BROOKSTONE SCHOOL (SECONDARY)

YEAR 10 SUMMER CHEMISTRY NOTE

WEEK 1: REDOX REACTIONS

Definition of Terms in Redox Reaction

(1) Redox Reaction: A redox reaction is one that involves change in the oxidation
states of elements. It involves both oxidation and reduction e.g.
Zn + Cu2+ Zn2+ + Cu
(2) Oxidation: This is a process / reaction that involve loss of electron and
increase in oxidation number. Cu Cu2+ + 2e-
It can also be defined as a reaction that involves gain of oxygen or loss of
hydrogen.
2Mg + O2 2MgO
Mg has been oxidized.
3CuO + 2NH3 3Cu + N2 + 3H2O
NH3 has been oxidized.
(3) Reduction: Reduction is a reaction that involves gain of electron and decrease
in oxidation number.
Cl + e- → Cl-
• It is also defined as loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
CuO has been reduced.
H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Cl2 has been reduced
• OIL means Oxidation is Loss of electron.
• RIG means Reduction is Gain of electron.
(4) Reducing agent: A reducing agent is an electron donor. Metals are reducing
agents. In a redox reaction, a reducing agent undergoes oxidation.
(5) Oxidizing agent: An oxidizing agent is an electron acceptor in a redox reaction.
An oxidizing agent undergoes reduction in a redox reaction.
Oxidation number
An oxidation number is defined as the combining power of an element in a
compound.
OR
The oxidation number of an element in any particular molecule or ion is defined as
the electrical charge it appears to have as determined by a set of arbitrary rules.

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 1

Rules for finding oxidation number

• The oxidation number of elements in the free state is zero

• Group 1 elements and hydrogen have +1 oxidation number.
• Group 2 elements have +2 oxidation state.
• Oxygen has -2 oxidation state.
• The oxidation number of an ion is equal to the charge.
• The sum of the oxidation numbers of all elements in a polyatomic ion is equal
to the charge.
• The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all the elements in a
compound is zero.
Questions
Find the oxidation number of
• S in SO42-
• Mn in KMnO4
• Sb in Sb4O6
• N in N2O3
Solved examples
 Find the oxidation number of:  Find the oxidation number of: S
-
N in NO3 in K2SO4
Solution Solution
O = -2 K=+1; O=-2; S=?
N =? 2(+1)+S+4(-2)=0
N+3(-2) =-1 +2+S-8=0
N-6=-1 S+2-8=0
N=-1+6 S-6=0
N=+5 S=+6
The oxidation number of The oxidation number of
nitrogen in the radical is +5 Sulphur in the compound is +6
IUPAC name for K2SO4 is
 IUPAC name for NO3- is Potassium tetraoxosulphate (vi).
Trioxonitrate (v) ion. Old name is Potassium Sulphate.
 Old name is simply nitrate ion

Change in Oxidation number

 In each of the following equations, state which reactant has been oxidized
or reduced?
i. PbO + H2 → Pb + H2O ; ii. FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
Solution
PbO + H2 → Pb + H2O
+2,-2 0 0 +1,-2
Lead (Pb) changed from +2 to 0, hence a reduction in oxidation number. Lead
Oxide (PbO) is reduced.
CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 2
 Hydrogen gas changed from 0 to +1, which is an increase in oxidation number.
Hydrogen gas is oxidized to form water (CO2).
FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
+2,-2 +2,-2 0 +4,-2
Iron (Fe) change from +2 to 0, hence a reduction in the oxidation number.
Iron Oxide (FeO) is reduced.
Carbon changed from +2 to +4, which is an increase in oxidation number.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is Oxidized to Carbon dioxide (CO2).

