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    5 Biological Sciences : sae ' b Eat ri y 4 ‘ aN oli Biological Sciences ioirevetiverpooL ack al wrslverpool aks Editorial Board Professor Liz Sheild(Chakmar) Professor Kevin O'Dell Plant Science enetes University of Liverpoo University of Glasgow Dr Ceri Harrop Professor Kevin Moffat ell and Tissue Biology Biomedical Sciences The University of Manchester The University of Warwick Protessor Catherine MeCrohan Animal Soione The University of Manchester Martin Rowland Consutan Ei and ordering infomation go to www.hoddereducation.co.uk/magazines or contac Imagazinesubsciptions, Bockpaiat Lt, 130 Park Dive, Mion Patk,Abiogdon, Oxfrdshie OX14 ASE tel, 01235 827827, tax: 01235 400401 tions@bookpoint.co.uk e-mal:subscr For support with access to Bowonca. Secs Rene online archive ‘-mal: eustomerservicemags@ philipallan.co.uk Puts by Her Educator ap Hashete Ux como Benin Cor. Ger Stee Barbi, Onesie X16 SBA, Is0u: oreysi0sasz42 Uso SB to rer mare copes at ‘wwwhedereatin cok (© HODDER & STOUGHTON LD 2018 ISSN 0059-5985 vet phot: ia ase inge fare, hoogephec in London. Thee are cones atte apy emaang ruber of hese tds he eral pect on nah pois Haugh conpeliin tr ethos, Chitegy Le Datn/Any Sek Photo. Oe phas: Rob Benen, Garenis Les Pater Gol. Kew Mota attansed Research Tope, ye ‘ScirelDenis Kink MlroszapySPL 2a Bei Atal Kees Daca shaccnmoon2dviy edn VondeawAlksy Stennererchist/ toch A3/chaka reread eke dogs! KaboaleSeptan Moni Soper! sriglansce epee! ‘doe Stok Pt, Fav AfcaAralnProsa! Ueno Catia ChagmarAlany Sok Pot. Er assistant Max Draeley Publishing edt: Soi Tan Aiwa Ken Val Graphic Design Pritt in eet Bi Broun Sovces Rees abstacted in Soence and Tehnany Abstracts an iormaton Resources (STAR ‘Al este aadassos ne megtrin are covet athe tne of gogo pass, Bo. ec takes no responsi fr he caret ‘ny econnened ses, Bt Be 0) How a parasite can help to protect our agricultural economy Peel l, een Alieftinvaders CREE ey Pee ea ecg CONTENTS Nee ua cecil 38 Pee Megas Your microbiome: what it is and why it matters Elle Lindsay The Atlantic ghost crab Martin Rowland and Geremis Luces Vital statistics Distributions and di Robert Spooner scriptive statistics Upgrade New terms for a new term Martin Rowland Melanism and morphs: the genetics behind the peppered moth story Tom Party Saffron Peter Go ield Using insects to protect crops: biological control of aphids Lucy Alford Spotlight ) The life cycle of a honeybee queen Leo Gamberi Prospects | Becoming a patent attorney Dean Hou! Could rabies be eliminated? How to eradicate a disease Sarah Cleaveland Impact Alien inv 2 tale of two crayfish 57. Zara Gladmal ETE Images of biology kh Be saters in aerial combat Ro pe Your microbiome What it is and why. it Matters ‘AQA: 3.2.4 Cell recognition and the immune system; 3.8.3 Using genome projects Edexcel A: 1.11) Development of obesity: 6 Immunity, infection and forensics Cee en et “i Perce iy Coenen eee eed P Ce ones % Coen nur ea OCR B: 3.2 Pathogens, immunity and disease WIEC Edugas: 2.1.4 Microbiology; a nen en eres ees Gene eed The microorganisms living on and in your body play an FSICMEINes\y important role in your biology and possibly even your mental health. Doctoral researcher Elle Linds: Jains fou. might not think of your body as a The bulk these organisms represent is habitat bu ons of microorganisms RLAAAAGMRLD) consierable-The volume of thehuman mirobiome including bacteria, fungi and viruses gical community | i8 1.5dm*, with a mass of approximately 1kg thrive in the environment you provide. | sierobiota Our relationship with our own microbiome is Researchers call these microorganisms your | sfiroorganisms remarkably complex and we are only just beginning microbiome (or microbiota). They outnumber your to understand the scape interactions and own cells 10 to 1. They occur throughout your body, for example in your our wellbeing and survival, gastrointestinal tract, on your skin and in your lungs (see Figute 1), Mic tin all sites on your body that have sustained The microbes you're born with contact ‘nal environment. The most diverse sites include the We are born with a microbiome already in place ils and the vagina, the least diverse the elbow and the palm Microorganisms are picked up via the birth canal of the hand, The density of microbes also differs depending on location, and later through skin contact. Breast milk also Microorganisms are particularly dense around hair follicles, provides microorganisms that populate a baby’s 2 Biological Sciences Review § gut, so the microbiota diversifis from the first few weeks of life, For the rest of our lives we come into contact with microbes from all kinds of sources, including other people, animals, food and soil These diverse inputs mean that microorganism communities are remarkably variable, even between individuals of the same age. The microbiota we host differ due to factors including our age, gender, ‘occupation, hygiene and genes. They vary more between two different parts of our own body than between the same location on two different people ‘There are remarkable differences, for example, between microorganisms found in the gut and ‘those found on our feet. ‘The method of birth, whether vaginal or by caesarean section (C-section), impacts the infant microbiota. Babies delivered vaginally have microbiota dominated initially by Lactobacillus, ‘whereas that of babies delivered by C-section is dominated by Staphylococci — closely matching the maternal skin. A newborn that has passed through the birth canal ingests the wide varity of bacteria present in vaginal secretions and faeces, while G-sections result in newborns being colonised by bacteria from the tools used during surgery and the mothers skin. The microbiome of a baby born by C-section is therefore much less diverse than that of a baby born vaginally. It i thought that the microbiome formed via contact with the birth canal helps build the immune system and improve digestive efficiency better than the microbiome resulting from C-seetions, Good, bad and indifferent microbes The good Microbes and humans have a long history of cooperating with one another. Some microbial genes directly benefit us and other species, as they code for enzymes that hydrolyse food we are incapable of digesting alone, or code for proteins that form essential nutrients, Microbes within our large intestine make vitamins we can’t produce, such as B vitamins, which are important in DNA synthesis and repair. Gut microbes also help release energy from fats and proteins in our diet, allowing us to convert more energy from the food we eat. Molecules made by gut microbes. center the blood stream and perform a variety of functions. They can stimulate our cells to store ‘energy as fat or glycogen, they determine how we respond to insulin and can even regulate appetite and weight gain. The diversity of intestinal microorganism communities in obese individuals differs from that of lean individuals. Obese people have a higher proportion of Gram-negative to Gram-positive microbes in their guts, concentration of lipopolysaccharides, which has This increases the vwnwhoddereducationcouk/bologcasciencesteview _--Mouth, pharynx, respiratory system Streptococcus viridans ‘Neisseria sicea Candida albicans Streptococcus salvarius Stomach and intestines Helicobacter pylori Bacteroides fragilis Streptococcus thermophilus Lactobacillus reuteri Lactobacillus case! Escherichia coll Lactobacilus gasseri Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron Urogenital tract Ureaplasma parvum Corynebacterium aurimucosum Skin Pityrosporum ovale Staphylococcus epidermidis Corynebacterium jeikeium Trichosporon Staphylococcus haemolyticus ae al we determined by the method of thelr delivery WGrteesacrece (L) Colonisation Microorganisms growing in an environment. ‘Commensal A relationship in which one organism benefits and the ather remains unaffected Enteric pathogen Pathogen inthe gut. ‘Gram-positive/Gram-negative Gram-positive bacteria have one cell surface ‘membrane and a thick cell wall. Gram-negative bacteria have a thin cll wall and an additional outermost membrane. The name refers to whether or not they stan with crystal violet, Metagenome Al the genetic material