Reservior Petrophysics - Course

COURSE
RESERVOIR PETROPHYSICS
PETE 311
PETROPHYSICS
Petrophysics is the study of rock properties and

rock interactions with fluids (gases, liquid
hydrocarbons, and aqueous solutions).
Modified from Tiab and Donaldson, 1996, p. 1

PETE 311
COURSE DESCRIPTION
Systematic theoretical and laboratory study of
physical properties of petroleum reservoir rocks
• Lithology
• Porosity
• Compressibility
• Permeability
• Fluid saturations
• Capillary characteristics
• Rock stress
• Fluid
Fluid-rock
rock interaction
Course Objectives
By the last day of class, the student should be able to:

1. Define porosity; discuss the factors which effect porosity and
d
describe
ib th
the methods
th d off d
determining
t i i values
l off porosity;
it
2. Define the coefficient of isothermal compressibility of reservoir

rock and describe methods for determining values of formation
compressibility;
3
3. Reproduce the Darcy equation in differential form,
form explain its
meaning, integrate the equation for typical reservoir systems,
discuss and calculate the effect of fractures and channels, and
describe methods for determining values of absolute
permeability;
Course Objectives
4. Explain boundary tension and wettability and their effect on capillary

pressure,
p essu e, describe
desc be methods
e ods o of de
determining
e g values
a ues o
of cap
capillary
ay
pressure, and convert laboratory capillary pressure values to reservoir
conditions;
5. Describe methods of determining fluid saturations in reservoir rock

and show relationship between fluid saturation and capillary pressure;
6. Define resistivity, electrical formation resistivity factor, resistivity

index, saturation exponent, and cementation factor and show their
relationship and uses; discuss laboratory measurement of electrical
properties of reservoir rocks; and demonstrate the calculations
necessary in analyzing laboratory measurements;
Course Objectives
7. Define effective permeability, relative permeability, permeability

ratio; reproduce typical relative permeability curves and show effect of
saturation history on relative permeability; illustrate the measurement
of relative permeability; and demonstrate some uses of relative
permeability data.
8
8. D ib three-phase
Describe h h flow
fl i reservoir
in i rockk and d explain
l i methods
h d off
displaying three-phase effective permeabilities.
9
9. Demonstrate
D t t the
th techniques
t h i off averaging
i porosity,
it permeability,
bilit and
d
reservoir pressure data.
10 Demonstrate capability to perform calculations relating to all

10.
concepts above.
(These are minimum skills to be achieved/demonstrated)

PETROPHYSICS
• Why do we study petrophysics?

Cross Section Of A Petroleum System
(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play
Extent of Prospect/Field
O
O O
Stratigraphic
Extent of
P
Petroleum
l
Overburden Rock
System Essential
entary
n Fill
Elements Seal Rock
of Reservoir Rock
Basin
Sedime
Petroleum
Pod of Active System Source Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock
Petroleum Reservoir (O)
Basement Rock
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Top Oil Window
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)
Top Gas Window
(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

PETROLEUM SYSTEM
From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary
Timing of formation of the major elements of a petroleum system, Maracaibo basin, Venezuela.
DEFINITIONS - SEDIMENTARY ROCK
Sedimentary Rock
Rock
R kFFormedd ffrom th
the W
Weathered
th d
Products of Pre-Existing Rocks and
Transported by Water, Wind, and
Glaciers
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks (Such as
Shale, Siltstone, and Sandstone)
Consist of Broken Fragments
g of
Pre-Existing Rock (cf. Detrital)
Carbonate
C b t SSedimentary
di t Rocks
R k (and( d
Evaporites) May Form by Chemical
Precipitation or Organic Activity
CLASTIC AND CARBONATE ROCKS
Clastic Rocks
Consist Primarily of Silicate Minerals
Are Classified on the Basis of:
- Grain Size
- Mineral Composition
Carbonate Rocks
Consist Primarily of Carbonate Minerals
-2
(i.e. Minerals With a CO3 Anion Group)
- Predominately Calcite (Limestone)
- Predominately Dolomite (Dolomite
or Dolostone)
Classified by Grain Size and Texture
SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES
Relative Abundances
Sandstone
and conglomerate
( l ti )
(clastic)
~11%
Limestone and
Dolomite
Mudstone
( b
(carbonate)
t )
(Siltstone
~14%
and shale;
clastic)
~75%
Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments
Name Millimeters Micrometers
4 096
4,096
Boulder 256
Cobble 64 Commonly, phi-sizes are used
for sediment analysis
P bbl
Pebble 4
Granule 2
Veryy Coarse Sand 1
Coarse Sand 0.5 500
Medium Sand 0.25 250
Fine Sand 0.125 12
125
Very Fine Sand 62
0.062
Coarse Silt 0.031
0 03 31
M di
Medium Silt 0.016 16
Fine Silt 0.008 8
Veryy Fine Silt 0 004
0.004 4
Clay (modified from Blatt, 1982)
DUNHAM’S CLASSIFICATION - CARBONATES
Carbonate
b rocks
k can be
b classified
l ifi d according
di to the
h texture and
d grain
i size.
i

GENERATION, MIGRATION, AND
TRAPPING OF HYDROCARBONS
Seal
Fault
Oil/water
(impermeable)
contact
t t (OWC)
Migration route
Seal
Seal
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
accumulation rock
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity
Source rock
DESCRIBING A RESERVOIR
Structural Characterization
STRUCTURAL HYDROCARBON TRAP
This structural trap is formed by an anticline and a normal fault. From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary
DOMAL TRAP
• Are hydrocarbons in this field oil or gas?
• What is the volume of hydrocarbons
In this trap?
• What are the reserves?
Closure. In map view (top),

closure
l is
i the
th area within
ithi the
th
deepest structural contour
that forms a trapping
geometry, in this case 1300
ft [390 m]. In cross section
A-A', closure is the vertical
distance from the top of the
structure
t t to the
h llowest
closing contour, in this case
about 350 ft [105 m]. The
point beyond which
hydrocarbons could leak
from or migrate beyond the
trap is the spill point.

WATER DRIVE
What is the Drive
Mechanism?
A reservoir-drive
mechanism whereby
the oil is driven
through the
reservoir by an
active aquifer. As
the reservoir
depletes, the water
moving in from the
aquifer below
displaces the oil
until the aquifer
energy is expended
or the well
eventually produces
too much water to
be viable.

GAS EXPANSION DRIVE
What is the Drive
Mechanism?
A gas-drive
d i
system
utilizes the
energy of
the
reservoir
gas,
id tifi bl
identifiable
as either as
free or
so ut o
solution
gas, to
produce
reservoir
li id
liquids.
Are there other

d i mechanisms?
drive h i ?

TYPES OF HYDROCARBONS
• Composition
• Molecular structure
• Physical properties
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
HYDROCARBONS
• Color
• Refractive Index
• Odor
• Density (Specific Gravity)
• Boiling Point
• Freezing Point
• Flash Point
• Viscosity
FLUID DENSITY
˚ API = 141.5
141 5 - 131.5
٧
• What are the standard reporting conditions?
˚ API = API gravity

λ = specific gravity
FLUID VISCOSITY
• Importance
• Units – centipoises (μ, cp)
• Strongly temperature dependent
• Standard reporting
p g conditions
DRILLING RIGS
Drillship Semisubmersible Jackup Submersible Land Rig

ROTARY DRILL BIT, WORN

Next Class:
RESERVOIR POROSITY
Definition:
D fi iti P
Porosity
it is
i the
th fraction
f ti off a rockk
that is occupied by voids (pores).
• Origins and descriptions
• Factors that effect porosity
• Methods
M th d off determination
d t i ti
POROSITY
Many slides contain more detailed notes that may be shown using the “Notes Page View”
Acknowledgments
• Dr. Walt Ayers, PETE 311, Fall 2001

• NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999
– Note that many of the NExT slides appears to have been
obtained from other primary sources that are not cited
RESERVOIR POROSITY
Definition: Porosity is the fraction of a rock that

is occupied by voids (pores).
Discussion Topics
• Origins and descriptions
• Factors that effect porosity
• Methods of determination
ROCK MATRIX AND PORE SPACE
Rock matrix Pore space

Note different use of “matrix”
by geologists and engineers
POROSITY DEFINITION
Porosity: The fraction of a rock that is
occupied by pores
• Porosity is an intensive property describing the
fluid storage capacity of rock
Vb − Vma
Vp
Porosity = φ = =
Vb Vb
Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas

OBJECTIVES
To provide an understanding of
• The concepts of rock matrix and porosity
• The difference between original (primary) and
induced (secondary) porosity
• The difference between total and effective
porosity
• Laboratory methods of porosity determination
• Determination of porosity from well logs
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of
material
Rocks under high

Molten materials in Weathering and
temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust
process
Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Clastics
•Carbonates
•Evaporites
CLASTIC AND CARBONATE ROCKS
Clastic Rocks
Consist Primarily of Silicate Minerals
Are Classified on the Basis of:
- Grain Size
- Mineral Composition
Carbonate Rocks
Consist Primarily of Carbonate Minerals
(i.e. Minerals With a CO3-2 Anion Group)
Limestone - Predominately Calcite (Calcium
Carbonate, CaCO3)
Dolomite - Predominately Dolostone (Calcium
Magnesium Carbonate, CaMg(CO3)2 )
SEDIMENTARY ROCK TYPES,
Relative Abundances
Sandstone
and conglomerate
(clastic)
~11%
Limestone and
dolomite
Siltstone
~14%
and shale
(clastic)
~75%
Comparison of Compositions of Clastic
and Carbonate Rocks
Clastic Rocks Carbonate Rocks
Fossils
Sand Quartz Allochemical Pelloids
Feldspar Grains Oolites
Grains Intractlasts
Rock Fragments
Average Average
Sandstone Sparry
Average Limestone
Mudrock Average
(Shale) Micritic
Limestone
Clay Chemical Microcrystalline Chemical

Matrix Cement Matrix Cement
Calcite Calcite
Illite Quartz
Kaolinite Calcite
Smectite Hematite
Grain-Size Classification for Clastic Sediments
Name Millimeters Micrometers
4,096
Boulder 256
Cobble 64
Pebble 4
Granule 2
Very Coarse Sand 1
Coarse Sand 0.5 500
Medium Sand 0.25 250
Fine Sand 0.125 125
Very Fine Sand 62
0.062
Coarse Silt 0.031 31
Medium Silt 0.016 16
Fine Silt 0.008 8
Very Fine Silt 0.004 4
Clay (modified from Blatt, 1982)
Average Detrital Mineral Composition
of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale Sandstone
Clay Minerals 60 (%) 5 (%)
Quartz 30 65
Feldspar 4 10-15
Rock Fragments <5 15
Carbonate 3 <1
Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)
SANDSTONE CLASSIFICATION
Quartz + Chert
5
Quartzarenite
5
Subarkose Sublitharenite
25 25
Lithic
Subarkose
50 50
25 Lithic 25
Felspathic
Arkose Litharenite
Unstable
Rock
Feldspar 10 25 50 25 10
Fragments
(modified from McBride, 1963)
FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
SANDSTONE
Framework
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
Matrix
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material
Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components
FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
Geologist’s Classification
1. Framework Note different use of “matrix”

2. Matrix Engineering
“matrix” by geologists and engineers
3. Cement
4. Pores
PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT (QUARTZ) MATRIX
FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)
0.25 mm
ORIGINS OF POROSITY IN
CLASTICS AND CARBONATES
(Genetic Classification)
• Primary (original)
• Secondary (induced)
(Generally more complex than
primary porosity)
PRIMARY (ORIGINAL) POROSITY
• Developed at deposition
• Typified by
– Intergranular pores of clastics or
carbonates
– Intercrystalline and fenestral pores of carbonates
• Usually more uniform than induced porosity
SECONDARY (INDUCED) POROSITY
• Developed by geologic processes after

deposition (diagenetic processes)
• Examples
– Grain dissolution in sandstones or carbonates
– Vugs and solution cavities in carbonates
– Fracture development in some sandstones, shales,
and carbonates
SANDSTONES POROSITY TYPES
Intergranular (Primary) Interstitial Void Space Between

Framework Grains
Micropores Small Pores Mainly Between Detrital

Framework Grains or Cement
Dissolution Partial or Complete Dissolution of

or Authigenic Grains (Can Also Occur
Within Grains
Fractures Breakage Due to Earth Stresses

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY
PRIMARY
• Particle sphericity and angularity
• Packing
• Sorting (variable grain sizes)
SECONDARY (diagenetic)
• Cementing materials
• Overburden stress (compaction)
• Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
ROUNDNESS AND SPHERICITY
Porosity
OF CLASTIC GRAINS
High
Low
Very Sub- Sub- Well-

Angular Angular Rounded
Rounded
Rounded
Angular
ROUNDNESS
Porosity
PRIMARY
• Packing
SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
GRAIN PACKING IN SANDSTONE
Line of Traverse
(using microscope) 4 Types of Grain Contacts
Packing Proximity
Tangential Contact A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
are in contact with their
Sutured Contact neighbors
Long Contact Packing Density
Cement
A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
occupy the rock volume
Matrix
Concavo-Convex
(clays, etc.)
Contact
This Example
Packing Proximity = 40%
Packing Density = 0.8
(modified from Blatt, 1982)
CUBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 48%
Porosity Calculations - Uniform
Spheres
• Bulk volume = (2r)3 = 8r3

4 πr 3
• Matrix volume = 3
• Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix volume

Pore Volume
Porosity =
Bulk Volume
Bulk Volume − Matrix Volume

=
Bulk Volume
8 r3 − 4 / 3 π r3 π
= = 1− = 47.6%
8r 3
2 (3 )
RHOMBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
Porosity = 27 %
PRIMARY
• Packing
Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres
Porosity = 14%
Grain-Size Sorting in Sandstone
Very Well Well Moderately Poorly Very Poorly

Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted
SORTING
TYPES OF TEXTURAL CHANGES SENSED
BY THE NAKED EYE AS BEDDING
Sand
Shale Slow Current
Fast Current
Change of Composition Change of Size
River
Eolian
Beach
Fluvial
Change of Shape Change of Orientation
Change of Packing
PROGRESSIVE DESTRUCTION OF
BEDDING THROUGH BIOTURBATION
Regular Irregular Bioturbated Sandstone
Layers Layers (Whole Core)
Mottles Mottles Homogeneous

(Distinct) (Indistinct) Deposits
STS61A-42-0051 Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana, U.S.A. October 1985
STS084-721-029 Selenga River Delta, Lake Baykal, Russia May 1997
PRIMARY
• Packing
DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is the Post-
Depositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Carbonate
Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Cemented
Some Diagenetic Effects Include
Oil Compaction
Stained Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
The Effects of Diagenesis May
Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela Photo by W. Ayers
DUAL POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Sandstone Comp. 1. Primary and secondary “matrix” porosity system
• Framework 2. Fracture porosity system
• Matrix
• Cement FRACTURE DISSOLUTION
• Pores PORE
PORE
FRAMEWORK
(QUARTZ)
CEMENT
MATRIX
FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)
Note different use of “matrix” 0.25 mm

by geologists and engineers
SANDSTONE COMPOSITION,
Framework Grains
KF = Potassium
Feldspar
PRF = Plutonic Rock
Q Fragment
Q = Quartz
PRF KF
P = Pore
Potassium Feldspar is
Stained Yellow With a
Chemical Dye
P
Pores are Impregnated With
Blue-Dyed Epoxy
Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Grains ~0.25 mm in Diameter/Length Photo by R. Kugler
POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Porosity in Sandstone
Pore Typically is Lower Than
That of Idealized Packed
Spheres Owing to:
Quartz Variation in Grain Size
Grain Variation in Grain Shape
Cementation
Mechanical and Chemical
Compaction
Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler
Pore Throats in
Sandstone May
Be Lined With
A Variety of
Cement Minerals
That Affect
Petrophysical
Properties

Tordillo Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Store
Hydrocarbons
Pore Throats Restrict

Flow through pores

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs,
Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone

Offshore Alabama, USA ~ 10 μm
(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Electron Photomicrograph
Significant
Permeability
Reduction
Negligible
Porosity
Illite Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation
Migration of
Fines Problem
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
INTERGRANULAR PORE AND MICROPOROSITY
Intergranular
Pore
Intergranular Pores
Microporosity Contain Hydrocarbon
Fluids
Quartz Micropores Contain

Kaolinite
Detrital
Grain
Irreducible Water
Backscattered Electron Micrograph

Carter Sandstone, Black Warrior Basin,
Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant Permeability
Reduction
High Irreducible Water

Saturation
Migration of Fines
Problem
Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
DISSOLUTION POROSITY
Partially Dissolution of
Dissolved Framework Grains
Feldspar (Feldspar, for
Example) and
Cement may
Pore Enhance the
Interconnected
Quartz Detrital Pore System
Grain
This is Secondary
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light
Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina Porosity
Photo by R.L. Kugler

DISSOLUTION POROSITY
Dissolution Pores
May be Isolated and
not Contribute to the
Partially Effective Pore System
Dissolved
Feldspar

Photo by R.L. Kugler
Tordillo Formation, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
Comparison of Compositions of Clastic
and Carbonate Rocks
Clastic Rocks Carbonate Rocks
Fossils
Sand Quartz Allochemical Pelloids
Feldspar Grains Oolites
Grains Intractlasts
Rock Fragments
Average Average
Sandstone Sparry
Average Limestone
Mudrock Average
(Shale) Micritic
Limestone
Clay Chemical Microcrystalline Chemical