Rules for Balancing Redox Reactions

1. Split overall equation into two half reactions.
2. Balance elements other than O & H.
3. Balance O with H2O.
4. Balance H with H+.
5. If in basic solution, add enough OH- to both sides to neutralize the H+.
6. Balance charge with e–.
7. Multiply through to make number of e- in the two half reactions
match.
8. Add half reactions back together.
9. Cancel out species that appear on both sides.
10. Check both sides of the equation for same number of atoms and
overall charge

Activity
(1) In each of the following equations, state which reactant has been oxidized.
(i) PbO + H2 Pb + H2O
(ii) CO + Ag2O → CO2 + 2Ag
(iii) 2Mg + CO2 2MgO + C
(2) Balance the following redox equations
(i) Ni + Fe3+ Ni2+ + Fe2+
(ii) MnO4 - + I - + H+ Mn2+ + I2 + H2O
(iii) Cr2O72- + S2- + H+ 2Cr3+ + S
(iv) MnO4- + Fe2+ + H+ Mn2+ + Fe3++ H2O
Activity: An aqueous solution of iron (II) can be oxidized to iron (III) by
acidified KMnO4 solution. Write ionic equation for the:
I. oxidation half reaction.
II. reduction half reaction.
III. overall reaction.

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 3

 Solved Examples
1. Balance the following redox 2. Balance the following redox
equation: equation:
Ni + Fe3+ → Ni2+ + Fe2+ MnO4 - + I - + H+ → Mn2+ + I2 +
Solutions H 2O
Oxidation Half Eqn. (OHE) Solutions
Ni → Ni2+ Oxidation Half Eqn. (OHE)
+2e- I - → I2
Ni → Ni2+ +2e- ------- (i) +I - +2e-
Reduction Half Eqn. (RHE) 2I - → I2 + 2e-
Fe3+ → Fe2+ ×5 = 10I - → 5I2 + 10e- ------- (i)
+e- Reduction Half Eqn. (RHE)
Fe3+ +e- → Fe2+ MnO4 - → Mn2+
×2 = 2Fe3+ +2e- → 2Fe2+ --- (ii) +8H+ +5e- +4H2O
Add equations (i) and (ii) MnO4 +8H +5e → Mn2+ +4H2O
- + -

×2 = 2MnO4 - +16H+ +10e- →

Ni + 2Fe3+ +2e- → Ni2+ + 2Fe2+
+2e-
Cancel out the e- on both sides;
Ni + 2Fe3+ → Ni2+ + 2Fe2+
The Overall balanced equation.
Check:
Ni = Ni2+
2Fe3+ = 2Fe2+
Charge: 2(+3) = +2+ 2(+2)
+6 = +6
2Mn2+ +8H2O --------------- (ii)
Add equations (i) and (ii)
2MnO4 - +16H+ + 10I -+10e-
→ 2Mn2+ +8H2O+ 5I2 + 10e-
Cancel out the e- on both sides;
2MnO4 - +16H+ +10I –
→ 2Mn2++ 8H2O + 5I2
The Overall balanced equation.
Check:
2Mn = 2Mn2+
2O4 = 8O
16H+ = 8H2
10I – = 5I2
Charge:
2(-1) +16(+1) +10(-1) = 2(+2)
+4 = +4

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 4

 Tests for oxidizing agents
➢ An oxidizing agent turns the green solution of iron (II) chloride, FeCl2, to brown
colour of iron (III) ions.
Fe2+ - e- → Fe3+
Green Brown
➢ When hydrogen sulphide H2S is passed through a solution of an oxidizing agent,
yellow sulphur is deposited.
S2- → S + 2e-
Yellow
Tests for reducing agents
➢ A Reducing agent changes a solution of acidified potassium tetraoxomanganate
(vii), KMnO4, from purple to colourless.
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O.
Purple from acid colourless
➢ Reducing agents change the orange colour of acidified potassium
heptaoxodichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7, to green.
Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Orange from acid green

WEEK 2: ELECTROLYSIS
Basic Terms in electrolysis
(a) Electrolyte is a chemical substance that conducts electricity in molten or in
aqueous solution due to the presence of mobile ions. E.g. NaCl(aq), Al2O3(l).
Activity: What are non-electrolytes? Give three examples.
(b) Electrodes: Electrodes are conductors in the form of wires, rods or plates
through which an electric current enters or leaves the electrolyte.
(c) Anode: This is the positive electrode by which conventional current enters
the electrolyte (or by which electrons leave an electrolyte). Oxidation occurs at
the anode.
(d) Cathode: This is the negative electrode by which the convectional current
leaves the electrolyte (or by which electrons enter the electrolyte). Reduction
occurs at the cathode.
(e)Anions: Anions are negative ions that migrate to the anode during
electrolysis. E.g. Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, Br-, OH-, F-.
(f) Cations: Cations are positive ions that migrate to the cathode during
electrolysis. e.g. Cu2+, Zn2+, K+, H+, Fe3+, Fe2+ etc.
(g)Electrolysis: Electrolysis is the chemical decomposition of a compound by
passage of electric current through its molten or aqueous solution.
E.g. sodium chloride sodium + chlorine gas

Electrolytic cell
CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 5
Electrolytic cell consists of a container of electrolyte with two electrodes
connected to a suitable direct current supply.