within an envionment, from all the many ‘organisms present, Microbiome The microbial community, or microbiota, present, as wel s their ‘genomes. (Blomes are distinct biological communities that occupy a physical habitat, 9, out bodies.) [Microbiota A community of microorganisms found in one location, Personalised medicine Medical treatments tallored tothe patient based on his/her Ea Ree In the laboratory iti possible to produce animals free ‘rom microorganisms 'germ-fre’), These animals allow scientists to go beyond correlation and prove ‘cause and effect. For example, bactotal species in the gut ofan obese mouse might be there by chance, 25 the result of arch diet. Showing that you can transfer gut bacteria from an obese mouse into @ germ tree mouse and cause it to become obese is far ‘more compelling evidence that microbes contribute to obesity (see Figure 2), are fewer kinds of microbes to carry out the vast array of beneficial tasks that occut in a healthy individual. It is also thought that many of the bacteria in Crohn's patients invade the intestinal individual needs, responses and rks wall and cause inflammation. Probiotics Live microorganisms ingested to give health benefit, Studies are currently being carried out to Proliferation Rapid increase in number determine the gut microbiome community structure in Crohn’ patients in comparison to healthy individuals. A greater understanding of been shown to generate chronic inflammation in mice and can lead to insulin which microorganisms are overrepresented or resistance, Figure 2 shows that if the intestinal microbiome from an obese mouse underrepresented in affected individuals and how onor colonises a germ-free mouse, the recipient mouse gains weight (see Box 1), this impacts theie health will allow new treatments Other microorganisms affect our immunity by releasing compounds that to be developed. ‘educeiiflammation and prevent the immune system from overreacting, Within the gut, commensal microbes suppress the proliferation and colonisation of |The indifferent enteric pathogens in a variety of ways, including inhibiting pathogen growth and increasing the host’ barrier function, This is achieved through increasing The vast majorityof microbes in our biome appear to be harmless. Most are simply living there the thickness ofthe mucus layer in the gut, inducing antimicrobial molecules because our internal and external environments and regulating antibody secretion, suit their requirements, Determining the exact The bad Many health conditi ulcers and asthma, involve your microbiome. The mictobiome is thought role of a microbe in our bodies is challenging as many studies find tantalising correlations, but ns, including acne, dental caries, obesity, gastric show no solid links between cause and effect With such a wide variety of microbes present, it to be intimately associated with Crohn's disease — a chronic inflammatory. is difficult to identify the function of any speific condition affecting the gut. In people with Crohn’s disease, microbial one. The only way to know for sute 1 fo ses dive Obese twin Microbiota transplant Recipient mice Lean twin y \ fF \ 'yin the guts reduced, This may affect immune interactions, as there the effect of removing that microbe, but targeted Low-fat, high-fibre diet Increased adiposity e I Dosen, "A s) high-fibre | ‘ ‘diet Lean Figure 2. Transplanting microbiota to ‘germ-free’ mice bred inthe laboratory can demonstrate the role of gut microbes in obesity 4 Biological Sciences Review September 2018, Oe Cea eee ane removal of one species is often impossible, The microbiome is dynamic and there are microbe. microbe interactions as well as host-microbe interactions and environmental effects (such as pH, temperature and diet). This means many relationships must be taken into account when tuying to ascertain function. In order to understand our own personal ecosystem, we must fitst identify all the different bacteria, eukaryotes and viruses that make up ‘our microbiome, In the past, this was an almost impossible task, and could only be achieved by culturing and then identifying individual bacteria in the laboratory. A single 1g faecal sample might contain 1 billion individuals of 20000 different species. Identifying these using traditional approaches would be a lifetime's work. Until recently DNA sequencing methods did not allow assessment of more than one DNA sequence at a time. This meant having to culture each bacterial species in clonal cultures, where all of the cells present and their DNA are identical, Furthermore, many {if not most) bacteria have complex growth requirements and. cannot be cultured at all Next-generation sequencing has made the study of micrabiomes possible (see Box 2). We can now read millions of DNA sequences directly from millions of bacteria without culturing them first and then use powerfull computer algorithms to sift through the terabytes of data generated. This wwychoddereducationco.k/bologicalscencesteview research has shown that bacterial genes in your body outnumber your own by & massive 100 to 1. ‘The Human Microbiome Project (HMP) began in 2008. The aim was to map the human microbiome and analyse how it interacts with human health and, disease. The HMP has characterised the different microbial communities throughout the body, in different age groups, in men and women, in developed and developing worlds, and between metropolitan elites and Hadza hunter gatherers of Tanzania. The HMP aims to answer questions such as whether there is a ‘core’ microbiome at each site in the body, and to understand the relationship between lifestyle, diet and disease, and changes in the human microbiome, Huge progress has been made in characterising the human microbiome, and there are many potential lines of inquiry that could be pursued as research Next-generation methods available for sequencing ONA and RNA are also known as “high-throughput sequencing’. These are more efficient and quicker than previous sequencing approaches, Sequencing tells us the order of nucleotides inthe section of DNA being studied This can be beneficial when trying to identify unknown species or in medical cliagnosis of genetic conditions (see Further reading for a video). ‘© A machine ‘reads’ the sequences of milion of strands of DNA molecules at the same time. * The DNA molecules of interest are cleaved into short stands, amplified and separated into single strands to be read, Nucleotides with fluorescent labels are added, with each nucleotide base having a different colour * These labelled nucleotides use the single stranded DNA template to forma complementary DNA strand, Oue tothe fluorescent labels, the sequencing machine detects the order in which the bases were added. This results in the DNA sequence Be. | Go online to revise the human microbiome. _wavw hoddereducation.co.ukibioreviewextras continues. As understanding increases, so too does the number of questions about the microbiome and its role as helper or hindrance. Big questions must be explored, including which features are inherited, whether microbial taxonomic Broups are being lost and gained on evolutionary timescales and whether the ‘metagenome can predict risks for specific human diseases. New frontiers are opening up daily. There are suggestions that gut bacteria stimulate the brain via the vagus nerve, which is a collection of approximately 500 million neurones that form the backbone of the parasympathetic nervous system (see Figure 3). Gut bacteria make some of the molecules that stimulate the brain, including GABA, serotonin and acetylcholine. This may be why links have been found between, ‘microbe-related intestinal disorders and mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression, Our understanding is in its infancy, but future treatments for these disorders could potentially stem from manipulating gut microbes. ‘Stool bacteria can be transferred from a healthy donorinto a diseased recipient, in an attempt to restore healthy colonic microbiota, Such faecal microbiota transplants have been successful in patients suffering from Clostridium difficile infection, which causes diarthoea, fever, nausea and abdominal pain, Research is investigating whether such transplants can be used to help