Matrix Cement Matrix Cement
Calcite Calcite
Illite Quartz
Kaolinite Calcite
Smectite Hematite
Iles Gambier
Tuamotu Archipelago
Maldive Islands
FOLK CARBONATE ROCK CLASSIFICATION
Over 2/3 Lime Mud Matrix Subequal Over 2/3 Spar Cement
Over Spar & Sorting Sorting Rounded,
0-1% 1-10% 10-50% 50% Lime Mud Poor Good Abraded
Fossili- Poorly
Micrite & Sparse Packed Washed Unsorted Sorted Rounded
ferous
Dismicrite Biomicrite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite
Micrite Biomicrite
Sandy Clayey or Sub- Mature Super-

Claystone
Claystone Immature Sandstone mature SS SS mature SS
Depositional Texture Recognizable Depositional Texture
Not Recognizable
DUNHAM CARBONATE ROCK CLASSIFICATION
Depositional Texture Recognizable Depositional

Components Not Bound Together During Deposition Original Components Texture
Contains Mud Lacks Mud, Bound Together Not Recognizable
(clay and silt size particles Grain- During Deposition
Mud Supported Grain Supported
<10 % >10 % Supported D u
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Mudstone Wackestone Packstone Grainstone Boundstone Carbonate
CARBONATES POROSITY TYPES
Interparticle Pores Between Particles or Grains
Intraparticle Pores Within Individual Particles or Grains
Intercrystal Pores Between Crystals

Moldic Pores Formed by Dissolution of an
Individual Grain or Crystal in the Rock
Fenestral Primary Pores Larger Than Grain-Supported
Interstices
Fracture Formed by a Planar Break in the Rock
Vug Large Pores Formed by Indiscriminate
Dissolution of Cements and Grains
Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types
Interparticle Intraparticle Intercrystal Moldic
Fabric
Selective
Fenestral Shelter Growth-Framework
Non-Fabric
Selective
Fracture Channel Vug
Breccia Boring Burrow Shrinkage

Fabric Selective or Not Fabric Selective
(modified from Choquette and Pray, 1970)
CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE
Moldic
Pores
• Due to dissolution
Dolomite and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)
Moldic • Isolated pores

Pore
• Low effective porosity
Calcite • Low permeability
Thin section micrograph - plane-polarized light

Blue areas are pores.
Smackover Formation, Alabama (Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)
CARBONATE POROSITY - EXAMPLE
Moldic and
Interparticle Pores
Interparticle
Pores • Combination pore system
• Moldic pores formed through

dissolution of ooids (allochemical
particles)
• Connected pores
Moldic • High effective porosity

Pore
• High permeability
Thin section micrograph
Smackover Formation, Alabama
Black areas are pores.
(Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)
PORE SPACE
CLASSIFICATION
(In Terms of Fluid Properties)
PORE-SPACE CLASSIFICATION
• Total porosity, φt =
Total Pore Volume
Bulk Volume
• Effective porosity, φe =
Interconnected Pore Space
Bulk Volume
• Effective porosity – of great importance;
contains the mobile fluid
COMPARISON OF TOTAL AND
EFFECTIVE POROSITIES
• Very clean sandstones : φe → φt
• Poorly to moderately well -cemented

intergranular materials: φt ≈ φe
• Highly cemented materials and most

carbonates: φe < φt
MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY
• Core samples (Laboratory)
• Openhole wireline logs

SANDSTONE POROSITY MEASURED
BY VARIOUS TECHNIQUES
Total Porosity - Neutron Log

Total Porosity - Density Log
Absolute or Total Porosity
Rock
Matrix Oven-Dried Core Analysis Porosity
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Core Analysis Porosity
Quartz Clay Clay Surfaces Small Large, Interconnected Isolated
(Framework) Layers & Interlayers Pores Pores Pores
Capillary
Structural Water
(OH -) Water Hydration or Hydrocarbon
Bound Water Pore Volume
Irreducible or
Immobile Water
(modified from Eslinger and Pevear, 1988)
INFORMATION FROM CORES*
Standard Analysis Special Core Analysis
• Porosity • Vertical permeability to air
• Relative permeability
• Horizontal permeability to
air • Capillary pressure
• Grain density • Cementation exponent (m)

and saturation exponent (n)
*Allows calibration of wireline log results

CORING ASSEMBLY
AND CORE BIT
Drill collar
connection
PDC Cutters
Thrust bearing
Outer barrel
Inner barrel
Fluid
vent
Core retaining
ring
Core bit
COMING OUT OF HOLE
WITH CORE BARREL
WHOLE CORE
Whole Core Photograph,
Misoa “C” Sandstone,
Venezuela
Photo by W. Ayers
SIDEWALL SAMPLING GUN
Core bullets
Formation rock
Core sample
SIDEWALL CORING TOOL
Coring bit
Samples
WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.
PLUGS OR SIDEWALL CORES
WHOLE CORE
• Provides larger samples
• Better and more consistent representation of

formation
• Better for heterogeneous rocks or for more

complex lithologies
WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.
• Smaller samples
• Less representative of heterogeneous formations
• Within 1 to 2% of whole cores for medium-to high-
porosity formation
• In low-porosity formations, φ from core plugs tends
to be much greater than φ from whole cores
• Scalar effects in fractured reservoirs
CORE PLUG
Sparks and Ayers, unpublished

NEXT:
LABORATORY DETERMINATION
OF POROSITY
Student Questions / Answers
• intraparticle porosity in carbonates (JC1):
– vugs and fractures
• why are clays important (JC1):
– one major reason is that clays conduct electricity, this can
effect water saturation calculations if not accounted for
• fines (ABW):
– solid particles so small that they can flow with fluids
through pores - but they can also plug pore throats
• tortuousity (ABW):
– the indirect curvy flow path through the pore system to get
from point A to point B
• holocene:
– referring to the Holocene Epoch (geology) or in general
meaning about the last 10,000 years.
OF POROSITY
POROSITY DEFINITION
Porosity: The fraction of a rock that
is occupied by pores
• Porosity is a static property – it can be measured
in the absence of flow
• Determining effective porosity requires fluid flow

to determine if pores are interconnected
Vp
Vb − Vm
Porosity = φ = =
Vb Vb
matrix pore space

MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY
1. Core samples (measure two of: Vb, Vp, or Vm)
2. Openhole wireline logs

OF POROSITY
• Most methods use small samples (core plugs)
• multiple samples must be analyzed to get
statistically representative results
• sampling technique is important
• often all samples are taken from “sweet
spots” skewing analysis
To determine porosity, measure 2 of 3

volumetric parameters:
1. Bulk volume, Vb
2. Matrix volume, Vm (also called grain volume)
3. Pore volume, Vp
Volume is an extensive property
V b
=V m+V p
Fraction of volume
consisting of
pores or voids
Fraction of volume consisting

of matrix
MATRIX DENSITIES (ρm) OF TYPICAL PURE
COMPONENTS OF RESERVOIR ROCK
Lithology Matrix Density

3
(g/cm )
Sandstone 2.65
Limestone 2.71
Dolomite 2.87
LABORATORY METHODS OF
POROSITY DETERMINATION
Bulk volume determinations
1. Direct calculation
2. Fluid displacement methods
• Gravimetric
• Volumetric – mercury pycnometer ( a

precisely calibrated bottle)
BULK VOLUME BY DIRECT
MEASUREMENT
• Applicable for regularly shaped cores or
core plugs
• Calculate from core dimensions
• For example; volume of right circular

cylinder
πd L 2
Vb =
4
Bulk volume determinations
1. Direct calculation
2. Fluid displacement methods
• Gravimetric (Archimedes) methods
• Volumetric – in pycnometer
ARCHIMEDES METHOD
Wdry Wsat Wsub
Wsat - Wdry
Vp = ρfluid
Wdry - Wsub
Vm = ρfluid
Wsat - Wsub
Vb = ρfluid
Wsat - Wdry
φ= Wsat - Wsub
EXAMPLE 1
Bulk Volume Calculated by

Displacement
A core sample coated with paraffin immersed in a

container of liquid displaced 10.9 cm3 of the liquid. The
weight of the dry core sample was 20.0 g, while the
weight of the dry sample coated with paraffin was 20.9 g.
Assume the density of the solid paraffin is 0.9 g/cm3.
Calculate the bulk volume of the sample.
SOLUTION - Example 1
Weight of paraffin coating, Wparaffin =
Weight of dry core sample coated with paraffin - Weight of dry core sample
Wparaffin = 20.9 g = 20.0 g = 0.9 g
Volume of paraffin coating = Weight of paraffin / density of paraffin
Vparaffin = 0.9 g / 0.9 g/cm3 = 1.0 cm3

(V = m/ρ)
Bulk volume of core sample = (Bulk volume of core coated with paraffin) –
(volume of paraffin)
Vb = 10.9 cm3 – 1.0 cm3 = 9.9 cm3

basic parameters:
1. Bulk volume (Vb)
2. Matrix volume (Vm)

• Assume matrix (grain) density
• Displacement method
• Boyles Law
• Pore volume (Vp)

Matrix (Vm)
1. Assume rock density based on lithology and
measure dry mass
• Displacement methods
• volumetric
• gravimetric (see previous description)
• Boyle’s Law:
p1 V1 = p 2 V2
MATRIX VOLUME FROM
MATRIX DENSITY
• Known or assumed matrix density
Mass of Dry Sample

Vm =
Matrix Density
APPLICABILITY AND
ACCURACY OF MATRIX
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
• Known or assumed matrix density
– Accurate only if matrix density is known
and not assumed
– Core samples are often mixtures of several
components with varying matrix densities,
so density must be measured
basic parameters:
1. Bulk volume (Vb)

• Assumed matrix (grain) density
• Boyles Law
3. Pore volume (Vp)

MATRIX VOLUME FROM
DISPLACEMENT METHOD
• Reduce sample to particle size

• Measure matrix volume of particles by
– Volumetric method
– Archimedes method (gravimetric
measurement)
EXAMPLE 2
SOLUTION
Calculating the Matrix Volume and

Porosity of a Core Sample Using the
Displacement Method
SOLUTION - Example 2
Calculate the Porosity of a Core Sample Using the
Displacement Method and Matrix Volume
The core sample from Example 1 was stripped of the paraffin

coat, crushed to grain size, and immersed in a container with
liquid. The volume of liquid displaced by the grains was 7.7 cm3.
Calculate the matrix volume and the core porosity. Is this
effective porosity or total porosity? (It is total porosity)
Bulk Volume, Vb = 9.9 cm3
Matrix Volume, Vma = 7.7 cm3

Vp V − Vma 9.9 cm3 – 7.7 cm3
Porosity = φ = = b = = 0.22 or 22%
Vb Vb 9.9 cm3
basic parameters:
1. Bulk volume (Vb)

• Assumed matrix (grain) density
• Boyles Law (Gas Expansion)
3. Pore volume (Vp)

MATRIX VOLUME FROM
GAS EXPANSION METHOD
• Involves compression of gas into pores
• Uses Boyle’s law
p1 V1 = p 2 V2
GAS EXPANSION METHOD
TO CALCULATE Vma
• Initial conditions, with volumes of 2

cells known
• Place core in second cell, evacuate

gas (air) from second cell
• Open valve
GAS EXPANSION METHOD TO
CALCULATE Vma
P1 Initial conditions
V1 Core
Valve Evacuate
Cell 1 closed Cell 2
CALCULATE Vma
P1 Final conditions
P2
Core
Valve
Cell 1 open Cell 2
CALCULATE Vma
• Vf = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of

Cell 2 - Matrix Volume of Core
• Vt = Volume of Cell 1 + Volume of

Cell 2
• Vm = Vt - Vf
APPLICABILITY AND
ACCURACY OF MATRIX
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
• Displacement method - Very accurate when
core sample is crushed without destroying
individual matrix grains
• Gas expansion method - Very accurate,
especially for samples with low porosities
Neither method requires a prior knowledge of

core properties

basic parameters:
1. Bulk volume (Vb)

3. Pore volume (Vp)
Pore volume determination (Effective)

1. Gravimetric (Archimedes)
Vp = Wsat - Wdry
ρfluid
2. Boyle’s Law: p1 V1 = p 2 V2
• (Gas expansion)
PORE VOLUME FROM
SATURATION METHOD
• Measures the difference between the
weight of a core sample saturated with
a single fluid and the dry weight of the
core
Wsat − Wdry
• Pore volume, Vp =
ρf
EXAMPLE 3
Archimedes Method of Calculating
Porosity a Core Sample
Using the gravimetric method with the following data,
calculate the pore and bulk volumes and the porosity. Is
this porosity total or effective?
Dry weight of sample, Wdry = 427.3 g
Weight of sample saturated with water, Wsat = 448.6 g
Density of water (ρf ) = 1.0 g/cm3
Weight of saturated sample submerged in water, Wsub =

269.6 g
EXAMPLE 3
Solution
Archimedes Method of Calculating
Porosity a Core Sample
Wsat – Wdry = 448.6 – 427.3 g = 21.3 cm3

Vp = ρ
f 1.0 g/cm3
Vb = Wsat – Wsub = 448.6 – 269.6 g = 179.0 cm3
ρf 1.0 g/cm3
Vp
Porosity = φ = =
21.3 cm3
= 0.12 or 12%
Vb 179.0 cm3
Applicability and Accuracy of
Pore Volume Measurement
Techniques
• Saturation (Archimedes) method
– Accurate in better quality rocks if effective
pore spaces can be completely saturated
– In poorer quality rocks, difficult to completely
saturate sample
– Saturating fluid may react with minerals in
the core (e.g., swelling clays)
Pore volume determination (Effective)

1. Gravimetric (Archimedes)
Vp = Wsat - Wdry
ρfluid
2. Boyle’s Law: p1 V1 = p 2 V2
• (Gas expansion)
PORE VOLUME FROM GAS
EXPANSION METHOD
Initial conditions
P1
V1 Core
Valve
Cell 1 Cell 2
closed
EXPANSION METHOD
Final conditions
P1
P2
Core
Valve
Cell 1 Cell 2
open
EXPANSION METHOD
• Very accurate for both high-quality (high

φ) and low-quality (low φ) core samples
• Should use low-molecular-weight inert

gases (e.g., helium)
• Measures effective (connected) pore

volume
SUMMARY

basic parameters:
1. Bulk volume
2. Matrix volume
3. Pore volume
CORES
• Allow direct measurement of reservoir
properties
• Used to correlate indirect measurements,
such as wireline/LWD logs
• Used to test compatibility of injection fluids
• Used to predict borehole stability
• Used to estimate probability of formation
failure and sand production
SOME KEY FORMULAS
Vp Vb − Vma
Porosity = φ = =
Vb Vb
V =V +V
b m p
V = φ (V )
p b
V = (1 − φ )(V )
m b
m = ( ρ )(V )
CROSS BEDDING, CARRIZO
SANDSTONE
FROM LOGS
Most slides in this section are modified primarily from NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999.
However, many of the NExT slides appears to have been obtained from other primary
sources that are not cited. Some slides have a notes section.
OPENHOLE LOG EVALUATION
Well Log
SP Resistivity
POROSITY DETERMINATION BY LOGGING
Increasing Increasing Increasing

radioactivity resistivity porosity
Shale
Oil sand
Shale
Gamma Resisitivity Porosity

ray
POROSITY LOG TYPES
3 Main Log Types
• Bulk density
• Sonic (acoustic)
• Compensated neutron
These logs do not measures porosity directly. To

accurately calculate porosity, the analyst must
know:
•Formation lithology
• Fluid in pores of sampled reservoir volume
DENSITY LOGS
• Uses radioactive source to generate
gamma rays
• Gamma ray collides with electrons in
formation, losing energy
• Detector measures intensity of back-
scattered gamma rays, which is related
to electron density of the formation
• Electron density is a measure of bulk
density
DENSITY LOGS
• Bulk density, ρb, is dependent upon:

– Lithology
– Porosity
– Density and saturation of fluids in pores
• Saturation is fraction of pore volume
occupied by a particular fluid (intensive)
DENSITY LOG
GR RHOB
0 API 200 2 G/C3 3
CALIX DRHO
6 IN 16 -0.25 G/C3 0.25
CALIY
6 IN 16
4100
Gamma ray Density
Density
correction
4200
Caliper
Mud cake
(ρmc + hmc)
Formation (ρb)
Long spacing
detector
Short spacing
detector
Source
BULK DENSITY
ρb = ρma (1 − φ) + ρ f φ
Matrix Fluids in
flushed zone
•Measures electron density of a formation
•Strong function of formation bulk density
•Matrix bulk density varies with lithology
–Sandstone 2.65 g/cc
–Limestone 2.71 g/cc
–Dolomite 2.87 g/cc
POROSITY FROM DENSITY LOG
Porosity equation ρma − ρb
φ=
ρma − ρ f
Fluid density equation
ρ f = ρmf Sxo + ρh (1 − Sxo )
We usually assume the fluid density (ρf) is between 1.0 and 1.1. If gas is present, the
actual ρf will be < 1.0 and the calculated porosity will be too high.
ρmf is the mud filtrate density, g/cc
ρh is the hydrocarbon density, g/cc
Sxo is the saturation of the flush/zone, decimal
DENSITY LOGS
Working equation (hydrocarbon zone)
ρb = φ S xo ρmf + φ (1 − S xo ) ρhc
+ Vsh ρ sh + (1 − φ − Vsh ) ρma
ρb = Recorded parameter (bulk volume)

