Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
Available ScienceDirect
Availableonline
onlineatatwww.sciencedirect.com
www.sciencedirect.com
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000

ScienceDirect
ScienceDirect 
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 632–638
Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2017) 000–000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing - Sustainable Manufacturing for Global Circular Economy
16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing - Sustainable Manufacturing for Global Circular Economy

Energy Demand Reduction Of Aluminum Alloys Recycling Through Friction Stir

Energy Demand Reduction Of Aluminum
Extrusion Processes Alloys Recycling Through Friction Stir
Implementation
Manufacturing Engineering Society International
Extrusion Conference 2017, MESIC 2017, 28-30 June
Processes Implementation
Giuseppe Ingaraoa*, Dario2017, Vigo
Baffaria (Pontevedra),
, Ellen BracqueneSpain
b
, Livan Fratinia, Joost Dufloub
Giuseppe Ingarao *, Dario Baffari , Ellen Bracquene , Livan Fratinia, Joost Dufloub
a a b

Costing models for capacity optimization inViale

Industry 4.0: Trade-off
University of Palermo, Department of Industrial and Digital Innovation (DIID), Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
a

UniversityKU Leuven, Department

DepartmentofofMechanical Engineering, Celestijnenlaan
(DIID),300A, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
a
a
of Palermo, Industrial and Digital Innovation delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy
between used capacity and operational efficiency
KU Leuven, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Celestijnenlaan 300A, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
a

Abstract A. Santanaa, P. Afonsoa,*, A. Zaninb, R. Wernkeb

Abstract
Aluminum alloys are characterized by high-energy
a
demands
University of for primary
Minho, 4800-058 production.
Guimarães, Recycling is a well-documented strategy to
Portugal
lower the environmental
Aluminum impact of light
alloys are characterized
b
alloys Unochapecó,
production.
by high-energy demands89809-000
Despite Chapecó,
that,
for primary SC, Brazilrecycling
conventional
production. Recyclingprocesses are still energy-intensive
is a well-documented strategy to
with a the
lower lowenvironmental
energy efficiency.
impactAlso, permanent
of light alloys material
production.losses occurthat,
Despite during remelting because
conventional recycling ofprocesses
oxidation.are
Recently, several solid-
still energy-intensive
state
with arecycling
low energyapproaches have
efficiency. been
Also, analyzed;material
permanent in fact, losses
by avoiding the remelting
occur during stepbecause
remelting both energy and material
of oxidation. can be
Recently, savedsolid-
several and,
therefore,
state the embodied
recycling energy
approaches haveofbeen
secondary production
analyzed; canavoiding
in fact, by be substantially reduced.
the remelting Inboth
step this paper,
energytheandsolid-state approach
material can Friction
be saved and,
Abstract
Stir Extrusion (FSE) is analyzed
therefore, the embodied energy offor aluminum
secondary alloys recycling,
production the primary energy
can be substantially reduced.demand
In this of suchthe
paper, recycling strategy
solid-state is quantified.
approach Friction
Comparative
Stir Extrusionanalyses
(FSE) is with both for
analyzed conventional
aluminum and direct
alloys extrusion
recycling, the based
primaryprocesses are developed.
energy demand of such recycling strategy is quantified.
Under the concept
Comparative of "Industry
analyses with 4.0", production
both conventional processes
and direct extrusion basedwill be pushed
processes to be increasingly interconnected,
are developed.
information based on a real time basis
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. and, necessarily, much more efficient. In this context, capacity optimization
© 2019
goes
This
© The
beyond
is an
2018 Authors.
open
The the Published
traditional
accessPublished
Authors. by
aim
article under Elsevier
of B.V.
capacity maximization,
the CC BY-NC-ND
by Elsevier Ltd. contributing also for organization’s profitability and value.
license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Indeed,
This is anlean
Peer-review open management
under responsibility
access and
article under continuous
of the scientific
CC BY-NC-ND improvement
committee of the
license approaches
16th suggest capacity
Global Conference optimization
on Sustainable Manufacturing
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) instead of
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 16th Global Conference on Sustainable
maximization.
(GCSM)
Peer-review underThe
Manufacturing (GCSM). study of
responsibility capacity
of the optimization
scientific committee and ofcosting
the 16th models
Global is an important
Conference on research
Sustainable topic that
Manufacturing deserves
(GCSM)
contributions from both the practical and theoretical perspectives. This paper presents and discusses a mathematical
Keywords:
model forSolid state recycling,
capacity FSE, aluminum
management based alloys, comparative
on different analysis
costing models (ABC and TDABC). A generic model has been
Keywords: Solid state recycling, FSE, aluminum alloys, comparative analysis
developed and it was used to analyze idle capacity and to design strategies towards the maximization of organization’s
value. The trade-off capacity maximization vs operational efficiency is highlighted and it is shown that capacity
1. Introduction
optimization might hide operational inefficiency.
1. Introduction
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.
A relevant
Peer-review share
under of global CO
responsibility 2 emissions
of the is caused by
scientific committee rawManufacturing
of the material production. Worrell
Engineering et al.
Society [1] state that
International material
Conference
A relevant
production
2017. share of cause
activities global about
CO2 emissions
25% of is caused
global CO2by raw materialWhat
emissions. production.
is more,Worrell
such etenvironmental
al. [1] state thatburden
material
is
production
dominated by activities
only fivecause aboutsteel,
materials: 25%cement,
of global CO2
paper, emissions.
aluminum What
alloys, andisaggregated
more, such environmental
plastics. To be moreburden is
specific,
dominated
metals,
Keywords: byModels;
steel
Cost onlyaluminum
and five
ABC;materials: steel,
alloysCapacity
TDABC; cement,
are responsible paper,
Management; for aluminum
Idleabout 25%
Capacity; alloys,
and 3% and
Operational ofaggregated plastics.
CO2 emissions
Efficiency To be more
for material specific,
production,
metals, steel and aluminum alloys are responsible for about 25% and 3% of CO2 emissions for material production,