other hon-gasttoenterologic conditions such as Parkinson’s disease and obesity As our understanding of host-microbiome interactions grows, so t00 will our ability to diagnose diseases. Associations between human conditions and particular microbiota characteristics are appearing, For example, obese individuals have a reduced ratio of Bacteroidetes to Firmicutes, and people with inflammatory bowel disease have been found to have larger populations of Enterobacteriaceae In the future mictobiome monitoring in medicine might be used to diagnose disease, predict prognoses, create personalised dietary interventions and lead to increased use of probiotics to regain a healthy microbiome. Enhanced lunderstanding should also help determine how to manipulate the microbiota to reap health benefits and herald a new era of personalised medicine. The Possible areas of investigation seem limitless and rather overwhelming at the ‘moment but in time this frontier could revolutionise the way we look at the human ecosystem, ' The microbiome of an organism changes over time, How could we find out if flexibility in the microbial community composition helps the host individual adapt to changing environments? eee Learn Genetics page on the human microblome: www.tinyurl.com/nutgszy Video from Brown University about the human microbiome: www youtube.com/watch?v=ugg3lynibég The Human Micobiome Project: https:ithmpdace.org/ Next-generation sequencing explained: www.youtube.com/watch? Figure 3. the brain-gut axis: potential interactions between the gut microbiota and the central and Peripheral nervous systems © Some bacteria are found to be inherently harmful to the host. How could we alter microbiota to replace harmful bacteria with helpful species? Paes ‘The human body does not function in isolation. We {are home to many microbes, some of which help us function, ‘Some of our microbes appear to have no effect an us, others generate health conditions inluding obesity, intestinal and mental disorders * Just as the microbes affect us, we have an impact ‘an the microbes, which results in diferences inthe microbial species present on aifferent parts of the human body. ‘We already manipulate our microbial communities to give us health benefits, and current research wl extend our ability todo this, Biological Sciences Review September 2018 The Atlantic ghost crab | SU eet este ete koa occ RU NACE CRC nel Rs Co Ce On Rec ae aco Perens Ten See Are sn ccd are aquatic animals, But although the Adantic ghost Sen eta ae ec et ear eee ee ey ee es een ee Pen eceattts haet tse ese eats Burrows of old adults have been found in sand dunes over 300 metres inland from the sea, in Pree yee en acre Tae ee COs eGR eae ‘material and even each other. They can swivel their prominent, stalked eyes through 360°, giving them SRC a eat one Say Creer eee ea te ec eee Seek oa eee ere eT system of the Atlantic ghost crab consists of gills. Although the proportion of oxygen in air is around 21% and in sea water less than 1%, without the PUN eee eo seer ce een eens Pers So although adult crabs spend most of their time on land, they are often sven seuttling fo the retreating surf, where they moisten their gills. They also. release their larvae into the sea Sadly, human affection for sandy beaches has led toa decline in distribution Se a ene ee ere eee eee Oe ee en Pee eee eee cee ey Aulantic ghost crabs are mainly restricted to inaccessible beaches, Ra Muka te Say MM Ce) Distributions and descriptive statistics A description of raw data is key to summarising findings in biology. Senior teaching fellow Robert Spooner explains how to use simple statistics to describe your data Tite swcishts of newily-hatched amphipods (small, shrimp-tike crustaceans), when plotted as a frequency curve, produce abell-shaped (or normal) curve. Figure 1a shows a typical normal distribution with a symmetrical distribution of frequency data sorted into non-overlapping, Value ranges. With more data, the distribution could be described by a smooth curve. Human birth weight and the body temperature of adult humans also follow this normal distribution, Compiled class results of ‘an experiment 1o measure rates of enzyme action tend to form a bell- shaped curve, Skewed distributions However, biological data are not always normally distributed. Figure 1b shows a skewed distribution with a tail of lower values to the right: i's a ight-skewed (or positive-skewed) distribution. Examples of this type of distribution include: ' sulfate pollution of streams in Maryland, USA: small numbers of streams have high sulfate levels, and a large number have relatively low levels ® infection with gonorthoea: the majority of diagnoses are made in 15-24 year olds, decreasing with age (2) Symmetrical, normal () Right skewed Frequency Frequency = the lengths of our genes determined by the Human, Genome Project: many relatively short genes and fewer long genes If there were a tail of lower values to the eft of the peakiit would bea leftskewed (or negatively-skewed) distribution ‘An example of this is the age at death of people in developed countries, where most people die old, and fewer die at younger ages. Some data fall into a frequency distribution with two peaks (a bimodal distribution, see Figure 1c). The size of worker weaver ants follows @ bimodal distribution. ‘The ‘major’ workers (which forage for food and defend the colony) are 8-10 mm in length and the ‘minor’ workers (which care for the brood) are about 4-5 mm in length. Heights of adult people also follow a bimodal distribution, with men generally taller than women. ‘Measures of distribution These simple descriptions can be made more informative, and for this you need to understand measures of central (0 bimodal Frequency v i Value Figure 1 Three distributions. (a) The normal distribution, distribution. (¢)A bimodal distribution, with two peaks. Ina I cases, the xaxis is sorted into non-overlapping ranges (forthe histogram) 8 a bell-shaped curve that iss Value ‘Yaean WY Median W Mode symmetrical about the mean value. (b) A right-skewed ‘8 continuous scale (for the dotted line) ofa continuous scale Biological Sciences Review September 2018 tendency and also measures of spread, Measures of central tendency are those that give some kind of ‘average’ value located in the total range of possible measures. Measures of spread givea value for the variability of the data (how widely they are spread about the ‘average’ that you've chosen). Measures of central tendency The mean, median and mode are all measures of central tendency of a set of data, in effect acting as representative values forthe whole data set. Mean ‘The arithmetic mean or sample mean is by far the most commonly used measure of central tendency, and is simply the average of all the values collected. The symbol usually given to the mean is #, pronounced ‘x-bar’. The arithmetic ‘mean can be written algebraically: where E, the Greek leter ‘sigma’, means ‘sum of" All you need to know isthe values that you have measured, and the total number of measurements made (1). is the sum of all the values of the observations (measurements) divided by the total number of observations, In Figure 1, the positions of the means for the three distributions are shown by blue arrowheads. For the normal distribution, the mean lies at the peak of the bell-shaped curve in a position that feels intuitively correct, since itis the average. For the other two distributions the mean position Cee wax hoddereducationcouk/biologcalsclencereviw fe). @ eae aR a) To obtain the median, rank the observations from smallest to largest \When there is an odd numberof observations, the median isthe middle one, with as many values above it as below it. So if there were 11 observations ranked from smallest to largest, the median would be the value ofthe sixth ‘observation If there is an even numberof observations, the median isthe average of the ‘two middle values when the data are ranked by sie. Tus, if there were ten ‘observations, the median isthe average of the value of the fifth observation and the value ofthe sth observation. is less intuitive, It lies away from the peak in a skewed distribution (Gee Figure 1b), and it lies somewhere between the peaks of a bimodal distribution (see Figure tc). Median The median is the middle observation in a set of data that is organised from smallest to largest. Half of the values of the measurements made lie above the median, and half below. While this makes sense fora set of measurements where nis an odd number, itis alittle harder to grasp when nisan even number —here the median is taken as the average (arithmetic mean) of the two middle observations. In Figure 1, the position of the median is shown as the pink arrowhead. For the normal distribution, the median has the same value as the arithmetic mean (see Figute 1a), but for the other distributions, the median and the mean have different values See Box 1 for how to work out a median, eee ee ‘= Fora normal distribution, use the mean s SD. Together these tell the reader about how variable the data are. * For a skewed distribution, give the mode and the median. If the modes ‘ess than the median, the reader knows that you are describing aright-skewed tstribution.f the mode is greater than the median, the reader knows itis a left-skewed distribution, * Fora bimodal distribution, give the values ofthe two modes. ‘Mode The mode is the most frequent observation, As shown in Figure 1 (green arrowheads), it has the same value as the mean and median if ‘he distribution is bell-shaped, the single-peak position for a skewed distibution, and there are two modes for a bimodal population, Box 2 explains when you should use the mean, the median and the mode Measures of spread Standard deviation (SD) To measure the spread of normal distributions, you need to work out the standard deviation (SD). The normal curve crops up frequently in biology and itis the SD with which we ate often concerned. Describing the spread of data around a median ora mode for non-normal distributions is complex and beyond the scope of yous A-level specification, ‘The formula for SD (See Box 3) is: a ——l Book 12 1m~(b1 + b2+b3+b4+ 5+ b6+b7 +b8-+b9+b10+bI1)m Figure 2. Degrees of freedom, When sampli know when you've taken n=1 samples 3, you know all you need to 10 1 The average family has 2.4 children, Does this mean value have any meaning? Would it be improved by giving a standard deviation? 2 Describe the distributions shown in each of the four graphs in Figure 3 as simply as you can @ Oo 2 2 £ | | i os 6 3 0306 5 2 36 3 2 0 3 6 9 axis values axis values Figure 3 3 Although the SI unit of pressure isthe Pascal (Pa), sphygmomanometers (blood pressure gauges) are still calibrated in an older unit (mmHg, the length of a column of ‘mercury supported by the pressure), Systolic pressure isthe pressure in arteries during contraction of heart muscle. These systolic pressures (in mm¥g) were measured in a sample of Patients visting a doctor's surgery: 128,137, 110,129, 125, 151,152, 132, ‘9 What isthe sample size, n? bb Whats the sum ofthese measurements? «What isthe mean value (give units)? What isthe sum of squared differences from the mean? {© How many degrees of freedom are there? What isthe variance (the sum of squared differences from the mean divided by the degrees of freedom) ofthese measurements (give units)? {9 What is the standard deviation (give units)? 4 A cheetah catches the glint of light from your binoculars, decides you are prey, accelerates rapidly and hits top speed a5 it passes a tree that you happen to know is 880m away. The only weapons you have are your bran and your internet- ‘equipped mobile phone. Fortunately, the adrenalin shock ‘makes your brain work superfast and a quick surf reveals thatthe average hungry cheetah will run at top speed for 28 (21.4) seconds, covering 2001 every 7 secands before giving ‘up. What are your chances of getting a good mauling fat the very least? (Aoswers on p. 19) Biological Sciences Review September 2018 Err eed ‘The standard deviation ($0) I the square root () af the variance, whichis the squared sum ofthe differences ofthe \alue ofeach observation and the calculated arithmetic mean, all divided by the degrees of freedom (which is one less tha the numberof observations, or n-1). Squaring the differences from the mean removes negative signs, meaning thatthe tunis of the variance are the squares ofthe units ofthe mean Therefore if you take the square root ofthe variance, cut pops | the so with the same units as the mean, Why isthe value ofthe divior n-1, rather than just n? What does “degrees of freedom mean? Here, an analogy might help (see Figure 2) Imagine you have a bookshelf that is 1 mete lng filled with 12 books of ifferent widths (ot, b2,b3. 2), but you don't know the widths of any of the books (that they ate fre tobe any size as long as thei otal width is ‘m), Take out book 1 and measure its width, take out book 2 and measure its width, and so onto book 11, There's no need to measure book 12, because you already know its width it is Tm=(Bt-+b2+b3...+bIT)m, Eleven of the books can be regarded as having independent ‘widths befere you start measuring them, but te last one not have an independent width it depends on the length of the shell). It doesn't matter in which order you select the books, the last book you select has no freedom to be any size Thus, when sampling, you know everything about the «sampled population when you have m ‘one obser less than the total umbe. In the case of a sampled population, itis nota bookshelf that determines ths, tis the mean. In 3 sample of n observations, ane of them has no freedom {its not independent) and thats Why 1 is used, hskevedhncaton. co nkthioloyicabicecosevin Putting mean and SD together The SD standard deviation are quoted together, with the SD in brackets, eg, 24 1s a measure of the variability of a dataset, The mean and 3). Rather nicely, the normal curve is also a probability curve, with about 68% of the data values within 1 SD of the mean and about 95% within 2 SD, This gives the reacler an intuitive feeling for the shape of the distribution, so itis more informative than the range (the distance between the largest and smallest values). Ifthe SD value is small relative to the mean, there is litle variation. Ifit is large relative to the mean, there is a wide spread of variation. Thus you would write something like this: the average speed (and SD) of a hungry cheetah chasing prey is 115 (27.5) kinh clearly that approximately two-thirds of hungry cheetahs run between 112.5 and 117.5kmb-!and about 95% of hungry Ho and 120kmby The reader now understands cheetahs run at between Giving a mean and standard deviation immediately gives a reader a feel for the data set, which makes aay conclusions drawn from that data set easier to understand, Once those values have been derived, this allows an experimenter 10 ask a key question: if | have two samples of data with similar standard deviations, are tie means sufficiently different that I could regard these samples as different? For example, do cheetahs chasing prey run ata different speed from those escaping, the means so close that realistically, there is little difference between these two samples of data? This brings us to the brink of hypothesis , which we'll tackle in the next Vili lion? Or are CD ee a nue ase SC nic mented VSS en TT BLy Cas ike al A-level subjects, biology has ts own subject-specific terminology. It includes terms with precise meanings that may be different from ‘heir meaning in everyday speech. For example, in molecular biology the ‘meaning of the word probe is different from the standard meaning of a bluntended surgical instrument. To be successful, you must learn these terms, be able to recall them and be able to use them correctly to answer fr sponse questions, Terminology in exam questions Simple recall Box 1 shows two types of question that test simple recall of terminology (atest of assessment objective 1 or AOL). Question 1 asks fora definition ofa given term. Question 2 gives a definition and asks for the term to which the definition applies. Questions like these always have a low mark tatiff. They are often placed at the start of a longer structured question, providing an uncomplicated guide to help students identify the topic area that the rest of the question covers. Questions like those in Box 1 can ofien be reassuring, Ifyou know the meaning of the term photouropism you can answer question 1 quickly and be confident you have gained the mark, On the other hand, if you don't know the answer, you can leave the question unanswered and go.on to the next one, confident you missed only 1 marke and have ot wasted Valuable examination time Free-response questions Free-tesponse questions, which have a higher mark tariff, seem to cause more problems with terminology. When answering these questions, itis important to show not only that you have learnt subject-specific tetms but that you can use them correctly. In their homework, my own students often used a subject-specific term and wondered why | did not Pea econ eee Causa vel) 1 Whats meant by the term phototropism? 