φ Sxo ρmf = Mud filtrate component
φ (1 - Sxo) ρhc = Hydrocarbon component
Vsh ρsh = Shale component
1 - φ - Vsh = Matrix component
DENSITY LOGS
• If minimal shale, Vsh ≈ 0
• If ρhc ≈ ρmf ≈ ρf, then
• ρb = φ ρf - (1 - φ) ρma
ρma − ρb
φ = φd =
ρma − ρ f
φd = Porosity from density log, fraction
ρma = Density of formation matrix, g/cm3
ρb = Bulk density from log measurement, g/cm3
ρf = Density of fluid in rock pores, g/cm3
ρhc = Density of hydrocarbons in rock pores, g/cm3
ρmf = Density of mud filtrate, g/cm3
ρsh = Density of shale, g/cm3
Vsh = Volume of shale, fraction
Sxo = Mud filtrate saturation in zone invaded by mud filtrate, fraction
BULK DENSITY LOG
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
RHOC
10700
1.95 2.95
10800
Bulk Density
10900
Log
NEUTRON LOG
• Logging tool emits high energy

neutrons into formation
• Neutrons collide with nuclei of
formation’s atoms
• Neutrons lose energy (velocity) with
each collision
NEUTRON LOG
• The most energy is lost when colliding

with a hydrogen atom nucleus
• Neutrons are slowed sufficiently to be
captured by nuclei
• Capturing nuclei become excited and
emit gamma rays
NEUTRON LOG
• Depending on type of logging tool either gamma
rays or non-captured neutrons are recorded
• Log records porosity based on neutrons
captured by formation
• If hydrogen is in pore space, porosity is related
to the ratio of neutrons emitted to those counted
as captured
• Neutron log reports porosity, calibrated
assuming calcite matrix and fresh water in pores,
if these assumptions are invalid we must correct
the neutron porosity value
NEUTRON LOG
Theoretical equation
φN = φ S xo φNmf + φ (1 −S xo ) φNhc
+ Vsh φ sh + (1 − φ − Vsh ) φNma
φN = Recorded parameter φNma = Porosity of matrix fraction

φ Sxo φNmf = Mud filtrate portion φNhc = Porosity of formation saturated with
φ (1 - Sxo) φNhc = Hydrocarbon portion hydrocarbon fluid, fraction
Vsh φNsh = Shale portion φNmf = Porosity saturated with mud filtrate, fraction
(1 - φ - Vsh) φNhc = Matrix portion where φ = True Vsh = Volume of shale, fraction
porosity of rock Sxo = Mud filtrate saturation in zone invaded
φN = Porosity from neutron log measurement, fraction by mud filtrate, fraction
POROSITY FROM NEUTRON LOG
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
CNLLC
10700
0.45 -0.15
10800
Neutron
10900
Log
ACOUSTIC (SONIC) LOG
• Tool usually consists of

one sound transmitter
(above) and two receivers
(below)
Upper
• Sound is generated,
transmitter
travels through formation
R1 • Elapsed time between
R2 sound wave at receiver 1
R3 vs receiver 2 is dependent
R4 upon density of medium
through which the sound
traveled
Lower
transmitter
Compressional Rayleigh
waves waves Mud waves
E3
E1
T0 E2
50
μsec
COMMON LITHOLOGY MATRIX
TRAVEL TIMES USED
Lithology Typical Matrix Travel

Time, Δtma, μsec/ft
Sandstone 55.5
Limestone 47.5
Dolomite 43.5
Anydridte 50.0
Salt 66.7
Working equation
Δt L = φ S xo Δt mf + φ (1 − S xo ) Δt hc
+ Vsh Δt sh + (1 − φ − Vsh ) Δt ma
ΔtL = Recorded parameter, travel time read from log

φ Sxo Δtmf = Mud filtrate portion
φ (1 - Sxo) Δthc = Hydrocarbon portion
Vsh Δtsh = Shale portion
(1 - φ - Vsh) Δtma = Matrix portion
• If Vsh = 0 and if hydrocarbon is liquid
(i.e. Δtmf ≈ Δtf), then
• ΔtL = φ Δtf + (1 - φ) Δtma
or
Δt L − Δt ma
φs = φ =
Δt f − Δt ma
φs = Porosity calculated from sonic log reading, fraction
ΔtL = Travel time reading from log, microseconds/ft
Δtma = Travel time in matrix, microseconds/ft
Δtf = Travel time in fluid, microseconds/ ft
GR DT
0 API 200 140 USFT 40
CALIX SPHI
6 IN 16 30 % 10
4100
Sonic travel time

Gamma
Ray
Sonic
porosity
4200
Caliper
SONIC LOG
The response can be written as follows:
t log = t ma (1 − φ) + t f φ
t log − t ma
φ=
t f − t ma
tlog = log reading, μsec/ft

tma = the matrix travel time, μsec/ft
tf = the fluid travel time, μsec/ft
φ = porosity
SONIC LOG
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
DT
10700
150 us/f 50
10800
Sonic
Log
10900
EXAMPLE
Calculating Rock Porosity

Using an Acoustic Log
Calculate the porosity for the following intervals. The measured travel times from the
log are summarized in the following table.
At depth of 10,820’, accoustic log reads travel time of 65 μs/ft.
Calculate porosity. Does this value agree with density and neutron
logs?
Assume a matrix travel time, Δtm = 51.6 μsec/ft. In addition, assume the formation is
saturated with water having a Δtf = 189.0 μsec/ft.
EXAMPLE SOLUTION SONIC LOG
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC SPHI
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15 45 ss -15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700
10800
SPHI
10900
FACTORS AFFECTING SONIC
LOG RESPONSE
• Unconsolidated formations
• Naturally fractured formations
• Hydrocarbons (especially gas)
• Rugose salt sections
RESPONSES OF POROSITY LOGS
The three porosity logs:

– Respond differently to different matrix
compositions
– Respond differently to presence of gas or
light oils
Combinations of logs can:
– Imply composition of matrix
– Indicate the type of hydrocarbon in pores
GAS EFFECT
• Density - φ is too high
• Neutron - φ is too low
• Sonic - φ is not significantly
affected by gas
ESTIMATING POROSITY FROM
WELL LOGS
Openhole logging tools are the most common method
of determining porosity:
• Less expensive than coring and may be less
risk of sticking the tool in the hole
• Coring may not be practical in unconsolidated
formations or in formations with high secondary
porosity such as vugs or natural fractures.
If porosity measurements are very important, both
coring and logging programs may be conducted so
the log-based porosity calculations can be used to
calibrated to the core-based porosity measurements.
Influence Of Clay-Mineral Distribution
On Effective Porosity
Dispersed Clay φe Clay
Minerals
• Pore-filling
• Pore-lining
• Pore-bridging Detrital Quartz
Grains
φφe
e
Clay Lamination
Structural Clay φφee

(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay-Replaced Grains)
GEOLOGICAL AND PETROPHYSICAL
DATA USED TO DEFINE FLOW UNITS
Core Pore Petrophysical Gamma Ray Flow
Core Lithofacies
Plugs Types Data Log Units
φ vs k Capillary
Pressure
1
Schematic Reservoir Layering Profile
in a Carbonate Reservoir
Flow unit
Baffles/barriers
SA -97A SA -356 SA -71 SA -344 SA -348 SA -37

SA -251 SA -371 SA -346
3150 3150 3100 3100 3250

3200 3150
3100
3200
3150
3200 3200 3150 3300
3250 3200
3150
3250
3250 3250 3200 3250
3300 3250
3200
3300 3300 3250

3350 3300
3250
3350 3350
From Bastian and others

COMPRESSIBILITY OF
RESERVOIR ROCKS
COMPACTION OF SEDIMENTS
• Porosity is reduced by compaction
– Porosity reduction is determined by maximum
burial depth
– Principal effects are:
• Changes in packing
• Pressure solution
• Recrystallization
• Deformation of rock fragments
• Compaction effects are not reversed by
erosional unroofing (hysteresis effect)
MECHANICS OF COMPACTION
Pressure Solution
Rotation and Closer Ductile Grain Breakage of At Grain
Packing Deformation Brittle Grains Contacts
Platy Grains
(e.g., clays)
Non-Platy Grains
(e.g., qtz., feldspar)
Ductile Framework
Grain, e.g., Shale Rock
Fragment) Modified from Jonas and McBride, 1977
Relationship of Original Formation
Porosity to Overburden Pressure
50
40
Sandstones
30
20
Shales
10
0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Overburden pressure, psi
Isothermal Compressibility
• General Definition
– The relative volume change of matter per unit
pressure change under conditions of constant
temperature
• Usually, petroleum reservoirs can be considered
isothermal (an exception: thermal stimulation)
• Increasing pressure causes volume of material to
decrease (compression) - e.g. reservoir fluids
• Decreasing pressure causes volume of material to
increase (expansion) - e.g. reservoir fluids
Isothermal Compressibility
• General Equation 1 ⎛ ∂V ⎞
C = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
V ⎝ ∂p ⎠
– C: Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility
• ALWAYS positive value
• oilfield units: 1/psia
– V: Volume
• oilfield units: ft3
– p: Pressure exerted on material
• oilfield units: psia
– Negative sign in equation determined by ∂V/∂p term, to
force the coefficient C to be positive
– Volume is a function of pressure only (temperature is
constant, and amount of material is constant)
Formation Compressibility
• Importance
– Formation compressibility can have a significant impact
on reservoir performance
– Subsidence can have significant environmental impact
• Types
– Matrix Compressibility ( Cm ): relative change in
volume of solid rock material (grain volume) per unit
pressure change (usually Cm ≅ 0).
– Pore Compressibility ( Cf ): relative change in pore
volume per unit pressure change.
– Bulk Compressibility ( Cb ): relative change in bulk
volume per unit pressure change ( usually ΔVb ≅ ΔVp).
Significant decrease in bulk volume can cause
subsidence.
FORMATION COMPRESSIBILITY
1 ⎛ ∂Vp ⎞
Cf = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Vp ⎝ ∂p ⎠
F O
Under static conditions, downward

1. overburden force must be balanced by
upward forces of the matrix and fluid in
F M F F pores
2. Thus: F =F
o m
+ F
f
AND
p =p + p
o m
4.
3.
As fluids are produced from reservoir, fluid pressure (p) usually
Pressure Gradients, decreases while overburden is constant, and:
Normal Reservoirs: (a) force on matrix increases ( “net compaction pressure”,
pm=po-p)
dpo/dZ = 1.0 psia/ft (b) bulk volume decreases, and
dp/dZ = 0.465 psia/ft (c) pore volume decreases.
• Equation 1 ⎛ ∂Vp ⎞
Cf = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Vp ⎝ ∂p ⎠
– Cf: Formation Compressibility (Pore Volume Comp.)
• ALWAYS positive value
• oilfield units: 1/psia
– Vp: Pore volume
• oilfield units: ft3
– p: Pressure of fluid in pores
• oilfield units: psia
– Positive sign in equation determined by ∂Vp/∂p term, to
force Cf to be positive
– Pore volume is function of pressure only (temperature
is constant, amount of reservoir rock is constant)
Subsidence and Bulk Compressibility
• Process of subsidence
• Bulk volume decreases as fluids are produced
• Area is constant
• ∴ Formation thickness decreases (causing subsidence of strata above)
• Porosity: φ = Vp/Vb = 1-(Vm/Vb); where Vb=Vp+Vm
• Net compaction pressure: pm = po - p
• Overburden (po) is constant ∴ dpm= -dp
• As net compaction pressure increases
• Bulk volume decreases; Cb = -1/Vb (∂Vb/∂pm)
• Pore volume decreases; Cf= -1/Vp (∂Vp/∂pm)
• Matrix volume decreases; Cm= -1/Vm (∂Vm/∂pm)
• Substituting from definitions above
• Cb = (-1/Vb) [(∂Vp/∂pm) + (∂Vm/∂pm) ]
• Cb = (-1/Vb) [(- Cf Vp) + (- Cm Vm)]
• Cb = φCf + (1-φ)Cm; usually Cm << Cf
• Calculation of Pore Volume Change
1
– Separate C f dp = dVp
Vp
p2 Vp2
1
– and Integrate ∫p Cf dp = V∫ Vp dVp
1 p1
– Two common approaches for constant value of Cf

• Exact Integration
• 1st Order Approximation
• Pore Volume Change - Continued
– Exact Integration p1 [
C f [p] = ln(Vp ) V
p2
]
Vp2
p1
• Exponentiating (Inverse of Natural Logarithm) and rearranging
Vp2 = Vp1e Cf (p 2 − p1 )
• OR
[
ΔVp = Vp1 e Cf (p 2 − p1 ) − 1 ]
• Pore Volume Change - Continued
– 1st Order Approximation
1 ⎛ dVp ⎞ 1 ⎛ ΔVp ⎞
Cf = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Vp ⎝ dp ⎠ Vp ⎝ Δp ⎠
1 ⎛ Vp2 − Vp1 ⎞
Cf = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Vp1 ⎝ p 2 − p1 ⎠
ΔVp = Vp1C f (p 2 − p1 )
Vp2 = Vp1 [1 + C f (p 2 − p1 )]
Laboratory Determination of Cf
• In reservoirs, overburden pressure is constant and
the pressure of fluid in pores changes, resulting in
pore volume change
• In the laboratory, we change the confining
pressure on the core plug (overburden) while
holding the pore pressure constant
• Remember that the net compaction pressure on the
matrix is the difference between the overburden
and pore pressures
– This allows us to obtain useful results in the laboratory
Laboratory Determination of Cf
• Laboratory Procedure
– Core plug is 100% saturated with brine
– Core plug is placed in rubber or soft copper sleeve
– As pressure outside sleeve is increased, pore volume
decreases and the volume of expelled brine is measured
pconfining
Hysteresis Effect - Formation Compressibility
• Hysteresis: The lagging of an effect behind its cause, as when the
change in magnetism of a body lags behind changes in the
magnetic field. (definition from dictionary.com, 2002)
• Hysteresis is used by Petroleum Engineers to describe the effects
of path dependence and irreversibilities we observe in reservoir
behavior
– For example, if we decrease reservoir pressure from initial conditions, pore
volume decreases. If we then increase reservoir pressure back to the initial
pressure, pore volume does not increase all the way back to the initial pore
volume.
Initial
Conditions
Pore Volume
Pore Pressure
PERMEABILITY
Some slides in this section are from NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999.
Some slides appear to have been obtained from unknown primary
sources that were not cited by NExT. Note that some slides have a notes section.
Permeability
• Definition (ABW, Ref: API 27)
– … permeability is a property of the porous medium and
is a measure of the capacity of the medium to transmit
fluids
– … a measure of the fluid conductivity of the particular
material
• Permeability is an INTENSIVE property of a
porous medium (e.g. reservoir rock)
Sources for Permeability Determination
• Core analysis
• Well test analysis (flow testing)
– RFT (repeat formation tester) provides small well tests
• Production data
– production logging measures fluid flow into well
• Log data
– MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) logs calibrated via
core analysis
Examples, Typical Permeability-
Porosity Relationship
From Tiab and Donaldson, 1996

A
Darcy’s
Apparatus for h1-h2
q
Determining
Permeability A
h1
h2
(Sand Pack Length) L
•Flow is Steady State

•q = KA (h1-h2)/L q
•K is a constant of
proportionality
•h1>h2 for downward flow
PERMEABILITY
• Darcy’s “K” was determined to be a
combination of
– k, permeability of the sand pack (porous
medium, e.g. reservoir rock)
– μ, viscosity of the liquid
k
K=
μ
Review - Derived Units
• Consider Newton’s 2nd Law for constant
mass, F=ma
– SI Units are Absolute and Coherent
• Absolute: Force is a derived unit, 1 N = 1 (kg*m/s2)
• Coherent (consistent): No conversion constants
needed
– So: F[N] = m[kg]*a[m/s2]
• What if we want F to be in [lbf ]?
– Then, F[lbf]*4.448[ N/lbf] =

m[kg]*a[m/s2]
– Adding the conversion factor restores the

original formula (a true statement in SI units)
• For: F in [lbf ], m in [lbm ], a in [ft/s2]
– Then, F[lbf ]*4.448222[N / lbf] =

m[lbm ]*0.4535924[kg/lbm] *
a[ft/s2]*0.3048[m/ft]
– Or, F[lbf ] = m[lbm ] * a[ft/s2] /

32.17405[(lbm⋅ft)/(lbf ⋅s2)]
– Remember: 1[N] / 1[kg*m/s2] = 1; dimensionless

Permeability
Dimensions & Units
• Permeability is a derived dimension
• From Darcy’s equation, the dimension of permeability is length squared
⎡ L P⋅T L 1 1 ⎤
[ ]
3
qμ L
k= ; ⎢ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 2 ⋅ ⎥ = L2
A Δp ⎣ T 1 1 L P ⎦
– This is not the same as area, even though for example, it is m2 in SI units
• See handout: Darcy, {SI}, and [Oilfield] units

• In Darcy and SI Units, this equation is coherent
– Oilfield units are non-coherent, a unit conversion constant is required
Darcy Units
• Permeability is a derived dimension based on Darcy’s
Equation
k = (q μ L) / (A Δp)
• The unit of permeability is the Darcy [d]