1. Introduction
* Corresponding author.
E-mail
* The address:
cost giuseppe.ingarao@unipa.it
of idle
Corresponding capacity is a fundamental information for companies and their management of extreme importance
author.
E-mail address:
in modern giuseppe.ingarao@unipa.it
production systems. In general, it is defined as unused capacity or production potential and can be measured
2351-9789 © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
in several ways: tons of production, available hours of manufacturing, etc. The management of the idle capacity
This is an open
2351-9789 access
© 2018 Thearticle under
Authors. the CC BY-NC-ND
Published license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
by Elsevier Ltd.
* Paulo Afonso.
Peer-review under Tel.: +351 253of
responsibility 510the761; fax: +351
scientific 253 604of741
committee
This is an open access article under CC BY-NC-ND licensethe 16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing (GCSM)
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
E-mail address: psafonso@dps.uminho.pt
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing (GCSM)

2351-9789
2351-9789 ©©2017
2019The
TheAuthors.
Authors.Published by Elsevier
Published B.V. B.V.
by Elsevier
Peer-review underaccess
This is an open responsibility of the scientific
article under committee oflicense
the CC BY-NC-ND the Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017.
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 16th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing (GCSM).
10.1016/j.promfg.2019.04.079
 Giuseppe Ingarao et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 632–638 633
2 Giuseppe Ingarao, Dario Baffari, Ellen Bracquene, Livan Fratini, Joost Duflou/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000