2 Tick the box by the name ofthe stage of mitosis in which sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles ofa cel Clanaphase —[jmetaphase ]prophase (ais (1) Ditelophase 12 award them an appropriate mark. | had to remind them that, although it appeared in one of the marking points in the mark scheme, they had not used the tetm correctly. Common mistakes Looking through examiner reports covering the past few years, certain common errors in the use of particular terms emerge. Five of these are covered below. Active site Since they catalyse all metabolic reactions, enzymes commonly feature in biology exam papers. They are so important that teachers usually cover their mode of action and properties early in the first term of an A-level biology course. Examiner reports highlight two common errors made by students, ‘The first error is to use the term ‘active site’ to refer to part of any protein with a shape that is complementary to another molecule. You must make it clear in your answers that an active site is part of an enzyme molecule and of nothing else. It is not part of a substrate molecule, an antibody molecule or a receptor protein on the surface ‘membrane of a cell The second error is to use the wrong model of enzyme action in answers. Although GCSE specifications include the locke-and-key model, A-level specifications require you to use the induced-fit model (see Figure 1). The difference lies in the nature of the active site. In the lockand-key model, the enzyme's active site has a fixed shape that is complementary to part of the substrate molecule. In the induced-fit model, the reaction between enzyme and substrate changes the shape of the enzyme's active site, so that it becomes complementary to the part of the substrate ‘molecule to which it binds, The induced-fit model better reflects evidence now available about enzyme-substrate interactions CEI Go online for model answers tothe questions in Box 1; ) ‘wvewhoddereducation.co.uk/bioreviewextras an Biological Sciences Review September 2018, Rivers and lakes are examples off Cine saris the Tra different blological communities 0 fot biotic factor which has a powerful influence on the other organisms cae wathodereducatoncoukbiologicalscienceseview Slight change in shape of active site as substrate molecule fis, {and reaction takes place +ATP Hexokinase: ‘Two polypeptide chains make up the enzyme Figure 1A computer-generated representation of the induced-fit model of enayme action Biodiversity Habitat diversity i, ‘The nature of any habitat is shaped by abiotic factors Biodiversity is an issue that is seldom out of the news, but it has 2 range 7 i * of meanings. evel biologists ate expected to be precise about which of {Chemical and physical factors) and biotic factors (resulting : from the presence of organisms). This, in turn, affects which the thee following types of biodiversity they mean, ‘organisms can survive there, Habitats can be classified, e.g, Genetic diversity as terrestrial, freshwater or marine, Each can be further ‘The organisms in one population have the same genes that encode the ° Dae eae habitats include streams, rivers, saine type of polypeptides. They do not, however, have identical copies 8 8 of these genes, There can be several different types of allele within a population, Genetic diversity relates o the number of these alleles of each gene, It can be defined in different acceptable ways, e.g, © the different alletes of genes in a population 1 the variety of alleles in a gene pool the percentage of gene variants in a genome i Agenenitmoe than on testo bepaymorphic Sade Pee NS the ner Oe pecs na habitat studying the OCR Biology specifications could be asked to quantify (DNA i sure of the number of ‘genetic diversity using the following formula, species diversity: a measure of the number of different species and the number of individuals in each species in a Species diversity In common usage, when people refer to biodiversity they stally mean species diversity, Even when correctly referring to species diversity, A-level biologists must distinguish between: Proportion of —__number of polymorphic loci habitat Polymorphic loci “~~ total number of fot In an Adevel biology exam, students could be asked fo quantify species divetsity by calculating an index of An individual with (wo different alleles of the same gene is said to diversity, Check your specification to see which formule the be heterozygous for that gene, Students studying the Edexcel Biology A examination board expects you to se. specification could be asked to quantify genetic diversity using the flowing fmm Hydrogen bond between organic bases number of heterozygous Deonribore heterozygosity ____ individuals in population index(H) umber ofindividuats in population — Phosphate group r Phoiphodlester peeerss te) >} bond Alleles Different base sequences ofa single gene, leading tothe production of Polypeptides with slightly different amino-acid sequences, ‘Anneal Complementary DNA bases anneal when they form hydrogen bonds between themselves. Habitat An environmental area in which organisms lve. Index of diversity measure ofthe numberof species in a habitat and ofthe ‘numberof individuals of each species Loci Plural of focus, the specific position ofa gene on a chromosome, Population All the organisms of ane species living ina single habitat Assingle nucleotide Figure 2_ Part of a DWA molecule showing two antiparallel polynucleotides. A, C, G and T represent the organic bases Adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine 14 Biological Sciences Review September 2018, econ tip squash ele ee DNA base or DNA nucleotide? ADNA molecule contains two polynucleotides. In other ‘words, thas wo long chains of monomers, called nucleotides (see Figure 2), Each DNA nucleotide has three components an organic base, a molecule of deoxyribose and a phosphate ‘group, The bases are structurally important. 1 Phosphodiester bonds between each base and the phosphate group of the next mucleotide in the chain hold the polynucleotide together. ‘Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases hold the two DNA polynucleotides together The sequence of bases encodes the order of amino acids ima polypeptide ‘An ertor made by many students isto use the terms base and nucleotide interchangeably. Examiners expect answvers to state clearly that it is nucleotides, not bases, that are added to a developing DNA strand during DNA replication (year 1 of Acevel) and during the polymerase chain reaction (year 2 of A-level). They also expect answers to make clear that DNA polymerase catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds linking adjacent nucleotides and not the formation of hydrogen bonds between complementary bases on opposite polynucleotides. Energy ‘The concept af energy crops up several times during A-level biology. The first-year subject content includes the activation wwachoddereducation cowi/bologicalscienceseview energy of metabolic reactions and the concept of ATP as ‘universal energy currency’ in cells. The second:year content includes the synthesis of ATP, in both respiration and the lightdependent reaction of photosynthesis, and aspects of ecological energetics ‘Examiners will not award marks to statements such as the following: 1 ‘Respiration produces energy.’ This statement defies the first law of thermodynamics, which states that energy can be transformed from one form to another but cannot be created or destroyed, A better statement "would be that respiration produces ATP or that respiration releases energy. = ‘During photosynthesis, light is converted into organic molecules’ Again, the first law of thermodynamics tells us that enesgy can be ttansformed from one form to another but not that it can be transformed into chemical compounds. Primer or probe? Primers and probes are both short sequences of nucleotides. In both cases, they could consist of DNA nucleotides or RNA nucleotides. It is, therefore, not surprising that many students confuse the two terms. ‘Table 1 summarises their main differences. 1. A comparison of primers and probes ety Primer Probe Length 18-20 nucleotides 100-1000 nucleotides Function ‘Acts asa starting point Locates the presence of a forthe synthesis of DNA speicbase sequence na sample of DNA or RNA Used naturallyin Yes, during DNA No cals? replication Use in laboratory NA primers used in PCR Not used in PCR techniques toenable start of NA Labelled using Muorescent synthesis label Not usually labeled Primer ‘The enzyme DNA polymerase can only synthesise a new DNA strand if there isa short pre-existing strand, In other words, itadds new nucleotides to an existing strand but cannot start from scratch. This is where a primer comes in, During DNA replication, human cells produce short RNA primers that allow DNA polymerase to begin a new DNA strand. In laboratory techniques involving DNA polymerase, eg, gene sequencing, and the polymerase chain reaction, scientists use DNA primers that have the same role but are heat stable. Probe Im everyday speech, a probe is a blunt instrument used to examine something. In genetic engineering, probes are used (0 locate particular sequences in nucleic acids. This could involve: 1 finding a target DNA sequence, eg in a harmful allele of a gene ‘© finding a target RNA sequence, e.g. to locate specific mRNA molecules ina cell In both cases the probe is designed with a base sequence that is complementary to the target nucleic acid, so that it will anneal with it ‘The probe is usually labelled with a fluorescent label, so that it can be pinpointed. Prt eae eae ners ec ir con errr) ate et eT Re ed =< = tt (tC LU Melanism and morphs The genetics behind the peppered moth story The changing populations of dark and pale forms of the peppered moth is a MMeclipM classic example of Darwinian selection in action. Here Master's student Tom Parry explains recent molecular discoveries about its genetic morphs ppered moths (Riston betularia) are wings of this new form, which Edleston called small night-flying insects, found all carbonaria, stood out against the pale bark in his across the world. They spend their days evading predators by settling on the trunks and branches of trees, relying on their Manchester garden. Rapid industrialisation later mottled-white wings for camouflage. In 1848, ght wide-scale pollution to many UK cities, a much darker moth was spotted by an English Key words Q Association mapping Genome sequencing Evolution Recombination Transposable element and trees, This change in environment set the stage for one of the most famous examples of evolutionary change oot and grime blackening the buildings naturalist called R. §. Edleston. The black AQA: 3.4 Ee Croat OCR A: 4.2.2 Clas The original mottle-white morph of the moth, known as typica, which had been well concealed against the pale bark and lichen covering of trees, now stood out on surfaces blackened by pollution and became an obvious meal for passing birds. Meanwhile, the new darker form, camouflaged in its polluted habitat, benefited from industrialisation. This resulted in a transformation in the moth’s population across industrial towns and cities. By 1895, as many as 98% of Manchester's peppered moths were black (6ee Box 1 and Figure 1) In the twentieth century, air quality in Britain changed for the better. The passing of clean air legislation in the 1950s dramatically lowered pollution across the country and the soot-stained buildings of the early twentieth century became a thing of the past. This shift in environment coincided with a return to the original frequency of peppered moth morphs. The typica morph. is now near 100% in the UK population and carbonaria all but extinct (see Figure 1). What about the genetics? The peppered moth isa beautiful case of Darwinian selection in action, It nicely illustrates that evolution is not confined to geological timescales and shows that morphs can be selected in response to changing environmental conditions. But there has been an unanswered question about this moth and its colouration — the molecular differences underlying one ofthe most famous case studies in evolutionary history were unknown, Until now. Toe ee ‘The development of dark body forms is called melanism and is found in a wide varety of animals, including insects, It comes about through deposition ‘of a dark brown pigment called melanin, made from the amino acid tyrosine, The melanism seen in peppered moths during the Industral Revolution is ‘often referred to as industrial melanism because it was associated with industrialisaion and polltion of the landscape, Industrial melanism resulted from the combination ‘of @ gene mutation and changing selection pressures ‘The consequences were an alteration inthe frequencies of the alleles inthe population. When the buildings and surrounding countryside became covered with black soot, darker moths were better placed to survive and reproduce, and so abe to pass (on ther alleles for dark pigmentation to offspring. No individual meth ever changed colour within its ‘ov lifetime, but the difference inthe sucess ofthe ‘two colour morphs led toa change inthe frequencies ‘of the two morphs across the population ver a umber of years po . Eos i 2 lean Air ¢ emergence of Act 1956 i | ces: é 95% of peppered moths fare carbonaria oa 02 oo —— 1800 1850 1900 Figure 1 Timeline of frequency of carbonaria morphs in the UK CCarbonaria’s darker colour is caused by a mutation in a single gene. This has been known since the 1970s. Carbonaria is dominant over typica and the intermediate colour morphs are known as insularia. More recently, the region of the moth’s genome responsible for its colour was narrowed down t0 a 400000 base pair segment on chromosome 17. Now a team of researchers at the University of Liverpool, under the direction of Professor lik Saccheri, has found the gene and discovered the nature of the mutation. Genome sequencing Combining the traditional genetic technique of association mapping with more modern genome sequencing techniques, the researchers were able to pinpoint the genetic change. They started by sequencing this relatively small part of chromosome 17 from a carbonaria moth and three typica moths. By comparing the DNA sequences, they noted 87 differences between the two ‘morphs. The mutations varied from single nucleotide changes, called SNPS, 0 large insertions of DNA of over 20000 base pairs. Any one of these mutations could have been the cause of phenotypic changes between the morphs, Next the Liverpool team started sequencing small regions of several hundred moze carbonaria and typica moths, each time ruling out the SNPs, They checked every mutation to see whether it appeared anywhere in the genome of any typica moths, knowing that if mutation occurred in a pale moth’s genome it couldn't be responsible for causing the dark colouration in carbonaria morphs. Eventually they were left with just one, a mutation in a gene called cortex pees Association mapping The use of natural populations or individuals to ty to link traits with genotypes ‘Morph Differences of individuals within a species, often in distinct populations. SSNP single rucletide polymorphism. A single nucleotide dference in genome sequence in two individuals of the same species Transposon A segment of DNA capable of movement within a genome, Can potentially mutate genes by disrupting their coding or control regions. wuvshoddereducaton co.ukbiologicalsciencesreview 7 Surrounding region ofthe genome either side of the transposable element Recombination — during meiosis, regions ofthe chromosome are exchanged ‘between the maternal and paternal genomes. Small sequerice differences can be tracked «continue to recombine each generation at = With more generations, and so more cecombination events, ‘the differences in the