– The oilfield unit is millidarcy [md]
• The Darcy is defined from Darcy’s Equation, where:

q [cm3/s]
μ [cp]
L [cm]
A [cm2]
Δp [atm]
Differential Form - Darcy’s Law
• Darcy’s Equation rearranged as Darcy velocity (volumetric
flux)
vs = q/A = (k/μ) (Δp/L)
• This equation applies for any L, ∴ as L→0
vs = q/A = -(k/μ) (dp/ds)

where,
vs Darcy velocity, (volumetric flux)
s distance along flow path (0≤s ≤ L), in the direction of
decreasing pressure (note negative sign)
• The differential form is Darcy’s Law
Flow Potential
• The generalized form of Darcy’s Law includes pressure
and gravity terms to account for horizontal or non-
horizontal flow
qs k ⎡ dp ρ g dz ⎤
vs = =− ⎢ −
A μ ⎣ ds c ds ⎥⎦
– The gravity term has dimension of pressure / length
• Flow potential includes both pressure and gravity terms,
simplifying Darcy’s Law
q k ⎡ dΦ ⎤
vs = =− ⎢
A μ ⎣ ds ⎥⎦
Φ = p - ρgZ/c ; Z+↓; Z is elevation measured from a datum
Φ has dimension of pressure
Permeability Dimensions & Units
Permeability is a measure of the fluid conductivity of a rock.
From Darcy’s Equation, the dimension of permeability is
⎡ qμL ⎤ ⎡ L3 P ⋅ T L 1 1 ⎤
k=⎢ ⎥=
⎣ AΔp ⎦
⎢ ⋅
⎢⎣ T 1
⋅ ⋅ 2 ⋅ ⎥ = L2
1 L P ⎥⎦
[ ]
The permeability unit is defined in an older system now called Darcy Units. Other
unit systems are shown in braces and brackets: {SI Units} and [Oilfield Units]
qs k ⎡ dp ρg dZ ⎤
= − +
A μ ⎢⎣ ds c ds ⎥⎦
k ⎡ dΦ ⎤ ρg
= − ⎢ ⎥ ; where Φ = p − Z; Z+ ↓
μ ⎣ ds ⎦ c
k = permeability, d {m2} [md]

qs = volumetric flow rate along flow path, cm3/s {m3/s} [barrel/d]
(42 US gallons/barrel) (5.6145833 ft3/barrel)
A = cross-sectional area of flow path, cm2 {m2} [ft2]
μ = fluid viscosity, cp {Pa⋅s} [cp]
p = pressure, atm {Pa} [psi]
s = distance along flow path, cm {m} [ft]
ρ = density, g/cm3 {kg/m3} [lbm/ft3]
g = acceleration due to gravity, 981 cm/s2 {9.81 m/s2} [32.17 ft/s2]
c = gravity term conversion constant, 1.01325 x 106 dyne/cm2⋅atm
{1 Pa/(N/(m2)} [(32.174 lbm⋅ft/ lbf ⋅s2)(144 in2/ft2)]
Z = vertical elevation measured from datum, cm {m} [ft]
Note: Darcy’s Equation in oilfield units is non-coherent, and requires an

additional unit conversion factor (not shown)
PERMEABILITY
Flow of Liquids in Porous Media

Linear Flow, Incompressible Liquid
• 1-D Linear Flow System
• steady state flow
• incompressible fluid, q(0≤s ≤ L) = constant
• dΦ includes effect of dZ/ds (change in elevation)
• A(0≤s ≤ L) = constant
• Darcy flow (Darcy’s Law is valid)
• k = constant (non-reactive fluid)
• single phase (S=1)
• isothermal (constant μ)
A
q 2
L
1
Linear Flow, Incompressible Liquid
q k ⎡ dΦ ⎤
• Darcy’s Law: vs = =− ⎢
A μ ⎣ ds ⎥⎦
kA
q ds = − dΦ
μ
L Φ2
kA
A
q ∫ ds = − ∫ dΦ
q
1
L 2
0
μ Φ1
kA
q= (Φ 1 − Φ 2 )
μL
• q1→2 > 0, if Φ1 > Φ2
• Use of flow potential, Φ, valid for horizontal, vertical or inclined
flow
Radial Flow, Incompressible Liquid
• 1-D Radial Flow System
• steady state flow
• incompressible fluid, q(rw≤s ≤ re) = constant
• horizontal flow (dZ/ds = 0 ∴ Φ = p)
• A(rw≤s ≤ re) = 2πrh where, h=constant
• Darcy flow (Darcy’s Law is valid)
• k = constant (non-reactive fluid)
• single phase (S=1)
q
• isothermal (constant μ)
• ds = -dr
rw re
Radial Flow, Incompressible Liquid
q k ⎡ dΦ ⎤
• Darcy’s Law: vs = =− ⎢
A μ ⎣ ds ⎥⎦
q k
dr = dp
q 2π rh μ
rw pw
1 2π kh
q ∫ dr = ∫ dp
re
r μ pe
2π kh
rw re
q= (p e − p w )
μ ln(r e /r w )
• qe→w > 0, if pe > pw
Flow Potential - Gravity Term
• Φ = p - ρgZ/c
• Z+↓
• Z is elevation measured from a datum
• Φ has dimension of pressure
• Oilfield Units
• c = (144 in2/ft2)(32.17 lbm⋅ft/lbf⋅s2)
Flow Potential - Darcy’s Experiment
• Discuss ABW, Fig. 2-26 (pg. 68)
• Confirm that for the static (no flow) case, the flow
potential is constant (there is no potential gradient to
cause flow)
• top of sand pack
• bottom of sand pack
Flow Potential - Example Problem
• Discuss ABW, Example 2-8 (pg. 75)
• Solve this problem using flow potential
Permeability Units
• Discuss ABW, Example 2-9 (pg. 79)
• 2 conversion factors needed to illustrate
permeability units of cm2
• cp → Pa⋅s
• atm →Pa
Example: Calculation of m(p) for a 0.75 gravity gas at a temperature of 220 oF
{pb = 15 psia (0 psig), integrals approximated using trapezoidal rule}
pressure z-factor viscosity μz p/μz Area m(p)

psia cp cp psia/cp psia2/cp psia2/cp
4515 0.973 0.0236 0.0230 1.96E+05 9.76E+07 6.16E+08
4015 0.941 0.0220 0.0207 1.94E+05 9.60E+07 5.18E+08
3515 0.914 0.0202 0.0185 1.90E+05 9.29E+07 4.22E+08
3015 0.895 0.0185 0.0166 1.82E+05 8.76E+07 3.29E+08
2515 0.884 0.0169 0.0149 1.68E+05 7.92E+07 2.42E+08
2015 0.884 0.0154 0.0136 1.48E+05 6.72E+07 1.62E+08
1515 0.897 0.0140 0.0126 1.20E+05 5.14E+07 9.52E+07
1015 0.922 0.0129 0.0119 8.51E+04 3.24E+07 4.38E+07
515 0.957 0.0121 0.0116 4.45E+04 1.14E+07 1.14E+07
15 0.999 0.0116 0.0116 1.29E+03 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
LABORATORY DETERMATION
OF PERMEABILITY
LABORATORY METHODS FOR
DETERMINING ABSOLUTE
PERMEABILITY
1” or 1 1/2”
Plug
Slab Taken for
Most Common •Photography
•Description
•Archival
Full Diameter
Heterogeneous
Whole Core
Heterogeneous
WHOLE-CORE METHOD
• Uses selected pieces from the full or whole

core
– Core sizes 2 1/2 to 5 1/2 inches in diameter
– Several inches to several feet long
• Most applicable approach for very

heterogeneous formations.
• Additional expense limits the practical number
of tests.
CORE PLUG METHOD
• Most commonly applied method.
• Uses small cylindrical core samples
– 3/4 inch to 1 1/2 inch diameter
– 1 to a few inches long
• May not apply to heterogeneous

formations.
I IIa IIb
Unacceptable
Different
Lithologies ~1 ft
kH ?
Require Or
Full-
Careful Suitable
kH Diameter
Selection of kV kV
Suitable III IV V
Core Plugs kV
or Require Full
Diameter kH Matrix
Only
Whole-Core `4” - 9”
Analyses Fracture
k and φ?
Whole Core
Analysis
(2-3 ft)
WHOLE CORE
Whole Core Photograph,
Misoa “C” Sandstone,
Venezuela
Photo by W. Ayers
LAB PROCEDURE FOR
MEASURING PERMEABILITY
• Cut core plugs from whole core or use

sample from whole core
• Clean core and extract reservoir fluids, then
dry the core
• Flow a fluid through core at several flow rates
• Record inlet and outlet pressures for each
rate
PERM PLUG METHOD
LIQUID FLOW
• Measure inlet and outlet pressures (p1 and

p2) at several different flow rates
• Graph ratio of flow rate to area (q/A) versus
the pressure function (p1 - p2)/L
• For laminar flow, data follow a straight line
with slope of k/μ
• At very high flow rates, turbulent flow is
indicated by a deviation from straight line
through origin
Laboratory Determination of Absolute
Permeability, Liquid Flow
Darcy Flow Non-Darcy Flow
q
A
k
Slope = μ
0
0 (p1 - p2)
L
ISSUES AFFECTING
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
OF PERMEABILITY
• Core Handling, Cleaning, and Sampling
• Fluid-Rock Interactions
• Pressure Changes
• Rock Heterogeneities (Fractures)
• Gas Velocity Effects (Klinkenberg)
CORE HANDLING PROCESSES
AFFECT PERMEABILITY
MEASUREMENTS
• Core Handling
• Cleaning
• Drying (Clay Damage)
• Storage (Freezing)
• Sampling
FLUID-ROCK INTERACTIONS
AFFECT MEASUREMENTS OF
PERMEABILITY
• Fresh water may cause clay swelling,
reducing permeability
• Tests may cause fines migration, plugging
pore throats and reducing permeability
• Reservoir or synthetic reservoir fluids are
generally preferred
PRESSURES AFFECT
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
OF PERMEABILITY
• Core alterations resulting from loss of

Confining Pressure during core recovery
• Core testing may be conducted by applying a
range of net overburden pressures
CORE HETEROGENEITIES
AFFECT MEASUREMENTS OF
PERMEABILITY
• Naturally-fractured reservoirs
– Core plugs represent matrix permeability
– Total system permeability (matrix + fractures) is higher
• Core Mineralogy problems (Salts,

Gypsum)
EXAMPLE CORE REPORT
Laboratory Analysis of Gas Flow
Mean Pressure Method
• Beginning from (zμg )=Constant Equation for Linear Flow
⎛ Tsc ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
A q g, sc =
kA
L
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜
⎜ 2zμ ⎟
(
⎟ p 1 − p 22 )
qg L 2 ⎝ T p sc ⎠ ⎝ g ⎠
1
– From Real Gas Law, we can evaluate q at any pressure
k A ⎛ Tsc ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
q g, sc =
q p Tsc
z p sc T
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
L ⎝ p sc T ⎠
⎜
⎜ 2zμ ⎟
(
⎟ p 1 − p 22 )
⎝ g ⎠
– where, p=
(p 1+ p2 )
2
– and, (zμ g ) = Constant = z ⋅ μ g
Laboratory Analysis of Gas Flow
Mean Pressure Method
– canceling terms and substituting mean pressure
q =
kA
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
(
⎛ 1 ⎞ p 12 − p 22 )
μg L ⎝p⎠ 2
q =
kA
μg L
(
p1 − p 2 )
• The Mean Pressure Method is commonly used to analyze
laboratory flow (low pressure)
– flowing temperature is isothermal
– Mean flow rate is volumetric rate at point in core where pressure is mean
pressure value
Factors Affecting
Permeability Determination
Non-Darcy Flow
Some figures in this section are from “Fundamentals of Core Analysis,” Core Laboratories, 1989.
Air Permeability Measurement
• Measurement of permeability in the laboratory is most commonly
done with air
– Convenient and inexpensive
– Problem: low values of mean flowing pressure
• downstream pressure, patm
• upstream pressure, just a few psi higher than patm
• At low mean flowing pressure, gas slippage occurs

– Diameter of flow path through porous media approaches the “mean free
path” of gas molecules
• mean free path is a function of molecule size
• mean free path is a function of gas density
– Increasing mean flowing pressure results in less slippage
• as pmean→∞, we obtain absolute (equivalent liquid) permeability
Non-Darcy Flow - Gas Slippage
• Liquid flow and gas flow at high mean flowing pressure is laminar
– Darcy’s Law is valid
– flow velocity at walls is zero
• At low mean flowing pressure gas slippage occurs

– Non-Darcy flow is observed
– flow at walls is not zero
• Klinkenberg developed a method to correct gas permeability

measured at low mean flowing pressure to equivalent liquid
permeability
Non-Darcy Flow - Klinkenberg Effect
• As pmean→∞, gas permeability approaches absolute permeability

• Klinkenberg correction for kair depends on mean flowing pressure

– correction ratio shown is for pmean = 1 atm
• Klinkenberg correction for kair is more important for low absolute

permeability
Non-Darcy Flow - High Flow Rates
• In the field, gas wells exhibit non-Darcy flow at high flow rates
• At high flow velocity, inertial effects and turbulence become
important, and cause non-Darcy flow
– inertial effect
Non-Darcy Flow - Turbulence
• Recalling Darcy’s equation for gas flow, (zμg )=Constant

⎛ Tsc ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2
q g, sc =
kA
L
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜
⎜ 2zμ ⎟
(
⎟ p 1 − p 22 )
⎝ T p sc ⎠ ⎝ g ⎠
• For laboratory flow experiments we can assume T=Tsc and z=1
q g, sc =
k ⎛ A
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
(
⎞ p 12 − p 22 )
μg ⎝ p sc ⎠ 2L
• For Darcy flow, plotting (qg,sc psc)/A vs. (p12-p22)/(2L) results in
straight line.
• line passes through origin [when qg,sc =0, then (p12-p22)=0]
• slope = k/ μg
• behavior departs from straight line under turbulent flow conditions (high
flow velocity)
Non-Darcy Flow - Turbulence
Darcy Non-Darcy
flow flow
q psc
A
k
Slope = μ
0
0 (p12- p22)
2L
Non-Darcy Flow - Forchheimer Equation
• Forchheimer proposed a flow equation to account for the non-

linear effect of turbulence by adding a second order term
2
− dp μ g ⎛ q g ⎞ ⎛ qg ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + β ρ g ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ds k ⎝A⎠ ⎝A⎠
– Note that unit corrections factors would be required for non-coherent unit
systems.
– As flow rate decreases, we approach Darcy’s Law (2nd order term
approaches zero)
Non-Darcy Flow - Forchheimer Plot
• Based on Forchheimer’s Equation a plotting method was

developed to determine absolute permeability even with
Non-Darcy effects
– (1/kgas) vs. qg,sc
• kgas determined from Darcy’s Law (incorrectly assuming Darcy flow)
and is a function of qg,sc
– intercept = (1/kabs); absolute permeability
(1/kgas), (1/md)
Slope = [(βρg,sc)/(μgA)]
Intercept = [1/kabs]
qg,sc
Non-Darcy Flow - Forchheimer Equation
• Non-Darcy Coefficient, β, is an empirically determined function of
absolute permeability
– For Travis Peak (Texas)
NOB=Net
Overburden
Average Permeability
Flow in Layered Systems
Some figures were taken from Amyx, Bass and Whiting, Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering (1960).
Average
g Permeability
y
• If permeability is not a constant function of space (heterogeneity),
we can calculate the average permeability
– Common, simple flow cases are considered here
• Linear, Parallel
Li P ll l (cores,
( horizontal
h i l permeability)
bili )
• Linear, Serial (cores, vertical permeability)
• Radial, Parallel (reservoirs, horizontal layers)
• Radial, Serial (reservoir, damage or stimulation)
• Average
A permeability
bilit should
h ld representt the
th correctt flow
fl capacity
it
– For a specified flow rate, average permeability results in same pressure drop
((and vice versa)
• Review Integral Averages (Self Study, e.g. Average Velocity)
Linear Flow, Pressure Profile
q k ⎡ dp ⎤
• Review, Darcy’s Law: vs = =− ⎢ ⎥
– horizontal flow (Φ=p) A μ ⎣ ds ⎦
kA
q ds = − dpp
μ
L p2
A
kA
q L 2 q ∫ ds
d =− ∫ dp
d
1
0
μ p1
kA
q= (p1 − p 2 )
μL
• We can determine how x p(x)
kA
pressure varies
i along
l the
h q ∫ ds
d =− ∫ dp
d
flow path, p(x), by 0
μ p1
considering an arbitrary qμ x
point, 0≤x ≤ L p(x) = p 1 −
– Integral
g from 0→x
kA
OR, equivalently
L p2
kA
q ∫ ds = − ∫ dp
A
μ
q L 2
1 x p(x))
p(
– We could also integrate q μ (L − x)

x→L p(x) = p 2 +
kA
• Pressure profile is a linear
f
function
i for
f homogeneous
h
properties p1
– slope depends on flow rate
p(x)
p→
A
p2
q L 2
1
0
0 x L
x→
Linear, Parallel Flow
• Permeability varies across several
horizontal layers (k1,k2,k3)
– Discrete changes in permeability
h = h1 + h 2 + h 3 = ∑h i
– Same pressure drop for each layer