During electrolysis, the cations migrate to cathode (-) while the anions migrate
to anode (+).
cations K+, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+ , e.t.c
anions OH -, Cl -, Br -, NO3-, SO42-.
Electrolysis of molten solutions
Examples:
(i) PbBr2(l)
anode(+): 2Br - Br2 + 2e –
yellow
2+ -
cathode (-): Pb + 2e Pb(l)

Activity: Al2O3(l), CaCl2(l), ZnI2(l), K2O(l), Al2O3(l)

Electrolysis of aqueous solution.

In aqueous solution, there are competing ions for e.g. In NaCl(aq)
Na+ and H+ are competing cations while Cl – and OH – are competing anions.
Preferential discharge of ions
The discharge of ions is governed by three factors, namely:
(i) The relative position of the ions in the electrochemical series.
(ii) The concentration of the ions in the electrolyte.
(iii) The nature of the electrode.
CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 6
 (i) Relative position of ions in the series
If all other factors are constant, a cation which is lower in the series (less
electropositive) will show a greater tendency to be discharged than another
which is higher up (more electropositive).
An anion which is lower in the series (less electronegative) is discharged in
preference to another which is lower down the series (more electronegative).

Note: NO3- and SO42- are never discharged from an aqueous solution
e.g. dil. NaCl, CuSO4, HCl.
(ii) Concentration of ions: If other conditions are equal, increasing the
concentration of a given ion tends to promote its discharge from solution. The
influence of concentration however is effective only when the two competing
ions are closely positioned in the electrochemical series. Concentration effect
becomes less important as the positions of the competing ions become further
apart in the series.
Examples concentrated CuCl2 and concentrated NaCl.

NOTE
• If two competing ions are close in the electrochemical series, then the
more concentrated ion will be discharged in preference to the other ion.
• If the gap between the competing ions is wide, there will be no effect of
concentration.
• Cl-, Br- or I- is discharged in preference to OH- during electrolysis of
concentrated salt of a halogen.
• H+ is discharged in preference to Na+, or K+ whether the solution of the
group 1 salt is concentrated or diluted.
• Cu2+ ion is discharged in preference to H+ whether the solution of copper
salt is concentrated or diluted. This is because Cu2+ is lower than H+.
CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 7
 (iii) Nature of electrodes: Some electrodes such as copper and mercury
influence the discharge of ions that have high affinities for these electrodes.
E.g. Electrolysis of CuSO4 using copper electrodes.
CuSO4 Cu2+ + SO42-
H 2O H+ + OH –
At cathode: Cu2+ + 2e - Cu.
At anode (+) None of SO4 and OH – will be discharged, rather copper atoms
2-

from the electrode lose electrons and form Cu2+ ions.

Cu - 2e - Cu2+
Examples
CuSO4 copper (-) and copper (+)
Conc. NaCl carbon (-) and carbon (+)
Conc. NaOH platinum (-) and platinum (+)
Conc. CuCl2 copper (-) and carbon (+)

WEEK 3: APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROLYSIS

Electrolysis is of great importance in industry. Some of the main applications of

electrolysis are
(1) Extraction of metals (e.g. Na, K, Mg, Ca, Al) and non-metals (H2, Cl2, F2)
(2) Purification of metals (Cu, Ag, Au)
(3) Electroplating one metal by another.
(4) Preparation of certain important compounds such as NaOH and Sodium trioxochlorate
(v) NaClO3.
(1) Extraction of aluminium from bauxite
• Bauxite is first purified using concentrated NaOH (aq) to obtain pure molten aluminium
oxide, Al2O3 which is then electrolysed.
• Cryolite, Na3AlF6 is mixed with the electrolyte to reduce melting point of aluminium oxide to
9000C and increases the electrical conductivity of the electrolyte.