respectively [2]. Gutowski et al. [2] state that, from 2005 to 2050, the demand for aluminum is expected to grow by a
factor of between 2.6 and 3.5, while the demand for steel between 1.8 and 2.2. In order to limit and reverse such
phenomenon, putting in place strategies to keep the material in the circle over multiple life-cycles is mandatory.
Actually, the concept of circular economy is gathering more and more pace, and there is a global need to move towards
a closed-loop society [3]. Longer life, more intense use, repair, product upgrades, modularity, remanufacturing,
component re-use and open/closed loop recycling are some of the strategies to put in place to reduce the environmental
impact of raw material production.
At present, conventional recycling is the most applied strategy for metals as it offers many advantages in terms of
technical, economic and environmental concerns. Concerning light-weight alloys, primary energy savings as high as
about 90% can be obtained for aluminum, magnesium and titanium alloys [4]. As far as aluminum alloys are
concerned, conventional (remelting based) recycling route is still an energy-intensive one and there is still room to
make the recycling process more efficient. As a matter of facts, the overall energy efficiency is quite low and, more
importantly, permanent material losses occur during remelting because of oxidation. This aspect is particularly
relevant for light-gauge scraps like chips, material losses as high as 15-20% [5] may occur. In order to overcome such
issue, researches have been turned to several Solid State Recycling (SSR) approaches; in fact, by avoiding the
remelting step, both energy and material can be saved.
Solid state activation depends on pressure, temperature and contact time among surfaces to be joined and several
strategies have been already successfully applied. Haasse et al. [6] used the ECAP (Equal Channel Angular Pressing)
integrated extrusion processes to consolidate aluminum chips into a billet. A variant of this process was presented by
Widerøe et al. [7], they applied a direct screw extrusion method, to compact scraps and extrude profiles in one single
step. Kamilah et al. [8] used hot forging processes as a sustainable direct recycling technique of aluminum. Other
authors [9] used Friction Stir Extrusion (FSE) to fully consolidated wires from aluminum alloys chips; Li et al. [10]
proposed the friction consolidation process to turn chips into a billet.
Paraskevas et al. [11], instead of using severe plastic deformation to get solid bonding conditions, applied sintering
based processes propose the use of Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) as a novel solid-state recycling technique for
aluminum alloys. A comprehensive summary of solid-state recycling processes of aluminum chips has been recently
developed [12].
It is worth pointing out that environmental impact characterization of the direct recycling processes is yet to be
well evaluated and standardized. The only available quantitative, as well as comparative analysis, was proposed by
Duflou et al. [13]. In this research, the environmental impact of ECAP extrusion, screw extrusion, and SPS is analyzed
and compared with the traditional remelting based recycling route.
In the present paper, a new solid-state recycling process, based on the Friction Stir Extrusion (FSE) step, is analyzed
for aluminum alloys recycling. The primary energy demand characterization of such recycling strategy is quantified
and compared to ECAP based as well as to conventional recycling processes.

2. The FSE as solid-state recycling process

Friction Stir Extrusion (FSE) is an innovative solid-state technology that allows the production of wires and rods
from metal chips or solid billet. This technique belongs to the Friction Stir Processing (FSP) technologies, developed
following up the “Friction Stir Welding” (FSW). During the process, a rotating die is plunged into a hollow chamber
containing a billet of the material to be extruded. The work of the friction forces between the die and the billet decaying
into heat causes the metal to soften, producing a plastic flow through the extrusion channel on the rotation axis of the
die itself. FSE was developed in 1993 by The Welding Institute in Cambridge, UK and underwent very little evolution
until the patent was allowed to lapse in 2002. Fig. 1 shows a sketch of the process. The chip closer to the tool, i.e.
closer to the heat source, rotates together with the tool and plasticizes due to the combined effect of high temperature
and stirring. Moving far from the tool interface, a transition layer is encountered, in which the chip is heated but has
not been homogenized as a continuum material. The extrusion starts from the rotating plasticized layer and is
influenced by the combined action of tool rotation and force on the tool. At the end of the process, the extruded
material returns to room temperature by calm air cooling. Similarly, to the conventional extrusion processes, the main
geometrical parameter of the FSE process is the extrusion ratio, namely the ration between the extrudate and the
chamber diameters. Choosing a high extrusion ratio may prevent the reaching of critical bonding at the center of the
634 Giuseppe Ingarao et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 632–638
Giuseppe Ingarao, Dario Baffari, Ellen Bracquene, Livan Fratini, Joost Duflou / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 3