p 1 - p 2 = Δp = Δp 1 = Δp 2 = Δp 3
– Total flow rate is summation of flow rate for all layers
y
q = q1 + q 2 + q 3 = ∑q i
– Average permeability results in correct total flow rate
kwh
q= Δp ; A = w ⋅ h
μL
Linear, Parallel Flow
• Substituting,
kwh k1 w h1 k2 w h2 k3 w h3
q= Δp = Δp + Δp + Δp
μL μL μL μL
• Rearranging,
k=
∑ k i ⋅ hi
h
• Average permeability reflects flow capacity of all layers
Linear, Serial Flow
vertical layers (k1,k2,k3)
L = L1 + L 2 + L 3 = ∑L i
– Same flow rate passes through each layer

q = q1 = q 2 = q 3
– Total p
pressure drop
p is summation of ppressure drop
p across layers
y
p 1 − p 2 = Δp 1 + Δp 2 + Δp 3 = ∑ Δp i
– Average permeability results in correct total pressure drop

qμ L
p1 - p 2 = ; A = w ⋅h
kwh
Linear, Serial Flow
• Substituting,
qμ L q μ L1 q μ L2 q μ L3
p1 - p 2 = = + +
k w h k1 w h k 2 w h k 3 w h
• Rearranging, L
k=
Li
∑k p1
• If k1>k2>k3, then k
p→
– Linear pressure profile in each layer p2
0
0 L
x→
Radial Flow, Pressure Profile
q k ⎡ dp ⎤
• Review, Darcy’s Law: vs = =− ⎢ ⎥
– horizontal flow (Φ=p) A μ ⎣ ds ⎦
q k
dr = dpp
2 rh
2π h μ
rw pw
1 2π kh
q q ∫ dr d = ∫ dp
d
re
r μ pe
22π kh
q= (p e − p w )
rw re
μ ln(r e /r w )
rw pw
• We can determine how 1 2π kh
pressure varies
i along
l the
h q ∫ dr = ∫ dp
flow path, p(r), by r
r μ p(r)
considering an arbitrary q μ ln(r/r
l ( / w)
point, rw≤r ≤ re p(r) = p w +
g from r → rw
– Integral
2π k h
OR, equivalently
OR
r p(r)
1 2π kh
– Integral from re→r q ∫ dr = ∫ dp
re
r μ pe
q μ ln(r e /r)
p(r) = p e −
2 kh
2π
• Pressure profile is a linear
f
function
i off ln(r)
l ( ) for
f
homogeneous properties
pe
– slope depends on flow rate
p(r)
p→
pw
q
0
rw r re
ln(r) →
rw re
Radial, Parallel Flow
(3) horizontal layers (k1,k2,k3)
h = h1 + h 2 + h 3 = ∑h i
– Same pressure drop for each layer

p e - p w = Δp = Δp 1 = Δp 2 = Δp 3
– Total flow rate is summation of flow rate for all layers
y
q = q1 + q 2 + q 3 = ∑q i
– Average permeability results in correct total flow rate

2π k h
q= Δp
μ ln(r e /r w )
Radial, Parallel Flow
• Substituting,
2π k h
q= Δp
μ ln(r e /rw )
2π k 1 h 1 2π k 2 h 2 2π k 3 h 3
= Δp + Δp + Δp
μ ln(r e /r w ) μ ln(r e /r w ) μ ln(r e /r w )
• Rearranging,
k=
∑ k i ⋅ hi
h
• Average permeability reflects flow capacity of all layers

R1 of this
Radial, Serial Flow figure is r2 of

equations
• Permeability varies across two vertical

concentric cylindrical layers
[k( w≤r≤r2) = k1, k(r
[k(r k( 2≤r≤re = k2]
re − rw = Δr1 + Δr 2 = ∑ Δr i
– Same flow rate passes through each layer

q = q1 = q 2
– Total pressure drop is summation of pressure drop across layers
p e − p w = Δp
p 1 + Δp
p2 = ∑ Δpp i
– Average permeability results in correct total pressure drop

q μ ln(r e /r w )
pe - pw =
2π k h
Radial, Serial Flow
• Substituting (rw=r1, r2 ,re=r3),
q μ ln(r e /r w ) q μ ln(r 2 /r w ) q μ ln(r e /r2 )
pe - pw = = +
2π k h 2π k 1 h 2π k 2 h
• Rearranging,
lln(r
( e /r
/ w)
k=
(ln(r i +1 /ri )
∑
All Layers ki
Radial, Serial Flow
pe • Damage: k1<k2
– Shown in sketch to the left
– Permeability is damaged near the
wellbore
p→
pw k • Reactive
R i fluids
fl id
• Fines migration
0
rw re pe
ln(r) →
k1 → ∞
k
• Stimulation k1>k2
p→
– Shown in sketch to the right pw
– Permeability is improved near

the wellbore
0
• Acid stimulation rw re
ln(r) →
Integration of Darcy’s Law
• Beginning with the differential form of Darcy’s Law
• Previous lecture on gas flow q k ⎡ dp ⎤
vs = =− ⎢⎣ ds ⎥⎦
– gas properties are functions of pressure A μ
• include gas properties in the dp integral
• In
I thi
this lecture
l t
– parallel flow (permeability varies over cross sectional area)
• integrate over area (integrated average value)
– serial flow (permeability varies along flow path)
• integrate over flow path (leave k in ds integral)
• This approach can be extended to other cases (order of precedence
as shown)
– Any term that varies as a function of pressure can be included in the dp
integral
– Anyy term that varies along
g flow ppath can be included in the ds integral
g
– Any term that varies over cross sectional area can use an integrated average
value (integrated over cross sectional area, e.g. parallel flow)
Boundary Tension
and Wettability
Immiscible Phases
• Earlier discussions have considered only a
single fluid in the pores
– porosity
– permeability
• Saturation: fraction of pore space
occupied by a particular fluid (immiscible
phases)
– Sw+So+Sg=1
• When more than a single phase is present,
the fluids interact with the rock, and with
each other
DEFINITION OF INTERFACIAL
TENSION
• Interfacial (boundary) tension is the energy

per unit area (force per unit distance) at the
surface between phases
• Commonly expressed in milli-

Newtons/meter (also, dynes/cm)
BOUNDARY (INTERFACIAL) TENSION
• Imbalanced molecular forces at phase boundaries
GAS • Boundary contracts to minimize size
• Cohesive vs. adhesion forces
θ
LIQUID
GAS
SOLID
Cohesive force
Adhesion force
Molecular
Interface
(imbalance
of forces)
LIQUID
(dense phase)
Modified from PETE

311 Notes
SOLID
DEFINITION OF WETTABILITY
• Wettability is the tendency of one fluid
to spread on or adhere to a solid
surface in the presence of other
immiscible fluids.
• Wettability refers to interaction between
fluid and solid phases.
• Reservoir rocks (sandstone, limestone,

dolomite, etc.) are the solid surfaces
• Oil, water, and/or gas are the fluids

WHY STUDY WETTABILITY?
•Understand physical and chemical interactions between
• Individual fluids and reservoir rocks
• Different fluids with in a reservoir
• Individual fluids and reservoir rocks when multiple
fluids are present
•Petroleum reservoirs commonly have 2 – 3 fluids

(multiphase systems)
• When 2 or more fluids are present, there are at least 3

sets of forces acting on the fluids and affecting HC recovery
DEFINITION OF
ADHESION TENSION
• Adhesion tension is expressed as the
difference between two solid-fluid
interfacial tensions.
AT = σ os − σ ws = − σ ow cos θ
• A negative adhesion tension indicates that the denser phase (water)
preferentially wets the solid surface (and vice versa).
• An adhesion tension of “0” indicates that both phases have equal
affinity for the solid surface
CONTACT ANGLE
Oil
σow
Oil θ Water Oil
σos σws σos

Solid The contact angle, θ, measured through
the denser liquid phase,
defines which fluid wets the solid
AT = adhesion tension, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm) surface.
θ = contact angle between the oil/water/solid interface measured through the water, degrees
σos = interfacial energy between the oil and solid, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm
σws = interfacial energy between the water and solid, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm
σow = interfacial energy (interfacial tension) between the oil and water, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm
WETTING PHASE FLUID
• Wetting phase fluid preferentially wets the
solid rock surface.
• Attractive forces between rock and fluid draw
the wetting phase into small pores.
• Wetting phase fluid often has low mobile.
• Attractive forces limit reduction in wetting
phase saturation to an irreducible value
(irreducible wetting phase saturation).
• Many hydrocarbon reservoirs are either totally
or partially water-wet.
NONWETTING PHASE FLUID
• Nonwetting phase does not preferentially
wet the solid rock surface
• Repulsive forces between rock and fluid
cause nonwetting phase to occupy largest
pores
• Nonwetting phase fluid is often the most
mobile fluid, especially at large
nonwetting phase saturations
• Natural gas is never the wetting phase in
hydrocarbon reservoirs
WATER-WET RESERVOIR ROCK
• Reservoir rock is water - wet if water preferentially
wets the rock surfaces
• The rock is water- wet under the following
conditions:
• σws > σos
• AT < 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is negative)
• 0° < θ < 90°
If θ is close to 0°, the rock is considered

to be “strongly water-wet”
WATER-WET ROCK
σow Oil
θ Water
σos σws σos
Solid
• 0° < θ < 90°

• Adhesive tension between water and the
rock surface exceeds that between oil and
the rock surface.
OIL-WET RESERVOIR ROCK
• Reservoir rock is oil-wet if oil preferentially

wets the rock surfaces.
• The rock is oil-wet under the following
conditions:
• σos > σws
• AT > 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is positive)
• 90° < θ < 180°
If θ is close to 180°, the rock is considered to
be “strongly oil-wet”
OIL-WET ROCK
σow
Water
Oil
θ
σos σws σos Solid
• 90° < θ < 180°

• The adhesion tension between water and the
rock surface is less than that between oil and the
rock surface.
INTERFACIAL CONTACT ANGLES,
VARIOUS ORGANIC LIQUID IN
CONTACT WITH SILICA AND CALCITE
WATER
SILICA SURFACE
WATER
CALCITE SURFACE
From Amyx Bass and Whiting, 1960; modified from Benner and Bartel, 1941
GENERALLY,
• Silicate minerals have acidic surfaces

• Repel acidic fluids such as major polar
organic compounds present in some crude oils
• Attract basic compounds
• Neutral to oil-wet surfaces
• Carbonate minerals have basic surfaces

• Attract acidic compounds of crude oils
• Neutral to oil-wet surfaces Tiab and Donaldson, 1996
Caution: these are very general statements and relations

that are debated and disputed by petrophysicists.
WATER-WET OIL-WET
Air
OIL Oil OIL
θ
θ
θ WATER θ WATER
θ < 90°
WATER WATER θ > 90°
SOLID (ROCK) SOLID (ROCK)
FREE WATER
OIL
GRAIN GRAIN
OIL
RIM
BOUND WATER FREE WATER
Ayers, 2001
WATER-WET OIL-WET
Air Oil
θ
θ
WATER WATER
From Levorsen, 1967
Brown, G.E., 2001, Science, v. 294, p. 67-69
n = 30 silicate and 25 carbonates n = 161 ls., dol.
From Tiab and Donaldson, 1996 CONTACT ANGLE: Triber et al. CONTACT ANGLE:
-Water-wet = 0 – 75 degrees -Water-wet = 0 – 80 degrees
-Intermediate-wet = 75 – 105 degrees -Intermediate-wet = 80 – 100 degrees
-Oil-wet = 105 – 180 degrees -Oil-wet = 100 – 180 degrees
WETTABILITY IS AFFECTED BY:
• Composition of pore-lining minerals
• Composition of the fluids
• Saturation history
WETTABILITY CLASSIFICATION
• Strongly oil- or water-wetting
• Neutral wettability – no preferential wettability

to either water or oil in the pores
• Fractional wettability – reservoir that has local

areas that are strongly oil-wet, whereas most
of the reservoir is strongly water-wet
- Occurs where reservoir rock have variable
mineral composition and surface chemistry
• Mixed wettability – smaller pores area water-wet

are filled with water, whereas larger pores are
oil-wet and filled with oil
- Residual oil saturation is low
- Occurs where oil with polar organic compounds
invades a water-wet rock saturated with brine
IMBIBITION
• Imbibition is a fluid flow process in which
the saturation of the wetting phase
increases and the nonwetting phase
saturation decreases. (e.g., waterflood of an
oil reservoir that is water-wet).
• Mobility of wetting phase increases as

wetting phase saturation increases
– mobility is the fraction of total flow capacity for a particular
phase
WATER-WET RESERVOIR,
IMBIBITION
• Water will occupy the smallest pores
• Water will wet the circumference of most larger pores
• In pores having high oil saturation, oil rests on a water film
• Imbibition - If a water-wet rock saturated with oil is

placed in water, it will imbibe water into the smallest
pores, displacing oil
OIL-WET RESERVOIR,
IMBIBITION
• Oil will occupy the smallest pores
• Oil will wet the circumference of most larger pores
• In pores having high water saturation, water rests on an

oil film
• Imbibition - If an oil-wet rock saturated with water is

placed in oil, it will imbibe oil into the smallest
pores, displacing water
e.g., Oil-wet reservoir – accumulation of oil in trap

DRAINAGE
• Fluid flow process in which the
saturation of the nonwetting phase
increases
• Mobility of nonwetting fluid phase
increases as nonwetting phase
saturation increases
– e.g., waterflood of an oil reservoir that is oil-wet
– Gas injection in an oil- or water-wet reservoir
– Pressure maintenance or gas cycling by gas injection
in a retrograde condensate reservoir
– Water-wet reservoir – accumulation of oil or gas in trap
IMPLICATIONS OF WETTABILITY
• Primary oil recovery is affected by the

wettability of the system.
– A water-wet system will exhibit
greater primary oil recovery.
WATER-WET OIL-WET
Air
OIL Oil OIL
θ
θ
θ WATER θ WATER
θ < 90°
WATER WATER θ > 90°
SOLID (ROCK) SOLID (ROCK)
FREE WATER
OIL
GRAIN GRAIN
OIL
RIM
BOUND WATER FREE WATER
Ayers, 2001
• Oil recovery under waterflooding is

affected by the wettability of the
system.
– A water-wet system will exhibit
greater oil recovery under
waterflooding.
Water-Wet System
Oil-Wet System
Effect on waterflood of an oil reservoir?
From Levorsen, 1967

• Wettability affects the shape of the

relative permeability curves.
– Oil moves easier in water-wet rocks
than oil-wet rocks.
Core Percent
Recovery efficiency, percent, Soi
no silicone Wettability
1 0.00 0.649
80 2 0.020 0.176
1 3 0.200 - 0.222
2 4 2.00 - 0.250
60
3 5 1.00 - 0.333 ?
Curves cut off at Fwd •100
4
p. 274
40 5
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Water injected, pore volumes
Modified from Tiab and Donaldson, 1996

Squirrel oil - 0.10 N NaCl - Torpedo core (μ • 33 O W • 663,
K • 0945, Swi • 21.20%)
Recovery efficiency, percent Spi
Squirrel oil - 0.10 N NaCl • Torpedo Sandstone core,

after remaining in oil for 84 days (μ • 33.0 W • 663, K •
0.925, Swi • 23.28%)
80
60
40
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Water injection, pore volumes
Modified from NExT, 1999
WETTABILITY AFFECTS:
• Capillary Pressure
• Irreducible water saturation
• Residual oil and water saturations
• Relative permeability
• Electrical properties
LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF
WETTABILITY
Most common measurement techniques

– Contact angle measurement method
– Amott method
– United States Bureau of Mines
(USBM) Method
NOMENCLATURE
AT = adhesion tension, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm)
θ = contact angle between the oil/water/solid interface measured through

the water (more dense phase), degrees
σos = interfacial tension between the oil and solid, milli-Newtons/m or

dynes/cm
σws = interfacial tension between the water and solid, milli-Newtons/m or

dynes/cm
σow = interfacial tension between the oil and water, milli-Newtons/m or

dynes/cm
References
1. Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M., and Whiting, R.L.: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, McGrow-Hill Book
Company New York, 1960.
2. Tiab, D. and Donaldson, E.C.: Petrophysics, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. 1996.
3. Core Laboratories, Inc. “A course in the fundamentals of Core analysis, 1982.
4. Donaldson, E.C., Thomas, R.D., and Lorenz, P.B.: “Wettability Determination and Its Effect
on Recovery Efficiency,” SPEJ (March 1969) 13-20.