• At cathode(-)
Al3+ + 3e - Al(l)
• At anode(+)
2O2- O2 + 4e –
CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 8
 The oxygen reacts with the hot carbon electrodes to form CO2 which escapes from the
electrolytic cell. So, the electrodes have to be replaced periodically as they get ‘burnt away’
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

(2) Purification of copper

The electrolytic purification of copper is carried out in a cell using:
• An electrolyte of CuSO4.
• An anode of impure copper.
• A cathode of pure copper.

At the anode (+)

Cu Cu2+ + 2e –
The Cu2+ ions go into the solution and then attracted towards the cathode. Hence copper
anode decreases in thickness.

At the cathode (-)

Cu2+ + 2e – Cu.
The copper atoms are deposited on the cathode. The copper cathode increases in thickness.
When enough pure copper has been deposited on the cathode, the cathode is removed and
replaced by a new one.

(3) Electroplating
This is the process of coating one metal with another using electricity to make it look better
or to prevent corrosion. E.g. Steel cans are coated with tin to make containers for food and
cheap metal jewellery can be coated with silver.
In general, to electroplate any object with metal X, the setup is
Cathode – object to be electroplated
Anode – metal X
Electrolyte – solution of a soluble compound of X.

Hence the electrolytic set up for electroplating a spoon with silver is

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 9

 At the Cathode (-): Ag+ + e- → Ag
At the Anode (+): Ag → Ag+ + e-

(4) Electrolysis of brine.

• Brine is a concentrated aqueous solution of sodium chloride, NaCl. It is obtained from Sea
water by evaporation.
• Electrolysis of brine produces
i. Chlorine gas
ii. Hydrogen gas
iii. Sodium hydroxide

• At anode(+): Chloride ions, Cl – are discharged in preference to hydroxyl ions due to the high
concentration of Cl – ions.
2Cl – Cl2 + 2e -
• At cathode(-): Both Na+ and H+ ions move to the cathode, but only hydrogen ions undergo
reduction.
2H+ + 2e - H2(g).
+ -
• Both Na and OH ions accumulate in the cathode compartment. This solution is removed and
concentrated to make sodium hydroxide.

Uses of products from electrolysis of brine

• Sodium hydroxide

✓ It is used in making soaps

✓ It is used in purification of bauxite
• Chlorine
CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 10
✓ Chlorine is used for treatment of water
✓ It is used for making bleaching powder
✓ It is used for making PVC pipes.
• Hydrogen
✓ Hydrogen is used in making margarine by the process called hydrogenation.
✓ Hydrogen is used in for the manufacture of ammonia by Haber process.

WEEK 4: QUANTITATIVE ELECTROLYSIS

Faraday's laws of electrolysis
(i) Faraday first law: Faraday's first law of electrolysis states that the mass
of element discharged during electrolysis is directly proportional to the
quantity of electricity passed.
M α Q; M=ZIt, Z is called the electrochemical equivalent.
Quantity of electricity, Q = It ------- (i)
Faraday: The quantity of electricity carried by one mole of electrons is called
one Faraday. One faraday = one mole of electrons.
1mole of e- = 1F = 96500Cmol-1
Faraday: The minimum quantity of electricity required to liberate one mole of
singly-charged ions.
Consider the following equation for the discharge of metal M
Mn+ + ne- M
Let Q be the quantity of electricity required to deposit mass, m of the metal,
m x nF
(i) Q= Where Ar = relative atomic mass,
Ar
v x nF
(ii) Q= Q= It (I = current, t = time in seconds)
Vm
v = volume of gas liberated at s.t.p.
Vm= molar volume of a gas.
Questions
1. Calculate the mass of lead deposited at the cathode during the electrolysis
when a current of 1.50A flows through molten lead (II) bromide for 20.0mins.
[Pb = 207, 1F = 96500 Cmol – 1].
SOLUTION SOLUTION
Pb2+ + 2e- Pb Pb2+ + 2e- Pb
-
Q=m×nF/Ar ; Ar=207; m=? 2e = 2F=2×96,500C=193,000C
-
nF=2e =2F=2×96,500C=193,000C Q=It=1.5×(20×60)=1800C
Q=It=1.5×(20×60)=1800C From cathodic equation:
193,000C 207g of Pb
207×1800
m= = 1.93𝑔
193000
207×1800
OR 1800C m= = 1.93𝑔
193000
Hence, after 20mins of electrolysis
1.93g of lead (Pb) was deposited.