flanking regions reduce and so theisize «an help to predict how many generations — and how much time — has passed since the frst mutation = Figure 2 Recombination allows us to time the insertion event 18 | ‘The regions of the genome either side of the transposon Ajumping gene ‘The corter gene was already familiar to biologists. It is involved in development and cell division in the fruit fly Drosophila, but not in pigmentation. It was therefore interesting to find that it plays a tole inthe pigmentation of moths, Moths and flies are separated by several hundred million years of evolution, $0 cortex would appear to be an example of a gene that has been conserved and used for a new function over evolutionary time. the cause of the carbonaria phenotype is not @ point mutation (that is, the substitution of ‘one DNA base for another) but an insertion of a section of DNA called a transposable element. Numerous examples of these have been found by studying many organisms, Transposable elements or transposons, sometimes called ‘jumping genes, are DNA sequences that can move within @ genome. This one, named carh-TE, ig 21925 bases long and has been inserted into an intron of the corter gene. In most instances, mutations like this are disruptive and harmful to organisms because they interfere with a gene's ability to make a useable transcript or code for a useful protein. carb-TE is ‘unusual because it actually increases the amount of product that the cortex gene produces, This meant that itwas beneficial under the grimy conditions of the Industrial Revolution, when darker colours led Biological Sciences Review September 2018 to more effective camouflage. Now that pollution levels are much lower, the mutation is no longer beneficial and so has been selected back out of the population. Another team of researchers from the University of Sheffield discovered that the same gene, cortex, controls wing patterns in certain types of butterflies ‘They suggested that the protein regulates scale development in the butterfly wing, leading to pattern differences. How this affects the amount of melanism seen in the peppered moth and in patterns in the butterflies has yet to be determined. When did the mutation occur? Armed with the knowledge of what and where the ‘mutation is, the Liverpool team was able to predict. the date that it first arose and the first carbonaria hatched. The answer lay not in the mutation itself, >but in the stretches of DNA that surround it. Over time, regions of the genome are exchanged between chromosomes due to recombination, which reorganises the DNA sequence and, importantly, creates variation. Saccheri’s team could observe and quantify the small amounts of variation between the sequences of the carbonaria and typica chromosomes. A computer model comparing the variation in DNA. ‘sequences surrounding the mutation with those in other areas allowed them to make estimates of the time of emergence. Large regions of DNA flanking, the transposable element carb-TE showed little of this variation, indicating that its insertion must hhave happened relatively recently in evolutionary terms (see Figure 2) Perfect timing The researchers were able to use the amount of DNA either side of the mutation which had not recombined to predict the number of generations since the mutation first arose, They ran over one million computer simulations of peppered moth evolution, predicting the number of generations needed to produce the observed amount of DNA ipeeaertary For more information about the peppered moths story and some of the controversies that surrounded itin the 2000s, see this blog post by erry Coyne, a professor of evolutionary genetics ‘wwvwtinyur.com’ydSu3qtp ‘An interview on YouTube with Laurence Cook an Ik Saccher ‘www youtube.com/wateh?v=q64iUBPCBMO ‘The original paper describing the identification ofthe transposon: wwwwtinyur.com/yahemmab either side of the mutation, Peppered moths reproduce just once a yeas, and therefore a single generation corresponds 0 a single year. They used this information to infer the exact year thatthe first carbonaria morph appeared. By far the most likely time period spanned 1819 (see Figure 1). This allows for the time needed for the mutation to reach a high enough frequency for a carbonaria to be found by Edleston in 1848. The timing of the mutation was perfect, Despite the advantage of carrying the mutation under sooty conditions, the moth’s slow generation time means it would have taken years for it to spread from a very low frequency (that is, a single individual) to a point where it was detectable Kitextbook case ‘The rise and fall of the carbonaria morph is an example of how Darwinian evolution actually works. Mutations don't happen forthe purpose of providing change, They can arise ftom errors in DNA replication which happen randomly, without any anticipation of an organisms needs. Similarly the movement of transposons isa further source of mutations in a species that may be selected ifenvironmental conditions are right. We now know that one such mutation, which happened to be the secret of the success of the peppered moth, was a transposable element in a gene called cortex Tom Parry is studying for a Master's degree in wildlife filmmaking at the Senet Santi Pep * Industral melanism in the peppered moth Isa textbook example of evolutionary change. * The genetic cause of the dak colouration, which famously saw moth populations shift from light to dark across UK industria cites in the 1800s, has recently been ‘dentifieg, «= The dark colouration i caused by the insertion ofa section of DNA called a transposable element into the middle ofa gene. ‘The researchers who identified the transposon were also abe to estimate the inception date of the mutation kt ce 1A family can have no children, or can have some (whole numberof) children but canmot have fractions of children, so this average family has no biological meaning. A standard deviation of a meaningless mean is equally meaningless, This is why mean {and SD are of no value for data that cannot be measured on a continuous sale. 2 (a) Normal, with a mean of ~6 x-axis units, (b) Leftskewed, with a mode at ~9 axis units. (€)Right-skewed bimodal with modes at -3 and ~9 a-axis units. (4) Uniform, or flat —a tricky one, since its not mentioned inthe text. Why are ‘ne median values given? They can't be worked out unless you have access tothe raw data, 38 b1065 € 133.1 mmHg d 13269 @7 £189.6mmHgg 13.77mmHg 4 Just run, and increase your chances over the (approximately) 1 in 40 chance you had of being attacked. Why 1 in 40? The normal distribution is @ probability curve, 95% of cheetahs will run for 28 seconds = 2 SD (between 25.2 and 30.8 seconds) ‘and therefore cover between 720 and 880 metres. 5% of cheetahs wil either run for ess than 25.2 seconds or longer than 30.8 seconds. Since the normal curve is, symmetrical, that means half ofthese (2.5%) will run for longer and therefore cover ‘mare than 880 metres, puting you in severe danger. 2.5% is the same as 1 in 40, \Whyy approximately? These data were based on sampling and so the mean is only an ‘apptoximation ofthe real mean (of al cheetahs). Even more reason to run. wwheddereducaton co.ukiologialscincesreviow 19 Where does saffron come from and how does this triploid plant reproduce? BUC ria ody eed ai ee eo ae Saffron is a spice obtained from the female parts ofa saffron crocus plant — its red stigmas (see Figure 1). Picking the flower and removing the stigmas by hand is lab intensive. To produce 1g of dried spice 150000 flowers are needed, When dried down and matured, the stigmas are deep stigma Anther Py Sunlight causes the saffron flower to open, revealing the red stigmas. Inthe UK, the flowers usualy start to emerge in the middle of October. A drop in temperature isthe stimulus for flowering ae a: sOrT The use ofsafron goos back atleast 3500 years. Cleopatra bathed in saffron-infused ‘ater and the Phoenicians sold it tteatment for ‘melancholy’ Claims for genuine health benefits, however, such as helping combat depression or prevent cancer, have only recently found support from clinical data Saffron is used in cooking to give a ‘metalic B) honey 5 to dishes such as paella, Adulteration is a problem, and some