of of the
the family.
family.
The majority
The majority of
of marriages
marriages are
are still
still arranged
arranged by by the
the parents,
parents, but
but in the
in the
city marriage by free
city marriage by
free choice
choice of of the young tends
the young tends more
more and and more to to pre-
pre-
vail. The
vail. individual considers
The individual himself free
considers himself free notnot only
only to mate as
to mate he pleases,
as he pleases,
but to
but to make
make experiments in marriage which
experiments in marriage
which mightmight shockshock the West.
the West.
Nietzsche thought
Nietzsche thought Asia Asia right
right
about
about women,
women, and
and considered
considered their their subjec-
subjec-
tion
tion the
the only Asia is
only alternative
alternative to to their
their unchecked
unchecked ascendancy;
ascendancy; but but Asia is choos-

ing Europe's way, not

ing Europe's way,
Nietzsche's. Polygamy
not Niettsche's. Polygamy diminishes,
diminishes, for for the
the modern
wife
wife objects to
to aa concubine.
concubine. DivorceDivorce is is uncommon,
uncommon, but
but the
the road
road to to it
it is
is
objects
wider than
wider than ever
ever before.· Co-education is
before.* Co-education is the rule in the universities,
the rule in the universities, and and
the
the free
free mingling of
of the sexes is
the sexes usual in
is usual in the
the cities.
cities. Women have estab- estab-
mingling 11
1
lished their own
lished their own kw and law and medical
medical schools,
schools, even
even their
their own bank.
bank.* Those of
them that
them that areare members
members of of the
the Party
Party have have received
received the the franchise,
franchise, and
places
places
have
have been
been found
found for
for them
them on
on the
the highest
highest committees of
of both the the
Party and the Government.- They have turned their backs
Party and the Government. They
81
have turned their backs uponupon infanti-
infanti-

cide,
cide,
and
and are
are beginning
beginning
to
to practise
practise birth
birth control.
control.t t Population
Population has has not
not

• The Revolution grants

The Revolution itit where
where both
both parties
parties ask for it;
ask for it; but
but where
where the the husband
husband is is
grants
under thirty.
under thirty, or
or the
the wife
wife is
is under
tinder twenty-five,
twenty-five, the
the consent
consent of
of the
the parents
parents is
is required for
required for aa
divorce. The old
divorce. The causes for
old causes for which
which the husband may
the husband divorce his
may divorce his wife remain in
wife remain in force-
force-
barrenness, infidelity, neglect
barrenness, infidelity, neglect
of
of duty, loquacity,
duty, loquacity, thievishness,
thievishness, jealousy,
jealousy, or
or serious dis-
serious dis-

ease; but these are

are not
not allowed
allowed to apply
to if
if the
the wife
wife has
has mourned
mourned three years
three years for her
for her
ease; but these apply
husband's parents, family to return to,
to, or has been
husband's or
or has
has DOno to return or has faithful to
been faithful to her
her husband
husband
parents, family
1D
during his rise from poverty to
during his rise from poverty
to wealth.
wealth."
tfThe frank display
The frank of contraceptive devices
display of contraceptive
devices inin Chinese drug-stores may
Chinese drug-sto%es may suggest
suggest toto the
the

West aa convenient
West convenient escape
escape
from
from the
the "Yellow
"Yellow PeriL"
PeriL"
810
820 THE STORY OF CIVILIZATION (CHAP.XXVII
(CHAP. XXVn

noticeably increased since the Revolution; perhaps the vast tide of Chinese
noticeably increased since the Revolution; perhaps the vast tide of Chinese
humanity has begun to ebb.88
humanity has begun to ebb.·
Nevertheless fifty
Nevertheless thousand new
fifty thousand Chinese are
new Chinese are bornborn every
every day,day.M They
84
They
are destined
are destined to to bebe new
new in in every
every way: way: new new in in thethe cut
cut of of their
their clothes
clothes
and their
and hair, new
their hair, new in in education
education and and occupation,
occupation, in in habits
habits and
and manners,
manners,
in religion
in religion andand philosophy.
philosophy. The queue isis gone,
The queue gone, and and soso are
are thethe graceful
graceful
manners of
manners of the
the older
older time;
time; thethe hatreds
hatreds of of revolution
revolution have have coarsened
coarsened the the
spirit,
spirit,
and
and radicals
radicals find
find it
it hard
hard to
to be
be courteous
courteous to
to conservatives.-
conservatives* .The
The
phlegmatic quality
phlegmatic quality of of the
the ancient
ancient race race isis being
being changed
changed by the speed
by the speed of of
industry
industry into
into something
something more
more expressive
expressive
and
and volatile;
volatile; these
these stolid
stolid faces
faces
conceal active
conceal active and
and excitable
excitable souls.
souls. The The love love of
of peace
peace thatthat came
came to to China
China
after centuries
after centuries of of war
war is is being
being broken
broken down down by the contemplation
by the contemplation of of
national dismemberment
national dismemberment and and defeat;
defeat; the the schools
schools are drilling every
are drilling every student
student
into aa soldier,
into soldier, and
and the
the general
general
is
is aa hero
hero once
once more.
more.
whole world
The whole world of of education
education has has been transformed. The
been transformed. The schools
schools
have thrown Confucius out of the window, and taken science in. The
have thrown Confucius out of the window, and taken science in. The
rejection
rejection
was
was not
not quite necessary
quite necessary
for
for the
the admission,
admission, since
since the
the doctrine
doctrine
of Confucius accorded
of Confucius accorded well well with
with the the spirit
spirit
of science;
of science; but but the
the conquest
conquest
of the logical
of the logical by
by the
the psychological
psychological
is
is the warp
the warp and
and woof
woof of
of history.
history.
MathematicS
Mathematics and and mechanics
mechanics are popular, for
are popular, these can
for these can make machines;
machines;
machines can
machines can make
make wealth
wealth and and guns,
guns, and and guns
guns may may preserve
preserve liberty.
liberty.
Medical education is
Medical education is progressing, largely as
progressing, largely as the
die result
result of
of the
the cosmopoli-
cosmopoli-
tan beneficence
tan beneficence of of the
the Rockefeller
Rockefeller fortune.· fortune.* DespiteDespite the the impoverish-
impoverish-
ment
ment of of the
the country,
country, new schools, schools, high high schools
schools and and colleges
colleges have have multi-
multi-
plied rapidly,
plied rapidly,
and
and the hope
the hope of
of Young
Young China
China is that
is that soon
soon every
every child
child will
will
receive
receive a a free education, and
free education, and that democracy inay
that democracy may be be widened
widened as as educa-
educa-
tion
tion grows.
grows.
revolution akin
A revolution akin toto that
that ofof the Renaissance has
the Renaissance has come to to Chinese
Chinese litera-
litera-

ture and philosophy.

ture and The importation
importation of of Western texts has had the fer-
Western texts has had the fer-
philosophy.
tilizing
tilizing
influence
influence thatthat Greek
Greek manuscripts
manuscripts had had upon
upon the the Italian
Italian mind.
mind. And
j1lSt as Italy,
just as Italy,
in her awakening,
in her awakening, abandoned abandoned Latin
Latin to
to write
write in
in the
the vernacular,
vernacular,
so Chin~
so China, under
under the
the leadership
leadership of
of the
the brilliant
brilliant Hu Shih,
Shih, has
has turned
turned the the
popular
popular "Mandarin"
"Mandarin" dialect dialect into
into a a literary
literary language,
language, the the Pei-HUll,
Pei*Hua, ex-