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 11

2. Calculate the volume of oxygen produced at s.t.p when a concentrated aqueous
solution of sulphuric acid is electrolysed for 30.0mins using a current of 0.50A. [1F
= 96500Cmol-1; Vm = 22.4dm3]

SOLUTION SOLUTION
2O2- O2 + 4e- 4OH- 2H2O + O2 +4e-
Q=V×nF/Vm ; V=? 4e- =4F=4×96,500C=386,000C
nF=4e- =4F=4×96,500C=386,000C Q=It=0.5×(30×60)=900C
Q=It=0.5×(30×60)=900C Vm of O2 = 22.4dm3
From anodic equation:
22.4×900
V= = 0.052dm3
386000
386,000C 22.4dm3
22.4×900
900C V= = 0.052dm3
386000
Hence, after 30mins of electrolysis
OR 0.052dm3 of Oxygen gas (O2) was
produced.

3) Calculate the mass silver deposited at the cathode during electrolysis when a
current of 1.80A flows through an aqueous solution of silver nitrate for 45.0mins.
4) Calculate the mass of gold deposited when a current of 5A is passed through a
solution of gold salt for 2hours 15mins. If the same current is used, find the time
taken for 6.0g of gold to be deposited. [Au=197, 1F=96500Cmol-1]
5) 0.222g of a divalent metal is deposited when a current of 0.45A is passed
through a solution of its salt for 25minutes. Calculate the relative atomic mass of
the metal.
6) (i) A current of 0.72 Amperes was passed through dilute sulphuric acid for 3hrs
20mins. Calculate the quantity of electricity passed.
(ii) Calculate the volume of oxygen (in cm3) evolved at 640mmHg and 530C at the
anode during the electrolysis. [1F=96500Cmol-1, Vm = 22.4dm3]
7) (i) Determine how many moles of electrons are transferred when 4825coulombs
of electricity are passed through an electrolytic cell. [ 1F = 96500Cmol-1]
(ii) Calculate the number of copper (II) ions that will be discharged by 0.250F.
[Avogadro's constant = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1]

8) Calculate the current in Amperes that will deposit 20.0g of calcium from fused
CaCl2 in 1hr 45minutes. [Ca= 40.0, 1F =96500Cmol-1]
9) A current of 1.25A was passed through an electrolyte cell containing dilute
H2SO4 for 40minutes.
(i)Write a balanced equation for the:
CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 12
 I oxidation half equation.
II reduction half reaction.
III overall reaction.
(ii) Calculate the volume of gas produced at the anode at s.t.p.
[ 1F= 96500Cmol-1, Molar volume of gas at s.t.p. = 22.4dm3-mol-1]
10) Calculate the amount of silver deposited in moles when 10920 coulombs of
electricity are passed through a solution of a silver salt.
11) 0.45g of a metal M was deposited when a current of 1.8 amperes was passed for
12.5mins through a solution containing M2+. Calculate the relative atomic mass of M.
[ 1F= 96500Cmol-1]
12) Calculate the volume of oxygen evolved at 285K and 0.91 x 105 N/m2when a
current of 2.5A is passed through acidified water for 1.5mins.
[ Vm= 22.4dm3mol-1, standard pressure = 1.01 x 105 N/m2; 1F= 96500Cmol-1]

(ii) Faraday’s second law: Faraday’s second law states that when the same
quantity of electricity is passed through different electrolytes, the relative
numbers of moles of the elements deposited are inversely proportional to the
charges on the ions of the elements.