quality saffron contains as litle as Figure 1 Saffron crocus plant parts Eee for stigma har ‘The saffron crocus (Crocus sativus) isa stele, triploid plant (see Box 1) tis thought to have been selected for during the Bronze Age in Crete, The plant cannot produce seed, but reproduces asexually by forming daughter corms (short, ‘wollen underground stems). These ate clones ‘ofthe parent plant, so they produce exactly the ‘same valuable product, The plants are hardy and «an tolerate extremes of temperature and drought but produce only a single crop per year, during ‘autumn inthe northern hemisphere. There are ‘currently three growers in the UK, including The Cheshire Saffron Company in Delamere, Biological Sciences ‘Most humans are diploids with two copies of each chromosome in every cel except ‘gametes. Human gametes, produced by meiosis, are normally haploid, with a single copy ‘of each chromosome (see Figure 2) Duting meiosis, each chromosome normally pats up with ts opposite number (homologue), and the homologues exchange sections of DNA in 2 process called crossing over (see Figure 2c). This is one reason why sexually reproduced offspring are different from both ther parents ‘Occasionally, the melosis process goes awry. If, for example, the stage shown in Figure 2e fais, the gametes can end up with the diploid number of cxomesomes. Ione ofthese ‘gametes fuses with a haploid gamete, the esultant embryo will have thre copies of each comasome —the triploid condition, Look again at Figure 2 — there will be @ problem hen the reproductive cels of this organism undergo meiosis, One set of chromosomes will not have homologues with which to par, which is why triploid are usualy sterile. That presents tle problem to organisms able to reproduce asexually andior which ae propagated by humans, such as bananas, Bramley and Jonagold apples, and saffron crocuses Interphase (@) Apair of homolagous —_ chromosomes (©) Replication (copying) of chromosomes Meiosis (2 Hepotogoucrometomes srestage an eunion of parts of chromatids have occurred and the result is visible now, as chromosomes separate (crossing over) (€) Homologous chromosomes Separate and enter different cells chromosome number is halved (reduction division) (©) Chromosomes separate and enter daughter calls cytokinesis Division of cytoplasm Product of melosis is four haploid cells Figure 2. stages of meio: Further reading Independent article about saffron adulteration: www.tinyurl.com/63hrdn7 BBC news article: wwwwtinyur.com/ybwdwx6h ScienceDaily news on adulteration: www.tinyuel.comly7KTetpy and prevention of liver cancer: www-tinyurl.com/ySesebxp Abstract of depression study: www, Using insects to protect crops Biological control of aphids AQA: 3.5.3 Energy and ecosystems Edexcel A: 5 On the wild side CeCe nei ees conc OCR A: 6.3.2 Populations and sustainability Cee Re cam eer a Brae nuances Pea ee cry eo Zoologist and insect physiologist Lucy Al trol might b Lucy Alford used as a valuable phids, the most familiar of whi are greently, orldwide. These small creatures, only a few millimeties long, belong to the insect order Hemiptera ((rue bugs). They feed on the sap in the phloem of plants using specialised mouthparts known as stylets, formed from modifications 10 their mandibles and maxillae. Aphids cause gr mechanical damage to the plants when the phloem to feed on the sap inside, and they can spread plant ne of the most important groups of Agricul Aphid Biological com sical contol asitoid hey pierce and penetra diseases, This is why aphids are considered Soe agricultural pests. They are capable of transmitting almost 300 plant virus species — more than 50% of all plant viruses spread by insect Asexual reproduction Many female aphids are capable of producing offspring without the need to mate with a male This is known as asexual reproduction. T female aphid in question gives birth to clones identical to herself, These daughters already have their daughters growing inside them, in a Biological Sciences Review September 2 Cree et ecurecial phenomenon known as telescoping of generations. ‘An easy way to understand this is to imagine the female aphid as a Russian doll. She is pregnant with her granddaughters as well as her daughters ‘This unusual reproductive cycle means very short generation times and fast maturation, which allows the aphid population to build up rapidly, exploiting favourable conditions. ‘As an example, imagine a hypothetical aphid that can give birth to seven daughters every day. In just 1 week, that aphid has given birth to 49 daughters, all of which already have their daughters developing inside them, In approximately 1 week, the daughters reach sexual maturity and produce daughters for themselves. Agricultural impact This ability of aphids to reproduce rapidly, in combination with the way in which they spread diseases and cause damage to plants when feeding, means that they represent a massive financial burden to farmers. Aphids cause great economic vw hoddereducation co.ukbiologicalscencesreview Box | Aphid monitoring at Rothamsted Research Rothamsted Research, based in Hertfordshire, is the oldest agricultural research station in the word, Since 1964, it has been involved in the long-term monitoring of aphids ia ‘national network of suetion traps, A total of 16 traps, standing at 12.2metres tal, are located throughout England and Scotland, They monitor aerial aphid density on a daily basis during peak aphid flying season (April to November), and on a weekly basis for the remainder ofthe year. The data collected (se Figure 1) are published on the ‘organisation's website (www-rothamsted.ac.ukfinsect-sutvey), and provide farmers with invaluable information on the timing and sizeof aphid migrations. Farmers can use the data to make informed decisions onthe lev! af insecticide application required for their crops and to prevent unnecessary insecticide use, 1000 Mean (2008-2017) — 2017 — 2018 Number of aphids in one trap (log scale) Month Source: Rothamsted Research Figure 1 graph showing levels of airborne peach-potato aphid (Myzus persicae) at Rothamsted produced by Rothamsted Research based on data collected by its network of suction-traps losses through the damage and destruction of crops and the reduction of crop yields (See Box 1) There are more than 4400 species of aphids, each highly specific to a range of host plants, which means few agricultural crops are safe from their damaging effects. In the UK, for example, the peach-potato aphid (Myzus persicae) is a threat to potato, cabbage and other brassica crops including cauliflower, broccoli and Brussels sprouts. Grain aphids such as the English sain aphid (Sitobion avenae), the rose-grain aphid (Metopolophium dirhodun) and the bird cherry-oat aphid (Rhopalosiphum padi) are major threats to cereal ctops including wheat, barley, oats and maize. Scientific research has Peete) ‘Asenal reproduction A mode of reproduction n which the olspring aise rom a sng poent nd hers the gnes ofthat one pare on. Biological control A method of controlling a pest by introducing a natural enemy (predator, parasite, pathogen) into the environment. Insecticide resistance The abiliy ofan insect species to become immune tothe effects of an insecticide that was previously effective at killing it Suction trap A trap that collects fling insects and can be used for estimating the density of aiborne insects, 23 focused on ways t0 reduce aph successfully contiol theit population Many chemical-based control methods invo applying insecticides to crops. Conceras about impacts on human health and our envitonm, mean that zescarchers are increasingly looking more environmentally friendly ways to control insects. Most chemical insecticides are non-spect meaning that they target and kill beneficial inses Guch as honey bees and other potlinators) as well Pests. Overuse of chemical insecticides has aso h to insecticide resistance in many important inse bests including aphids, This me that were once effec hid numbers 4 ans that insecticik at killing and contiollin the pest insect no longe What is biological control? Biological control involves using living organism that naturally predate or parasitise the pest i

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