IIntroduction
t d ti to t
Capillary Pressure
Some slides in this section are modified from NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999.
However, many of the slides appears to have been obtained from other primary
sources that are not cited by NExT. Some slides have a notes section.
Applications of Capillary
Pressure Data
• Determine fluid distribution in reservoir (initial conditions)
• Accumulation of HC is drainage process for water wet res.
• Sw= function of height above OWC (oil water contact)
• Determine recoverable oil for water flooding applications
• Imbibition process for water wet reservoirs
• Pore Size Distribution Index, λ
• Absolute permeability (flow capacity of entire pore size
distribution)
• Relative permeability (distribution of fluid phases within the
pore size distribution)
• Reservoir Flow - Capillary Pressure included as a term of flow
potential for multiphase flow ρ gZ
Φ w = po − w
− Pc,ow ; Z+ ↓, water wet
D
• Input data for reservoir simulation models
DRAINAGE AND IMBIBITION
CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVES DRAINAGE
• Fluid flow process in which the saturation

of the nonwetting phase increases
• Mobility of nonwetting fluid phase

increases as nonwetting phase saturation
increases
Drainage IMBIBITION
• Fluid flow p
process in which the saturation
Pc of the wetting phase increases
• Mobility of wetting phase increases as

Pd
Four Primary Parameters
Si = irreducible wetting phase saturation
Imbibition Sm = 1 - residual non-wetting phase saturation
S
Sm Pd = displacement pressure, the pressure
i
required to force non-wetting fluid into largest
0 05
0.5 10
1.0 pores
Swt λ = pore size distribution index; determines
shape
Modified from NExT, 1999, after …
DRAINAGE PROCESS
• Fluid flow process in which the saturation of the nonwetting
phase increases
p
• Examples:
• Hydrocarbon (oil or gas) filling the pore space and
displacing the original water of deposition in water-wet rock
• Waterflooding
ate ood g a an o
oil reservoir
ese o in which
c tthe
e reservoir
ese o is s o
oil
wet
• Gas injection in an oil or water wet oil reservoir
• Pressure maintenance or gas cycling by gas injection in a
retrograde condensate reservoir
• Evolution of a secondary gas cap as reservoir pressure
decreases
IMBIBITION PROCESS
IMBIBITION
•Fluid
Fluid flow process in which the
saturation of the wetting phase increases
•Mobility
M bilit off wetting
tti phase
h increases
i as
Examples:
Accumulation of oil in an oil wet reservoir
Waterflooding an oil reservoir in which the reservoir is
water wet
Accumulation of condensate as pressure decreases in
a dew point reservoir
Pc vs. Sw Function
Reflects Reser
Reservoir
oir Q
Quality
alit
Core Pore Petrophysical
p y Gamma Rayy Flow
C
Core Lith f i
Lithofacies
φ vs k Capillary
Pressure
High Quality
5
2
Function
u ct o moves
o es up
and right, and
becomes less “L”
1
shaped as reservoir L
Low Q
Quality
lit
quality decreases
Effect of Permeability on Shape
20
16
Decreasing
g
pillary Pressure
Permeability,
Decreasing λ
12
A B
8
Cap
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Water Saturation
Modified from NExT 1999, after xx)
Effect of Grain Size Distribution on Shape
Poorly sorted
apillary pressurre, psia
Well-sorted
Decreasing λ
Ca
Modfied from NExT, 1999; after …) Water saturation, %

CAPILLARY PRESSURE
- DEFINITION -
• The pressure difference existing across
the interface separating two immiscible
fluids in capillaries (e.g.
(e g porous media).
media)
• Calculated as:
Pc = pnwt - pwt Where:
Pc = capillary pressure
• One fluid wets the surfaces of the formation
rock (wetting phase) in preference to the other Pnwtt = pressure in nonwetting phase
(non-wetting phase).
• Gas is always the non-wetting phase in both pwt = pressure in wetting phase
oil-gas and water-gas systems.
• Oil is often the non-wetting phase in water-oil
systems.
Capillary Tube - Conceptual Model
Air-Water System
θ Air
Δh
W t
Water
• Considering the porous media as a collection of capillary tubes provides useful

insights into how fluids behave in the reservoir pore spaces.
• Water rises in a capillary tube placed in a beaker of water
water, similar to water (the
wetting phase) filling small pores leaving larger pores to non-wetting phases of
reservoir rock.
CAPILLARY TUBE MODEL
AIR / WATER SYSTEM
• The height of water in a capillary tube is a function of:
2 σaw cosθ
– Adhesion tension between the air and water
– Radius of the tube
Δh =
– Density difference between fluids r g Δρaw
This relation can be derived from balancing g the upward
p force due to adhesion
tension and downward forces due to the weight of the fluid (see ABW pg 135).
The wetting phase (water) rise will be larger in small capillaries.
Δh = Height of water rise in capillary tube, cm
σaw = Interfacial tension between air and water,
dynes/cm
θ = Air/water contact angle,
g , degrees
g
r = Radius of capillary tube, cm
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 980 cm/sec2
Δ aw
Δρ = D
Density
it diff
difference b
between
t water
t and d air, / 3
i gm/cm
Contact angle, θ, is measured through the more dense phase (water in this
case).
Rise of Wetting Phase Varies with
Capillary
Cap a y Radius
ad us
1 2 3 4
AIR
WATER
Ayers, 2001
CAPILLARY TUBE MODEL
AIR/WATER SYSTEM
pa1
pw1 Air
Δh
pa2
pw2
Water
Water rise in capillary tube depends on the density difference of fluids.
Pa2 = pw2 = p2
pa1 = p2 - ρa g Δh
pw1 = p2 - ρw g Δh
Pc = pa1 - pw1
= ρw g Δh - ρa g Δh
= Δρ g Δh
CAPILLARY PRESSURE – AIR / WATER
SYSTEM
• Combining the two relations results in the following
expression
i for
f capillary
ill tubes:
b
2 σ aw cos θ
Pc =
r
CAPILLARY PRESSURE – OIL / WATER
SYSTEM
• From a similar derivation,
derivation the equation for
capillary pressure for an oil/water system is
2 σ ow cos θ
Pc =
r
Pc = Capillary pressure between oil and water

σow = Interfacial
I t f i l tension
t i between
b t oilil and
d water,
t d dyne/cm
/
θ = Oil/water contact angle, degrees
r = Radius of capillary
p y tube,, cm
Laboratory
L b t Measurement
M t off
Capillary Pressure
LABORATORY METHODS FOR
MEASURING CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Determination of Pc((Sw) function

• Porous diaphragm method
• M
Mercury i j ti
injection method
th d
• Centrifuge method
• Dynamic method
POROUS DIAPHRAGM METHOD FOR
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Porous diaphragm method of
measuring
i capillary
ill pressure
Nitrogen
pressure
Saran tube
Crude oil Scale of
Neoprene squared
paper
stopper
t
Nickel-
Core plated Seal of
spring red
d oil
il
Kleenex
paper
Ultra-fine
fritted
glass disk
Brine
Modified from Welge and Bruce, 1947

CAPILLARY PRESSURE USING
POROUS DIAPHRAGM METHOD
ure, psia
Measured
data points
y pressu
Capillary
Irreducible
Wetting Phase
Saturation
C
Displacement
pressure
0 Wetting phase saturation, % 100

COMMENTS ON POROUS
DIAPHRAGM METHOD
• Advantages
– Very accurate
– Can use reservoir fluids
• Disadvantages
– Very slow (days, weeks, months)
– Range of capillary pressure is limited by
“displacement
displacement pressure
pressure” of porous disk
• Wetting phase of disk should be same as core
sample
p
• Holes in porous disk act as capillaries,
allowing only wetting to flow out until
displacement pressure is exceeded
MERCURY INJECTION METHOD FOR
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
0-200 psi pressure ggauge
g
0-2,000 psi pressure
gauge
R
Regulating
l ti valve
l
To
Lucite window atmosphere
Cylinder
U-tube
U tube monometer
Lucite window
From Purcell, 1949

COMMENTS ON MERCURY
INJECTION METHOD
• Advantages
– Results obtained quickly (minutes,hours)
– Method is reasonably accurate
– Very high range of capillary pressures
• Disadvantages
– Ruins core / mercury y disposal
p
– Hazardous testing material (mercury)
– Conversion required
q between mercury/air
y
capillary data to reservoir fluid systems
CENTRIFUGE METHOD FOR
DETERMINING CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Seal Cap
p Core holder body
y Window
do
O - Ring Support disk Tube body
From Slobod and others,

1951
COMMENTS ON
CENTRIFUGE METHOD
• Advantages
g
– Results can be obtained fairly quickly
(hours, days, weeks)
– Reasonably accurate
• Disadvantages
– Complex analysis required can lead to
calculation errors
DYNAMIC METHOD OF MEASURING
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Gas Gas
outlet i l t
inlet
ΔPo
ΔPg Pc
Core
Oil inlet
To
atmosphere Porcelain
plate
p
Oil burette From Brown, 1951
COMMENTS ON
DYNAMIC METHOD
• Advantages
Ad t
– Simulates reservoir flow
conditions
• Di
Disadvantages
d t
– Very tedious to perform (weeks,
months)
th )
– High cost
AVERAGING CAPILLARY PRESSURE
DATA USING THE LEVERETT
J-FUNCTION
• The Leverett J-function was originally an attempt
to convert all capillary pressure data to a
universal curve
• A universal capillary pressure curve does not
exist because the rock properties affecting
capillary pressures in reservoir have extreme
variation with lithology
gy (rock
( type)
yp )
• BUT, Leverett’s J-function has proven valuable
for correlating capillary pressure data within a
lithology (see ABW Fig 3-23).
EXAMPLE J-FUNCTION FOR
WEST TEXAS CARBONATE
10.00
9.00
Jc
Jmatch
8.00 Jn1
Jn2
7.00 Jn3
6.00
J-function
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0 00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Water saturation, fraction
DEFINITION OF LEVERETT J-FUNCTION
J (Sw ) =
C Pc k
σ cos θ φ
• J-Function is DIMENSIONLESS, for a particular rock type:
• Same
S value
l off J att same wetting
tti phase
h saturation
t ti for f
any unit system, any two fluids, any exact value of k,φ
•(k/φ)1/2 is proportional to size of typical pore throat
radius (remember k can have units of length2)
•C is unit conversion factor (to make J(Sw) dimensionless)
φ
Pc((Sw) Depends on k,φ
Core Pore Petrophysical

p y Gamma Rayy Flow
C
Core Lith f i
Lithofacies
φ vs k Capillary
Pressure
High Quality
5
2
Function
u ct o moves
o es up
and right, and
becomes less “L”
1
shaped as reservoir L
Low Q
Quality
lit
quality decreases
LEVERETT J-FUNCTION FOR
CONVERSION OF Pc DATA
⎡ C Pc k⎤ ⎡ C Pc k⎤
J(Sw ) = ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎣ σ cosθ φ ⎦ Lab ⎣ σ cosθ φ ⎦ Reservoir
USE OF LEVERETT J-FUNCTION
• J-function is useful for averaging capillary

pressure data from a given rock type from a given
reservoir
• J-function can sometimes be extended to
different reservoirs having same lithologies
– Use extreme caution in assuming this can be
done
• J-function usually not accurate correlation for
different lithologies
g
• If J-functions are not successful in reducing the
scatter in a given set of data, then this suggests
that
h we are dealing
d li variation
i i in i rockk type
Capillary Pressure and
Saturation History
Capillary Pressure in
R
Reservoiri Rock
R k
DRAINAGE AND IMBIBITION
CAPILLARY PRESSURE CURVES
DRAINAGE
• Fluid flow process in which the saturation

of the nonwetting phase increases
IMBIBITION
Drainage • Fluid flow process in which the saturation

of the wetting phase increases
Pc Saturation History - Hysteresis

- Capillary pressure depends on both direction
of change, and previous saturation history
Pd - Blue arrow indicates probable path from
drainage curve to imbibition curve at Swt=0.4
- At Sm, nonwettinggpphase cannot flow,
Imbibition
resulting in residual nonwetting phase
Swi Sm saturation (imbibition)
- At Swi, wetting phase cannot flow, resulting in
0 05
0.5 10
1.0 irreducible wetting phase saturation (drainage)
Sw
Saturation History
• The same Pc value can occur at more than
one wetting phase saturation
Rock Type
• Rock Type (Archie’s Definition - Jorden and Campbell)
– Formations that “... have been deposited under similar
conditions and ... undergone similar processes of later
weathering cementing,
weathering, cementing or re-solution....
re solution ”
• Pore Systems of a Rock Type (Jorden and Campbell)
– “A given rock type has particular lithologic (especially pore
space) properties and similar and/or related petrophysical and
reservoir characteristics”
characteristics
Thomeer’s Parameters for
Capillary Pressure Curves
• Thomeer’s Data
– Mercury Injection - drainage
• Very high capillary pressures
• (Vb)P∞ The (assymptotically approached) fraction of bulk
volume occupied by mercury at infinite capillary pressure
(similar to previous parameter, irreducible wetting phase
saturation)
• Pd Displacement Pressure, capillary pressure required to
force nonwetting phase into largest pores (same as
previously
i l discussed)
di d)
• G Parameter describing pore-size distribution (similar to
previous
i parameter,
t 1/λ.
1/λ Increasing
I i λ),
i G ((or ddecreasing λ)
suggests poor sorting, and/or tortuous flow paths)
• (Vb) p = ∞ is the fractional volume occupied by Hg at
Figures 2.4 and 2.5 infinite pressure, or total interconnected pore volume.
• pd is the extrapolated Hg displacement pressure (psi);
press
pressurere req
required
ired to enter largest pore throat
throat.
• G is pore geometrical
factor; range in size and
tortuosity
y of p
pore throats.
PT = PORE THROAT
P - PORE • Large pd = small pore thorats
• Large G = tortuous, poorly
sorted pore thorats
Modfied from Jordan and Campbell, 1984, vol. 1

• Note variation in pore properties and permeability within a formation
Modfied from Jordan and Campbell, 1984, vol. 1

Figure 2.8
size: lower fine

sorting: very
well sorted
Modfied from Jordan

and Campbell,
1984, vol. 1
Figure 2.9
size: lower fine

sorting:
moderately
sorted
Modfied from Jordan

and Campbell, 1984, vol. 1
Figure 2.10
size: upper
very fine
sorting:
moderately
sorted
Modfied from Jordan

Figure 2.11
-effect of
significant
cementing
and clay
Modfied from Jordan

Figure 2.12
Effect of
Dispersed Clays
Modfied from Jordan

and Campbell, 1984, vol. 1;
after Neasham, 1977
Capillary Pressure in Reservoirs
A B dpw=ρwg/D dh
dpo=ρog/D dh
Free
Reservoir, ρo
Depth
Water Pc = po-p
pw = 0
Level 3
2
1
Aquifer, ρw
Pressure
Fluid Distribution in Reservoirs
Fault
Capillary pressure difference Gas & Water
b t
between Gas density = ρg
gas and oil phases in core ‘B’

Pc,go = h2g (ρo-ρg)
‘B’
Oil, Gas & Water h2
Free Oil Level

‘A’
Oil & Water
h1
Oil density = ρo
Free Water Level
Water
Water density = ρw
C ill
Capillary pressure difference
diff
between
oil and water phases in core ‘A’
c ow = h1g (ρw-ρo)
Pc,ow
Modified from NExT, 1999, modified after Welge and Bruce, 1947
RELATION BETWEEN CAPILLARY
PRESSURE AND FLUID SATURATION
et)
er Level (Fee
J-Function
- for k,φ
ve Free Wate
Lab Data
-Lab Fluids: σ, θ
φ
Core sample: kk,φ
-Core
Height Abov
Reservoir Data
J-Function
Pc Pc
Pd Oil-Water contact
Pd Hd
0 0 Free Water Level
0 50 100 0 50 100 0 50 100
Sw (fraction) Sw (fraction) Sw (fraction)

Saturation in
Reservoir vs. Depth
• Results from two
analysis methods (after ABW)
– Laboratory capillary
pressure curve
• Converted to reservoir
conditions
– Analysis of well logs
•W
Water
t saturation
t ti has h
strong effect on resistivity
curves (future topic)
Capillary Pressure:
Reservoir Seal
Capillary Pressure /
S t ti Relationship
Saturation R l ti hi
(Sw* Model)
Reservoir Seal
Fault Seal
(impermeable)
Oil/water
contact
t t (OWC)
Migration route
Seal
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
accumulation rock
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity
Source rock
Reservoir Seal
• Th
The seall for
f a reservoir
i is
i usually
ll provided
id d by
b a water wet
zone with low (but finite) permeability
– Typically a shale
• Darcy’s Law would indicate that with a finite
permeability, gravity effect alone would cause petroleum
to pass upward through the seal due to density difference,
over a long (geologic) time period
– Darcy’s Law is a “Rate Process” (ENGR 112)
• For multiple phases flowing, the Darcy flow potential
includes p
pressure,, gravity,
g y, and capillary
p y ppressure terms
– Effect of displacement pressure of seal halts upward migration
of petroleum in trap
– Displacement pressure of seal can limit total height of reservoir,
from free water level to highest elevation in reservoir
Capillary Pressure Required for Migration is
Function of Pore Size
σ used in previous
discussion
From Levorsen, 1967

Capillary Pressure Required for Migration is
Function of Pore Size
From Levorsen, 1967

Sw* Power Law Model
• Having an equation model for capillary pressure curves is
useful
– Smoothing of laboratory data
– Determination of λ
– Analytic function for integration (future topic)
• The Sw* Power Law Model is an empirical model that has
proven to work well
– Model
M d l parameters:
t Swi, Pd, λ
Pc = Pd S ( )
* −1/λ
w S =
*
w
Sw − Swi
1 − Swii
Sw* Power Law Model
• Sw* rescales x-axis
Capillary Pressure vs. Wetting Phase Saturation
25
20
15
Pc, psia
10
Swi=0.20
=0 20
Pd=3.0
=3 0
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Sw, fraction
Sw*=0 Sw*, fraction Sw*=1

Sw* Power Law Model
• Power Law Equations plot as Log-Log straight line
C
Capillary Pressure Data Plotted vs. Sw* (Swi=0.20))
100
slope = -1/λ = -1/2.0