Q1: An electrochemical cell contains CuSO4 and AgNO3 solutions linked using a salt
bridge. A current is passed for 10mins and 0.635g of copper was found to be
deposited on the cathode of the CuSO4 cell. Calculate the mass of silver deposited
on the cathode of AgNO3 cell during the same time. [Cu=63.5, Ag=108]

SOLUTIONS

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 13

 0.635×193000
Q= =1930C
63.5
Recall: Ag+ + e- Ag
Using: Q=m×nF/Ar; m=?; Ar=108
nF=e- =1F=96,500C
1930×108
m= =2.16g
96500
Hence, after 10mins of electrolysis
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
2.16g of silver (Ag) was deposited.
Q=m×nF/Ar; m=0.635g; Ar=63.5; Q=?
nF=2e- =2F=2×96,500C=193,000C

Q2: A current is passed through three electrolytic cells connected in series

containing solutions of silver nitrate, copper (ii) sulphate and brine respectively. If
12.7g of copper are deposited in the second electrolytic cell, calculate
(a) The mass of silver deposited in the first cell,
(b) The volume of chlorine liberated in the third cell at 170C and 800mmHg
pressure. [Cu=63.5, Ag=108, 1F= 96500Cmol-1, Vm = 22.4dm3mol-1]

WEEK 6: RUSTING (CORROSION OF METALS)

Corrosion is the process whereby metals react with moisture and air to form
oxides. The metals gradually deteriorate. When corrosion is applied to iron and
steel, it is called rusting. Rusting is an electrochemical process.
Iron rusts when it comes in contact with air and water because electrochemical
cells are set up on the surface of contact.
At the anode: At the anode or anodic region, iron is oxidized to give iron (II) ions,
Fe2+.
Fe(s) Fe2+ + 2e-
At the cathode: oxygen from the air dissolves in the water layer.
O2 + 2H2O(l) + 4e- 4OH-(aq)
Both Fe2+ and OH- settle down as iron (ii) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2. This is further
oxidized by the dissolved oxygen to form brown hydrated iron (iii) oxide, Fe2O3.
xH2O or rust. Rust is soft and breaks off easily and the metal below continues to
rust.
Methods of preventing rusting
• Painting
• Oiling/Greasing
• Coating with plastic
• Electroplating
• Galvanizing
CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 14
• Sacrificial protection
• Cathodic protection
(1) Painting: Ships, Lorries, cars, bridges and many other iron and steel
structures are painted to prevent rusting. However, if the paint is scratched, the
iron beneath it will start to rust and corrosion can then spread under the paintwork
which is still in good condition. This is why it is essential that the paint is kept in
good condition and checked regularly.
(2) Oiling/ greasing: The iron and steel in the moving parts of machinery are
coated with oil to prevent them from coming into contact with air or moisture. This
is the most common way of protecting moving parts of machinery, but the
protective film must be renewed regularly.
(3) Coating with plastic: The exteriors of refrigerators, washing machines,
freezers and many other items are coated with plastic, such as PVC (Poly Vinyl
Chloride), to prevent the steel structure from rusting.
(4) Galvanizing: Galvanizing is the process of applying protective zinc coating to
steel or iron, to prevent rusting. Galvanizing protects in two ways:
• It forms a coating of corrosion- resistance zinc which prevents
corrosive substances from reaching the more delicate part of the metal
being protected.
• The zinc serves as a sacrificial anode so that even if the coating is
scratched, the exposed steel will still be protected by the remaining
zinc.

Zn(s) + Fe2+(aq) Zn2+ (aq) + Fe(s).

So iron is sacrificially protected by zinc.
(5) Sacrificial protection: sacrificial protection is the process of sandwiching an
iron or steel rod between bars of a more reactive metal such as zinc or magnesium
to prevent iron or steel from rusting.
Bars of zinc are attached to the hulls of ships and to oil rigs. Zinc is above
iron in the reactivity series and will react in preference to iron and zinc is slowly
corroded.
Zn(s) + Fe2+(aq) Zn2+ (aq) + Fe(s).
The zinc is sacrificed to protect the steel or iron. Electrons released from the
dissolving zinc cause reduction to occur at the surface of the hull of a ship.
As long as some zinc bars remain in contact with the iron structure, the
structure will be protected from rusting. When the zinc runs out, it must be
renewed.