Pc, psia
10
Pd=3.0
1
0 01
0.01 01
0.1 1
Sw*, fraction
Sw* Power Law Model
• Straight line models are excellent for
– Interpolation and data smoothing
– Extrapolation
– Self Study: review Power Law Equations (y axb) and how to
(y=ax
determine coefficients, a and b given two points on the straight
log-log
g g line
Sw − Swi
Pc = Pd S ( )* −1/λ
w
S =
*
w
1 Swi
1−
Sw* Power Law Model
• Pd, λ can be determined from Log-Log plot
• But,
But Swii can be difficult to determine from Cartesian plot,
plot if data
does not clearly show vertical asymptote
Capillary
p y Pressure vs. Wetting
g Phase Saturation
25
20
15
Pc, psia
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Sw, fraction
Sw* Power Law Model
• Choosing wrong Swi limits accuracy of determining Pd, λ
Same Capillary
p y Pressure Data Plotted vs. Sw*
100
Swi value correct

Swi value too small
Pc, psia
10
Swi value too large
1
0 01
0.01 01
0.1 1
Sw*, fraction
Sample Data: Brooks and Corey Type Curve Matching Step 1: Plot Pc versus 1-Swi on data sheet with same sized grid. Tracing paper can
be used, if alignment points are marked.
λ, dimensionless Swi, fraction Pd, psia
=((15-3)/3)-1* =(9-7)/8 =(25-4)/7 Step 2: Slide horizontally and vertically to match the data points to a particular λ
Sw, fraction 1–Sw, fraction Pc, Psia value. The match may fall between the curves shown. Valid data points should
0.28 0.72 8.8 not fall below PcD=1, or to the right of SwD=1 when matched
0.48 0.52 4.4
Step 3: Choose an arbitrary match point (e.g. PcD=1, SwD=1) and use the definitions
0.63 0.37 3.8 of PcD=Pc/Pd, and SwD=(1-Sw)/(1-Swi) to determine values of Pd and Swi.
0.75 0.25 3.4
Note, the values of λ, Pd and Swi for this data set are obfuscated and are provided to
allow checking your answers, after completing your match.
Dimensionless Capillary Pressure Type Curve
1000
λ=0.04
λ=0.10
λ=0.20
λ=0.40
λ=1.0
λ=2.0
100 λ=4.0
PcD , Dimensionless
λ=10.0
10
1
0.01 0.1 1
SwD , Dimensionless
Capillary Pressure / Permeability
Relations
Single Capillary Tube
• Previously discussion showed that for a single capillary:
2 σ cos(θ )
Pc =
r
– consistent units required
• Pc dyne/cm2
• σ d /
dyne/cm
• r cm
Bundle of Capillary Tubes Model
• Purcell (ABW page 169) developed a model which
considers the porous media to be a “bundle
bundle of capillary
tubes” of varying sizes
• This
Thi modeld l was used
d tto ddevelop
l a relationship
l ti hi forf
predicting permeability from the drainage capillary
pressure curve
– for a discrete set of capillary sizes, in consistent units:
• k cm2
• σ dyne/cm
• Pc dyne/cm2 ⎛ σ cos(θ ) ⎞
2 n
(Sw )i
k =⎜
⎝ 2
⎟ φ
⎠
∑ (P
i =1
2
)
c i
Purcell’s Equation
• For a continuous distribution of capillary sizes,
determined from the Pc(Sw) function (consistent units)
S w =1
1 1
k = (σ cos θ ) φ α ∫
2
dSw
2 Sw =0 (Pc )2
– α is an dimensionless
dimensionless,
empirical “lithology
factor” (Purcell used
b l λ)
symbol,
– The function 1/Pc2 could
be integrated numerically
– OR, we could use the Sw*
model for Pc
– Note that the function
1/Pc2 has value of zero if
Sw<Swi
• For oilfield units,
S w =1
1
k = 10.66 (σ cos θ ) φ α ∫
2
dSw
Sw =0 (Pc )2
• k md
• σ dyne/cm
• Pc psia
• Note: Handwritten
Hand ritten notes in margin of ABW photocopy
photocop is missing a
squared symbol on conversion from dyne/cm2 per atmosphere
• Self Study: Be able to derive this conversion constant

((and its units),
), 10.66
• Using an average
lithology factor, Actual Correlation Trend “Perfect” Correlation Trend
α=0.216, Purcell
showed that
permeability can be
estimated from the
drainage capillary
pressure curve
– For permeability,
estimates that are the
correct order of
magnitude are
considered
id d fairly
f il
accurate
Application of Sw* Model
• To integrate the function 1/Pc2, we consider piecewise
integration
S w =1 S w =S wi S w =1
1 1 1
∫
Sw =0 (Pc )2
dSw = ∫
Sw =0 (Pc )2
dSw + ∫
S w =S wi (Pc )
2
dSw
S w =1
1
= 0 + ∫
S w =S wi (Pc )2
dSw
Sw − Swi
• From
F fi iti off Sw*:
our ddefinition S =
*
w
1 − Swi
• Integral requires dSw:
1
dS =
*
w dSw ∴ dSw = (1 − Swi ) dSw
*
1 − Swi
• Sw* model for Pc: ( )

* −1/λ
Pc = Pd S
w
• Substituting dSw* for dSw in integrand changes limits
S w =1
1
S*w =1
(1 - Swi ) *
∫
S w =S wi (Pc )2
dSw = ∫
(Pc )2
dSw
S*w = 0
• Substituting Sw* model for Pc in integrand
(1 - Swi ) dS*
S*w =1 S*w =1
(1 - Swi )
∫ (Pc )2 w
*
= ∫ (P (S * ( −1/λ )
) ) 2
dS*w
S =0
w S*w = 0 d w
(1 - Swi )
S*w =1
=
Pd2 ∫ S*w(2/λ ) dS*w
S*w = 0
=
(1 - Swi ) ⎡ λ * ((λ + 2)/λ ) ⎤
S*w =1
Pd2 ⎢ λ + 2 Sw ⎥*
⎣ ⎦ Sw =0
=
(1 - Swi ) ⎡ λ ⎤
Pd2 ⎢⎣ λ + 2 ⎥⎦
Purcell’s Equation with Sw* Model
• Finally, for oilfield units:
k = 10.66 (σ cos(θ )) φ α
2 (1 - Swi ) ⎡ λ ⎤
Pd2 ⎢λ + 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Fluid Saturations
Introduction
Fluid Saturations
• Definition - The fluid saturation for a particular fluid is
the fraction of pore volume occupied by that fluid
– Saturation is an intensive property
– Equation Form: So=Vo/Vp, Sw=Vw/Vp, Sg=Vg/Vp
• These fluid volumes are measured under specific conditions of

pressure and temperature (e.g. reservoir, or laboratory)
– reservoir conditions are often noted as “in situ”

Fluid Saturations
• Fundamental Relationships
– Pore volume is occupied by fluids (water, oil, and/or gas)
Vp = Vw + Vo + Vg
Vw + Vo + Vg
1= = S w + So + Sg
Vp
• for the two phase case, only one of the two saturations is
independent, the other must make the sum of the saturations equal
to unity (1)
• similarly, for the three phase case, only two saturations are
independent
Fluid Saturations
• Fundamental Relationships (continued)
– Mass of fluids in the pore volume is comprised of: water,
oil, and/or gas
fluid mass = m w + m o + m g
= ρ w Vw + ρ o Vo + ρ g Vg
[
= Vp ρ w Sw + ρ oSo + ρ gSg ]
• at laboratory conditions it is often assumed that gas density is

negligible
Initial Fluid Saturations in Reservoir
• Concepts: typical petroleum accumulation scenario
– pores are initially saturated with water (Sw=1)
– hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps due to having

density less than water density (gravity force)
– hydrocarbons (oil and/or gas) is distributed such that gravity

and capillary forces are in equilibrium
• minimum interstitial water saturation remains in hydrocarbon zone,
even after accumulation occurs
– water wet, drainage accumulation process
» irreducible wetting phase saturation
– oil wet, imbibition accumulation process
» residual non-wetting phase saturation
Initial Fluid Saturations in Reservoir
• Methods for determination of reservoir fluid saturations
– Direct Measurement
• Core Analysis (current topic)
– Indirect Measurement
• Capillary Pressure Measurement (previous topic)
• Well Log Analysis (future topic)
– electrical conductivity depends primarily on water saturation

Fluid Saturations - Core Analysis
• Factors affecting fluid saturations in cores
– flushing of core by filtrate from drilling fluids (especially for

overbalanced drilling)
• water filtrate
– water based mud
– oil emulsion mud
• oil filtrate
– oil based mud
– inverted oil emulsion mud
• gas filtrate
– air drilling
– foam drilling
• Factors affecting fluid saturations in cores (continued)
– Changes in pressure and temperature as core sample is
brought from bottomhole conditions to surface conditions
– Example: Oil zone at minimum interstitial water saturation,

water based drilling mud
Flushing Saturation at Surface

During Trip to Compared to Reservoir
Drilling Surface
Sw ↑ ↓ ? probably ↑
So ↓ ↓ ↓
Sg - ↑ ↑
• Factors affecting fluid saturations in cores (continued)
– Example: Oil zone at minimum interstitial water saturation,
oil based drilling mud
Flushing Saturation at Surface

During Trip to Compared to
Drilling Surface Reservoir
Sw - - -
So - ↓ ↓
Sg - ↑ ↑
– Self Study: other examples in Lecture_21.pdf

Application of Core Saturations
• Application of Core Saturations: Water Based Mud
– presence of oil zone
– original oil/gas contact
– original oil/water contact
• Application of Core Saturations: Oil Based Mud

– fairly accurate minimum interstitial water saturation
– original oil/water contact
• Other Applications of Core Saturations

– correlation of indirect methods
Estimating Fluid Contact Depths
from Core Saturations
So
0 50
Gas
Depth
Oil
So ≈ 0 in gas zone
Water So > ≈0.15 in oil production
zone
0 < So < ≈0.15 in water

production zone
Maximum Water Saturation
for Oil and Gas Production
The trend shown here

continues for even lower
permeability, with productive
reservoirs existing with
Sw>0.60 for k<0.01 md
Commentary on Core Saturations
• Qualitative Value, ABW (page 109, brackets added):
“The saturation values obtained directly from rock samples
[cores] are usually not reliable for determining the quantity of
each fluid in the rock [reservoirs]. Other uses exist for fluid-
saturation determinations from core samples.”
• Overall Value, ABW (page 110): “Thus, in summary, it is

seen that although fluid-saturation determinations made on core
samples at the surface may not give a direct indication of the
saturations within the reservoir, they are of value and do yield
very useful and necessary information”
Example Problem: Laboratory Determination of Fluid Saturations, Retort
Distillation
A core sample with bulk volume of 45.7 cm3, and porosity of 0.233 was
placed in retort. During retort distillation, 4.5 cm3 of 35° API oil and 2.8
cm3 of water were recovered. Determine the fluid saturations.
Retort Distillation: Scaling Factor for Recovered Oil (dimensionless)

Electrical Properties
of
Reservoir Rocks
DETERMINING FLUID
SATURATIONS
Methods of Determining Saturations

1. Conventional core analysis
2. Capillary pressure
measurements
3. Well log analysis

OPENHOLE LOG EVALUATION
Most abundant data for formation evaluation and
determination of fluid saturations
Well Log
SP Resistivity
From NExT, 1999

RHOMBIC PACKING OF SPHERES
•Electrical properties of reservoirs vary strongly with porosity and

characteristics of the fluids in the pore space; usually, basic properties
are determined assuming:
• “clean” reservoir rock (non-shaly)
• Sw = 1.00 (water saturated rock)
RESISTIVITY
Resistivity
Resistivity is an intensive rock/fluid property, and
is a measure of (the inverse of) the electrical flow
capacity of the rock
•Resistance is extensive and for linear, 1-D
electrical flow, r=(R ·L)/A
•r electrical resistance, Ω
•R electrical resistivity, Ω·m
•L length of electrical flow path, m
•A cross-sectional area perpendicular to
electrical flow path, m2
RESISTIVITY – DEFINITION OF THE
OHM-METER
From Halliburton (EL 1007)

RESISTIVITY
Resistivity
•Resistivity is determined by measuring the

voltage required to pass a measured amount of
electrical current through the rock.
• For a rock cube with sides of 1 m, if electrical
potential of 1 V (Volt) is required for current
flow of 1 A (Ampere), then resistivity is 1 Ω·m
(Ohm ·meter)
RESISTIVITY
Resistivity
•Electrical resistance (Ω) is inverse of Electrical

conductance (S, Siemens)
•2 Ω = (1/2) S
•Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity

•2 Ω·m = (1/2) S/m
RESISTIVITY OF EARTH MATERIALS
(1) Rock
Conductivity
Resistivity
(2) Gas
(3) Oil
(4) Fresh Water
(5) Salt Water
Common Notations
Ro = Resistivity of non-shaly rock saturated (Sw=1) with formation
water (ohm-m)
Rt = True formation resistivity (ohm-m)
Rw = Formation water resistivity (ohm-m)
From J. Jensen, PETE 321 Lecture Notes

ELECTRICITY AND EARTH
MATERIALS
• Primarily, conduction is by ions in water

– Na+ and Cl- are very common
– Other monovalent ions K+ and OH-
– Bivalent ions, too: Ca++, Mg++
• But, clays can conduct electricity also
Modified from J. Jensen, PETE 321 Lecture Notes

Electricity and
Earth Materials
• Water resistivity
controlled by
– Ion
concentrations
– Type of ions
– Temperature
• Chart GEN-4 to
convert to NaCl
equiv
• Chart GEN-5 for
temp/resist for
NaCl From J. Jensen, PETE 321 Lecture Notes
Factors Affecting Electrical Resistivity
– Resistivity of water
– Porosity of the formation,
– Pore geometry - tortuosity
– Lithology of the formation
– Degree of cementation, and
– Type and amount of clay in the rock

Rock containing pores saturated
Saturation
with water and hydrocarbons Equation Formation
Non-shaly rock, 100% saturated
Factor
with water having resistivity, Equation
Rw
Rt Cube of water
φ= 20% having resistivity,
Sw = 20% Rw
Ro
φ= 20%
Sw = 100%
Rw
φ= 100%
Sw = 100%
(1) Rock
Conductivity
Increasing
Increasing
Resistivity
(2) Gas
(3) Oil
(4) Fresh Water
(5) Salt Water
Archie’s Law
Rock containing pores saturated
with water and hydrocarbons
Non-shaly rock, 100% saturated

with water having resistivity,
Rw
Rt Cube of water
φ= 20% having resistivity,
Sw = 20% Rw
Ro
φ= 20%
Sw = 100%
Rw
φ= 100%
Saturation Sw = 100%
Equation
Formation Factor
Equation
Formation Factor
• The formation factor (F) depends on

– Porosity of the formation,
– Pore geometry - tortuosity
– Lithology of the formation
– Degree of cementation, and
– Type and amount of clay in the rock

Formation Factor Equation
• Archie’s equation for formation factor is a
power law model:
F=R0/Rw=a·φ-m 1000
Rock type 1
100
10 Rock type 2
1
Note: Sw=1 .01 .1 1.0
φ From NExT, 1999
Formation Factor - Example Core Data
a ≠ 1.0
From J. Jensen, PETE 321

Lecture Notes
Formation Factor
• F=a·φ-m
a = constant ≅ 1.0 for most formations
m = cementation factor ≅ 2 for most formations
• Other commonly used values

– Sandstones:
• F = 0.8/φ2 (Tixier)
• 0.62/φ2.15 (Humble)
– Carbonates
• F = 0.8/φ2
Saturation Equation
• Power Law 1000
Model
Rock type 1
IR=Rt/R0=Sw -n 100
R0
Rt
– Each curve for a
IR =
Rock type 2
specific core 10
sample
– No conductive
materials (clay) 1
.01 .1 1.0
present
Sw
From NExT, 1999

Laboratory Determination of
Saturation Exponent, n

R0 Appears in Both Equations
Ro a
= m when Sw = 100%
Rw φ
Rt 1
= n
when φ = constant
R o Sw
From NExT, 1999
Archie’s Equation (Combined)
Empirical constant
(usually near unity) Resistivity of
a Rw formation water,
Sw = n
Ω-m
Water m Cementation
exponent
saturation,
fraction
Saturation
exponent
Rt (usually near 2)
(also usually True formation

near 2) Porosity, resistivity, Ω-m
fraction
From NExT, 1999

IDEALIZED
R=4
LOG SET φ = 0.30

R = 0.4
R=8 φ = 0.07
Shale
Sand R = 0.3
φ = 0.35

Effect of Filtrate Invasion -
Rnear_well ≠ Rt (permeability present)
Uninvaded
Zone
(Rt)
Invaded
Zone (Rxo)
Wellbore
Mud
(Rm)
Uninvaded Mud Cake

Zone (Rmc)
(Rt)
Modified from J. Jensen, PETE 321 Lecture Notes

EXAMPLE LOG WITH RESISTIVITY
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15 ILDC
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200 0.2 200
10700
SNC
0.2 200
MLLCF
0.2 200
10800
Deep
Resistivity
Log (ILDC), ≈Rt
10900
From NExT, 1999

Laboratory Resistance

Laboratory Resistivity
• Resistivity
V
(ohms ) * A m 2
( )
R(ohm − meters ) = I
L(m )

Effect of Clays
Effect of Wettability
Effect of Clays
on Electrical Properties
• Clays provide an alternate path for flow of

electrical current, violating the assumption in
Archie’s Equations that all current flows due to
conductivity of formation water
– Archie’s Equations are too pessimistic for shaly
formations
• missed opportunities for development of potentially productive
reservoirs
• wrong amounts and type of investment in reservoir
development due to skewed economic projections
Effect of Clays on Formation Factor
• The formation factor

(F=Ro /Rw) is
constant for a clean
sand; F decreases
for shaly sand as
value of Rw
increases
– due to conductivity of
clays becoming more
significant compared
to conductivity of
water
– same core sample
• with clay present
• varying only Rw
Effect of Clays
Saturation Equations
• Clays provide an alternate path for flow of

electrical current
• The “best” saturation equation for shaly
formations seems to vary
– Jordan and Campbell, Table 6.9 shows 10 different
models
• Depends on type of clays present (advanced topic not
discussed here)
– Waxman and Smits recommended as “definitive model”
for resistivity behavior of Ro in shaly rocks
• Waxman and Smits will be discussed as an important example
of a saturation equation for shaly formations
Review: Archie’s Saturation Equation
• Power Law 1000
Model
Rock type 1
IR=Rt /R0=Sw -n 100
R0
Rt
– No conductive
IR =
Rock type 2
materials (clay) 10
present
1
.01 .1 1.0
Sw
From NExT, 1999

Effect of Clays
Resistivity Index / Saturation Relationship
• For a clean formation

Rt →∞ as Sw →0
• When conductive solids
are present (e.g. clays)
Rt→Rrock as Sw→0
Rrock is resistivity of
rock with formation
water not providing Note: Resistivity Index, IR=Rt/Ro
any conductivity
Effect of Clays
Waxman and Smits Saturation Relationship
• Waxman and Smits modified Archie’s model to
account for the presence of clays
IR = Rt /Ro = Sw-n [(1+a)/(1+(a/Sw))]
• The parameter, a,
is semi-empirical
and depends on
– Rw
– B, ionic
conductance
• electrolyte
conductivity
• temperature
– Qv, concentration
of exchange
cations
Effect of Clays
Waxman and Smits Saturation Relationship
• Application of the Waxman and Smits saturation
equation is often done by matching observed data
to curves with known values of n and a
– no sliding allowed, simply determine which known
curve the data follows
– data points at higher Sw values used to determine n
• As Sw →1, results are the same as Archie’s model
– data points at lower Sw values used to determine a
• Asymptotic value of Rt /Ro as Sw →0
• Homework #7 will include exercises on this
matching process
on Electrical Properties
• Wettability determines which pores are occupied

by phases and at what saturations, phases
become discontinuous
– wetting phase in small pores
– when water starts to become discontinuous, Rt tends to
increase sharply
• Sandstone formations
– Wettability has a
significant effect on:
• saturation exponent for
Archie’s Law (n)
• model to be used (Archie’s
model is a power law, i.e.
log-log straight line)
• Carbonate formations
– Wettability has a
significant effect on
• saturation exponent for
Archie’s Law (n)
• model to be used (Archie’s
model is a power law, i.e.
log-log straight line)
Introduction to
Effective Permeability
and
Relative Permeability
Review: Absolute Permeability
• Absolute permeability: is the permeability of a
porous medium saturated with a single fluid
(e.g. Sw=1)
• Absolute permeability can be calculated from

the steady-state flow equation (1D, Linear Flow;
Darcy Units):
k A Δp
q=
μL
Multiphase Flow in Reservoirs
Commonly, reservoirs contain 2 or 3 fluids
• Water-oil systems
• Oil-gas systems
• Water-gas systems
• Three phase systems (water, oil, and gas)
To evaluate multiphase systems, must
consider the effective and relative
permeability
Effective permeability: is a measure of
the conductance of a porous medium
for one fluid phase when the medium is
saturated with more than one fluid.
• The porous medium can have a distinct and
measurable conductance to each phase present in
the medium
• Effective permeabilities: (ko, kg, kw)
Amyx, Bass, and Whiting, 1960; PETE 311 Notes

Steady state, 1D, linear flow
ko A ΔΦ o equation (Darcy units):
• Oil qo =
μo L qn = volumetric flow rate for a
specific phase, n
k w A ΔΦ w
• Water qw = A = flow area
μw L ΔΦn = flow potential drop for
phase, n (including pressure,
gravity and capillary pressure
k g A ΔΦ g terms)
• Gas qg =
μg L μn = fluid viscosity for phase n
L = flow length
Modified from NExT, 1999; Amyx, Bass, and Whiting, 1960; PETE 311 NOTES
Relative Permeability is the ratio of the effective
permeability of a fluid at a given saturation to some
base permeability
• Base permeability is typically defined as:
– absolute permeability, k
– air permeability, kair
– effective permeability to non-wetting phase at irreducible wetting

phase saturation [e.g. ko(Sw=Swi)]
– because definition of base permeability varies, the definition

used must always be:
• confirmed before applying relative permeability data
• noted along with tables and figures presenting relative

permeability data
Amyx, Bass, and Whiting, 1960
k o ( 0 .5 , 0 .3 )
• Oil k ro ( 0.5, 0.3) =
k So =0.5
Sw =0.3
k w ( 0 .5 , 0 .3 ) ∴Sg = 0.2
• Water k rw ( 0.5, 0.3) =
k
k g ( 0.5, 0.3)
• Gas k rg ( 0.5, 0.3) =
k
Modified from Amyx, Bass, and Whiting, 1960
Relative Permeability Functions
Imbibition Relative Permeability
(Water Wet Case)
1.00
kro @ Swi • Wettability and direction of
Relative Permeability (fraction)
saturation change must be

0.80 considered
•drainage
Two-Phase Flow •imbibition
0.60 Region
• Base used to normalize this
Oil relative permeability curve is
0.40 kro @ Swi
• As Sw increases, kro decreases
and krw increases until
0.20
krw @ Sor reaching residual oil
Water saturation
0
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Water Saturation (fraction)
for Increasing Sw
1.0 1.0
Relative Permeability, Fraction
Relative Permeability, Fraction

0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
Oil Oil Water

0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
Water
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation (% PV) Water Saturation (% PV)
Strongly Water-Wet Rock Strongly Oil-Wet Rock
Modified from NExT, 1999 • Water flows more freely

• Higher residual oil saturation
Factors Affecting Relative Permeabilities
• Fluid saturations
• Geometry of the pore spaces and pore
size distribution
• Wettability
• Fluid saturation history (i.e., imbibition
or drainage)
After Standing, 1975

Characteristics of Relative
Permeability Functions
• Relative permeability is unique for
different rocks and fluids
• Relative permeability affects the flow
characteristics of reservoir fluids.
• Relative permeability affects the
recovery efficiency of oil and/or gas.

Applications of
Relative Permeability Functions
• Reservoir simulation
• Flow calculations that involve
multi-phase flow in reservoirs
• Estimation of residual oil (and/or
gas) saturation
Introduction to
Three Phase
Ternary Diagrams
• Because So+Sw+Sg=1, we can use a ternary
diagram to represent three phase saturations,
and plot values of relative permeability as the
independent variable.
– Two of the three saturations are
independent
• We can plot in 2-D space using two
independent (not same direction)
coordinates
Ternary Diagrams
• Plot Point for:
Sw=0.30
So=0.25
Sg=0.45
0.00 So 1.00
Three Phase Relative Permeability
• Saturation plotted on
ternary diagram
• Lines show constant krw
– parallel to water
saturation lines
• krw is function only
of water saturation
• for water wet, water
is in smallest pores
ternary diagram
• Lines show constant krg
– approximately parallel
to gas saturation lines
• krg is primarily a
function of gas
saturation
• gas is in largest
pores
ternary diagram
• Lines show constant kro
– not parallel to any
saturation lines
• kro is function of both
water and gas
saturation
• pore size distribution
– water: smallest
– gas: largest
– oil: intermediate
size pores
• Lines show constant kro
– not parallel to any
saturation lines
• At low gas
saturation, kro is a
primarily function of
oil saturation
• At low water
saturation, kro is
primarily a function
of gas saturation
• Three phase flow occurs over a limited range of three
phase saturations
– outside this range, two phase or single phase flow
occurs
Application of
• Three phase relative permeability data is needed
whenever we wish to consider reservoir flow with all
three phases present
– Three phase lab data is expensive and time
consuming
– Two phase data is much more common
– Many methods have been developed to calculate
three phase relative permeability from two phase
curves (water/oil curve and oil/gas curve)
Modeling of
• Stones Method II
– An accepted industry standard
– krg obtained from gas/oil two phase curve as function of Sg
– krw obtained from oil/water two phase curve as function of
Sw
– kro for three phase flow obtained from both two phase
curves as function of Sg and Sw
k ro = (k row + k rwo )(k rog + k rgo ) − k rwo − k rgo

– krow, kro from oil/water
– krwo, krw from oil/water
– krog, kro from gas/oil
– krgo, krg from gas/oil
Laboratory Measurement
of
- Steady State Method

Hysteresis Effect on Rel. Perm.
100 Non-wetting Wetting
phase phase
Relative Permeability, %
80
Imbibition krnw krw

60 krnw Drainage
40
20 Irreducible wetting Residual non-wetting

phase saturation phase saturation
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Wetting Phase Saturation, %PV
What is kbase for this case?

Hysteresis Effect on Rel. Perm.
• During drainage, the wetting phase ceases to flow at the
irreducible wetting phase saturation
– This determines the maximum possible non-wetting
phase saturation
– Common Examples:
• Petroleum accumulation (secondary migration)
• Formation of secondary gas cap
• During imbibition, the non-wetting phase becomes
discontinuous and ceases to flow when the non-wetting
phase saturation reaches the residual non-wetting phase
saturation
– This determines the minimum possible non-wetting
phase saturation displacement by the wetting phase
– Common Example: waterflooding water wet reservoir
Review: Effective Permeability
Steady state, 1D, linear flow
ko A ΔΦ o equation (Darcy units):
• Oil qo =
μo L qn = volumetric flow rate for a
specific phase, n
k w A ΔΦ w
• Water qw = A = flow area
μw L ΔΦn = flow potential drop for
phase, n (including pressure,
gravity and capillary pressure
k g A ΔΦ g terms)
• Gas qg =
μg L μn = fluid viscosity for phase n
L = flow length
Modified from NExT, 1999; Amyx, Bass, and Whiting, 1960; PETE 311 NOTES
Rel. Perm. - Steady State
• Purpose: determination of
– two phase relative permeability functions
– irreducible wetting phase saturation (drainage)
– residual non-wetting phase saturation (imbibition)
• Process (oil/water, water wet case):
– simultaneously inject constant rates of oil and
water until steady state behavior is observed
• production will be constant at same oil and
water rates as injection
• pressure drop for each phase will be constant
– determine saturation of core sample
• usually by resistivity or weighing
• this is typically not the same as the injection
ratio
– change injection ratio and repeat
• Imbibition Relative Permeability
Functions
– Stage 1: Preparation for
drainage
• core saturated with
wetting phase
• steady state injection of
wetting phase used to
determine absolute
permeability
– Stage 2: Irreducible wetting
phase
• inject non-wetting phase
until steady state,
measure saturation
– no wetting phase will
be produced at steady
state
Functions (continued)
– Stage 3 (A-C): determination
of points on imbibition
relative permeability function
• steady state injection at
constant rates of wetting
and non-wetting phase
– Initially ratio qw/qnw is
small
• measure saturation and
phase pressure drops at
steady state
– saturation ratio will in
general, not be the
same as injection ratio
• repeat with increasing
ratio, qw/qnw
Functions (continued)
– Stage 4: determination of
residual non-wetting phase
saturation
• inject wetting phase until
steady state behavior
observed
• measure saturation and
wetting phase pressure
drop
STEADY-STATE RELATIVE
PERMEABILITY TEST EQUIPMENT
(HASSLER METHOD)
Gas Gas
outlet inlet
ΔPo
ΔPg Pc
Core
Oil inlet
To Porcelain
atmosphere plate
Oil burette
PENN STATE METHOD FOR
MEASURING STEADY-STATE RELATIVE
PERMEABILITY
Packing Copper Inlet
Thermometer nut Electrodes orifice
plate
xxxx
xxxx
End Test Mixing xxxx
xxxx
section section section xxxx
xxxx
Differential
pressure taps
Outlet Bronze Highly permeable Inlet
screen disk
HAFFORD’S METHOD FOR MEASURING
STEADY-STATE RELATIVE
PERMEABILITY
Gas
Gas
pressure
Porous end plate gauge
Oil
pressure
Oil pressure pad

Gas meter Oil
Oil burette
DISPERSED FEED METHOD FOR
MEASURING STEADY-STATE RELATIVE
PERMEABILITY
Gas meter Gas-pressure
gauge Gas
Lucite
Core
material
Dispersing
Lucite-mounted section
core
Oil
Oil burette
Dispersing
section face
Laboratory Measurement
of
- Capillary End Effect

-Unsteady State Method
Capillary End Effect
• During immiscible displacement
– In the bulk of the core plug
• Pc= f (Swet)
– At the outflow face
• Pc= 0 ∴ Swet=1
– There must be a gradient of saturation from the the
bulk of the core to the outflow face
• This saturation gradient is the “Capillary End
Effect”
• Comparison for low
flow rate
– Theoretical gradient
(dashed line)
– Experimental data
(circles)
– Saturation gradient
extends over half of
the length of the
core plug
• Comparison for higher
flow rate
– Theoretical gradient
(dashed line)
– Experimental data
(circles)
– At higher flow rate,
saturation gradient
extends over only 1/5
of the length of the
core plug
• Eliminating errors due to end effect in measurement of
relative permeability functions
– Measure saturation far enough away from outflow face
(e.g. Penn State Method)
– Use high flow rates to make error in measured
saturation negligible
Rel. Perm. - Unsteady State
• Unsteady State Method for relative permeability
provides
– Relative permeability ratio (kr,nonwet/kr,wet) as a function
of wetting phase saturation (Swet)
– Irreducible wetting phase saturation (drainage)
– Residual nonwetting phase saturation (imbibition)
Saturation in Production
• Imbibition Relative Permeability Core Plug Rates
Ratio Function
– Stage 1: Preparation for
drainage
• core saturated with
wetting phase
– Stage 2: Irreducible wetting
phase (drainage)
• inject non-wetting phase
until steady state,
measure saturation
– no wetting phase will
be produced after
steady state
Ratio Function
– Stages 3-6: Inject wetting
phase
• Stage 3 (A) Wetting
phase has not yet
reached outflow face
– only nonwetting
phase produced at
outflow face
• Stage 4 (B) Wetting
phase just reaches
outflow face, called
breakthrough
– wetting phase will be
produced at outflow
face
• Imbibition Relative Core Plug Rates
Permeability Ratio Function
phase
• Stage 5 (C) As injection
of wetting phase
continues, production of
nonwetting phase
decreases (unsteady
state)
– Important to take
many data points
during this decrease
» cummulative
nonwetting
phase produced
» production rate
for both phases
Ratio Function
phase
• Stage 6 (D) Eventually,

no more nonwetting
phase is produced,
allowing residual
nonwetting phase
saturation to be
determined
• Analysis Procedure
– Assumptions
• immiscible displacement
• incompressible fluids
• linear, 1-D flow
• capillary pressure neglected
– Determination of average saturation
• cumulative nonwetting phase production
– Determination of relative permeability ratio from fractional flow
• fwet = qwet/qtotal ; where qtotal = qwet + qnonwet
• production rate measured at outflow face
1
f wet =
⎛ k r ,nonwet μ wet ⎞
1 + ⎜⎜ ⋅ ⎟
⎟
k
⎝ r , wet μ nonwet ⎠
• Relative Permeability Ratio
usually plotted semi-log
– hysteresis due to saturation
process (drainage,
imbibition)

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COURSE

Petrophysics is the study of rock properties and

Modified from Tiab and Donaldson, 1996, p. 1

By the last day of class, the student should be able to:

2. Define the coefficient of isothermal compressibility of reservoir

4. Explain boundary tension and wettability and their effect on capillary

5. Describe methods of determining fluid saturations in reservoir rock

6. Define resistivity, electrical formation resistivity factor, resistivity

7. Define effective permeability, relative permeability, permeability

10 Demonstrate capability to perform calculations relating to all

(These are minimum skills to be achieved/demonstrated)

• Why do we study petrophysics?

(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

Are Classified on the Basis of:

From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

Closure. In map view (top),

From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

Are there other

From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

˚ API = API gravity

From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

From Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

• Origins and descriptions

• Factors that effect porosity

• Dr. Walt Ayers, PETE 311, Fall 2001

Definition: Porosity is the fraction of a rock that

• Origins and descriptions

• Factors that effect porosity

Rock matrix Pore space

Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas

Rocks under high

Are Classified on the Basis of:

Clay Chemical Microcrystalline Chemical

Rock Fragments <5 15

Organic Matter, <3 <1

1. Framework Note different use of “matrix”

• Developed by geologic processes after

Intergranular (Primary) Interstitial Void Space Between

Micropores Small Pores Mainly Between Detrital

Dissolution Partial or Complete Dissolution of

Fractures Breakage Due to Earth Stresses

Very Sub- Sub- Well-

• Bulk volume = (2r)3 = 8r3

• Pore volume = bulk volume - matrix volume

Bulk Volume − Matrix Volume

Very Well Well Moderately Poorly Very Poorly

Mottles Mottles Homogeneous

Note different use of “matrix” 0.25 mm

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler

Pore Throats Restrict

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone

Quartz Micropores Contain