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 15

(6) Cathodic protection: This is a protection of a metal structure from corrosion
under water by making it act as an electrical cathode. A simple method of
protection connects the metal to be protected to a more easily corroded
"sacrificial metal" to act as the anode. The sacrificial metal then corrodes instead
of the protected metal. Cathodic protection systems protect a wide range of
metallic structures in various environments.
Common applications are: water or fuel steel pipelines and steel storage
tanks such as home water heaters; ship and boat hulls; offshore oil platforms and
onshore oil well casings.

Differences between Sacrificial protection and cathodic protection.

Sacrificial protection Cathodic protection
1 It is an electrochemical cell i.e. It is an electrolytic cell i.e.
chemical reaction is used to electrical energy is used to carry
generate electricity. out the reactions.
2 No electrolyte is required. Sea water acts as an electrolyte.
3 No external power source. There is external power source.
SIMILARITIES
1. In both processes, the anode is sacrificed while the cathode is protected.
2. Both are redox processes.

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 16

 WEEK 8: PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY (TITRATION AND QUALITATIVE
ANALYSIS)
ACID - BASE TITRATIONS/CALCULATIONS
Rules for titration experiment
• All burette readings and average titre must be to 2.d.p since the maximum
error in burette is 0.05cm3.
• Answers to calculations must be to 3 significant figures (3.s.f).
• Answers must have the correct units. No units will attract no marks and
wrong units will attract no marks as well.
• Any alteration on your titration table attracts -1 mark.
• Complete cancellation of a titration table to start a new table attracts -
4marks.

Sample of titration table

Burette readings Rough 1st titre 2nd titre 3rd titre
titre
Final burette 25.80 22.10 24.20 25.00
3
reading/cm
Initial burette 1.00 0.00 2.00 3.00
3
reading/cm
Volume of Acid used/ 24.80 22.10 22.20 22.00
3
cm

22.10 + 22.20 + 22.00

Average titre =
3
66.30
=
3
= 22.10cm3

Important equations on titration

(1) Dilution formula: C1V1 = C2V2
(2) n = CV, Where n= number of moles, C= concentration, V =volume in dm3
CAVA nA
(3) =
CBVB nB
nA:nB = mole ratio of acid to base

Where CA = molar concentration of acid, CB= molar concentration of base

VA = volume of acid, VB = volume of B
(4) Concentration(g/dm3) = Concentration(mol/dm3) x molar mass(g/mol)

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 17

 concentration (g/dm3) of pure substance 100
(5) % purity = x
concentration (g/dm3) of impure substance 1

(6) Volume of gas given off at s.t.p = n x Vm

where n= number of moles
Vm = molar volume

Questions

(1) Calculate (a) the mass of anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, present in
300cm3 of 0.100moldm-3; (b) the number of Na2CO3 particles present in the
solution.
(2) Calculate the volume of 0.25moldm-3 solution of sulphuric acid, H2SO4, which
will contain a mass of 4.5g of the raw acid.
(3) In a titration experiment, 25.00cm3 of 0.100moldm-3 NaOH is needed to
neutralize 21.0cm3 of HCl, calculate the concentration of HCl in:
(i) mol/dm3 (ii) g/dm3 [HCl = 36.5 g/mol]
(4) 12g of a mixture of anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 and sodium chloride,
NaCl, were made up to 1dm3 of aqueous solution. 25cm3 of the mixture were
neutralized by 20.00cm3 of 0.200moldm-3 HCl.
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Calculate the:
(i) Concentration of Na2CO3 in moldm-3.
(ii) Concentration of Na2CO3 in gdm-3.
(iii) % purity of Na2CO3 in the mixture. [Answer = 70.7%]
(5) 28.00cm3 hydrochloric acid, HCl, of mass concentration 4.1gdm-3 neutralized
25.00 of an unknown alkali, XOH, of mass concentration 7.0gdm-3.
HCl(aq) + XOH(aq) XCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Calculate the:
(i) concentration of HCl in moldm-3.
(ii) concentration of XOH in moldm-3.
(iii) molar mass of XOH.
(iv) relative atomic mass of X.

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 18

 WEEK 9: SALT ANALYSIS
(1) Cations: Fe2+, Cu2+, Fe3+, NH4+, Ca2+, Pb2+, Zn2+, Al3+.

Test Observation Inference

1 2cm3 of solution A + Dirty green precipitate formed Fe2+ indicated
NaOH(aq) Ppt insoluble
in drops Fe2+ present
in excess
2cm3 of solution A + Dirty green precipitate formed Fe2+ indicated
NH3(aq) Ppt insoluble
in drops
Fe2+ present
in excess
2 2cm3 of solution B + Reddish brown precipitate Fe3+ indicated
NaOH(aq) formed
in drops Ppt insoluble Fe3+ present
in excess
2cm3 of solution B + Reddish brown precipitate Fe3+ indicated
NH3(aq) formed
in drops Ppt insoluble
Fe3+ present
in excess
3 2cm3 of solution C + Light blue gelatinous ppt Cu2+ indicated
NaOH(aq) formed
in drops Ppt insoluble Cu2+ present
in excess
2cm3 of solution C + Light blue gelatinous ppt Cu2+ indicated
NH3(aq) formed.
in drops ppt soluble giving deep blue Cu2+ present
solution.
in excess
4 2cm3 of solution D + Colourless gas with choking Gas is NH3 from
NaOH(aq) + heat smell evolved. Gas produced NH4+
turned red litmus paper blue.
NH4+ present.
5 2cm3 of solution E + White gelatinous ppt formed Zn2+ , Al3+
NaOH(aq)
in drops
CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 19
 in excess Ppt soluble Zn2+ , Al3+present
2cm3 of solution E + Zn2+ , Al3+
NH3(aq)
White gelatinous ppt formed
in drops
in excess Ppt soluble. Zn2+ present
6 2cm3 of solution F + White gelatinous ppt formed Zn2+ , Al3+
NaOH(aq)
in drops Ppt soluble Zn2+ , Al3+present
in excess
2cm3 of solution F + White gelatinous ppt formed Zn2+ , Al3+
NH3(aq)
in drops Ppt insoluble. Al3+present
in excess
7 2cm3 of solution G + White powdery/curdy ppt Pb2+ , Ca2+
NaOH(aq) formed
in drops Ca2+ present
in excess Ppt insoluble.
8 2cm3 of solution H + White powdery/curdy ppt Pb2+ , Ca2+
NaOH(aq) formed.
in drops Ppt soluble. Pb2+ present
in excess
2cm3 of solution H + White powdery/curdy ppt Pb2+
NH3(aq) formed. Pb2+
in drops Ppt insoluble. present
in excess
2cm3 of solution H + Yellow precipitate formed Pb2+ present
KI(aq)/ K2CrO4(aq)
2cm3 of solution H + dil White precipitate which Pb2+ present
HCl(aq) + warm dissolved on when warmed but
reappeared on cooling

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 20

 (2) Test for anions: Cl- , SO42- , CO32- , S2- , NO3-
TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE
1 2cm3 of solution A
+ dil HNO3(aq) No visible change -
+ AgNO3(aq) White ppt formed Cl- suspected
+ Excess NH3(aq) Ppt dissolved Cl- confirmed
2 Sample B(s) + Effervescence. Colourless and Gas is CO2
dilute HCl + shake odourless gas evolved. CO32- or HCO3- present.
+ limewater Gas turned limewater
milky/cloudy.
3 2cm3 of solution C +
BaCl2(aq) White precipitate formed. SO42-, CO32- or SO32-
+ Excess HCl(aq) White ppt insoluble SO42- present
4 5cm3 of solution D Effervescence. A gas with Gas is H2S
+ HCl(aq) + heat characteristic smell of a rotten S2- present.
egg evolved.
+ lead ethanoate
paper Gas turned lead(II)ethanoate
paper from grey to black.
5 3cm3 of solution of Colourless gas with choking smell Gas is NH3
E + NaOH(aq) + evolved. Gas produced turned NO3- present
Aluminium foil + red litmus paper blue.
heat
3cm3 of solution of A brown ring is formed at the NO3- present.
E+ 3cm3 of freshly junction of the acid and aqueous
prepared layers.
FeSO4(aq)+ 3cm3 of
conc H2SO4 slowly
down the side of
the test tube held
in a slanting position

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 21

 END OF SUMMER YEAR 10 WORK

CHEMISTRY YEAR 10 NOTE SUMMER TERM BROOKSTONE SCHOOL 22