produced wire, leading to defect formations [14]. On the other hand, the main technological parameters affecting the
process are the tool rotational speed and the extrusion force. Applying a constant extrusion force allows the plunge
velocity to adapt to the local flow stress of the material. In this way, the extrusion occurs only when the raw material
reaches proper levels of temperature and strain.
For the present research, the parameters used during the experimental campaign have been selected from the
effective parameter engineered on previous work on aluminum alloy by some of the authors of this paper [15].
Specifically, 2 mm diameter wire was extruded and an extrusion ratio as high as 156.
In the present research an ESAB LEGIO 3ST, a dedicated FSW machine with force controlled vertical axis
(maximum load 25 kN), was used. Figure 2 depicts the used machine alongside an example of the extruded wire.
It is worth pointing out that although the used machine was not specifically designed for FSE processes, it is a quite
dedicated machine as both FSE and FSW processes use the same main friction based principle enabled by a tool
rotating. The dedicated tool set was manufactured out of AISI H13 steel and it consists of a hollow matrix and a
rotating die characterized by a 2 mm extrusion channel with an external diameter equal to 25 mm. The process
parameters selected for the experiments were 700 rpm for tool rotation and 22 kN for the extrusion force.

Fig. 1 Sketch of the Friction Stir Extrusion process.

a
b
Fig. 2 (a) The used machine and (b) an example of the obtained wire.

3. System boundary and major assumptions

Three different recycling routes are considered for comparison, namely: conventional (remelting based), ECAP
based and FSE based. Since FSE is particularly suitable for wire production, the production of 1 kg of AA 6060
aluminum alloy was selected as a functional unit. In the ECAP based route, chips cleaning and compaction steps are
 Giuseppe Ingarao et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 632–638 635
4 Giuseppe Ingarao, Dario Baffari, Ellen Bracquene, Livan Fratini, Joost Duflou/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000

considered prior the actual ECAP extrusion step. The severe deformation characterizing the process, enable oxides
layers breaking and solid bonding activation. Concerning the remelting approach, the chips are collected and melted
together to get the desired alloy, extrusion, and wire drawing steps are envisaged to get the proper workpiece.
A closed AA6060 recycling loop was considered for all the routes, avoiding down-cycling or compositional
corrections during melting. The selected system boundary is depicted in figure 3 where all the process steps accounted
for as well as the material flows are highlighted. It can be noticed that process scraps were taken into account and
were considered as part of a new recycling phase. The impact of permanent material losses occurring during remelting
was considered by adding the same amount of primary aluminum in the model. The primary energy was considered
as a metric to compare the different process routes. The processes electric energy demand was converted into (primary)
energy source consumption by considering an average efficiency of 34% to account for the energy generation and the
transmission losses.

New recycling phase

ECAP route
0.37 kg
FSE route 0.11 kg

Remelting route

Chemical 1.48 kg 1.11 kg

Cold ECAP Hot 1 kg
degreasing & Wire Drawing
Compaction extrusion
Drying
1.48 kg

0.324 kg

Alluminum 1.324 kg Chemical 1.324 kg 1 kg Aluminum

alloys chips degreasing & FSE alloys wires
(AA-6060) Drying (AA-6060)

1.48 kg

Melting 1.48 kg 1.11 kg

Alloying Hot extrusion Wire Drawing 1 kg
casting

X% AA 6060 X% AA 6060 0.37 kg 0.11 kg

primary Permanent
metal losses
System boundary

New recycling phase

Fig. 3 System boundary with considered processes and material flows highlighted.

4. Life cycle inventory

Apart from the electrical energy of the FSE process, which was experimentally quantified, the other inventory data
were selected from both scientific papers and dedicated databases. The EAA environmental report [16], as well as the
paper from Duflou et al. [13], were used as primary LCI sources. The process material yields were found in the EAA
report and in CES Edupack [17] for the hot extrusion and the wire drawing processes, respectively. As far as the FSE
is concerned, there are no available industrial data about material yield; considering the straightforward similarity
with conventional extrusion processes, the same material yield was assumed in the present study.
Since the Mg content of the scrap is expected to become half or less after remelting, such loss was compensated by
adding 0.3% wt of pure Mg [14]. The main LCI values alongside the consulted references are reported in table1.
636 Giuseppe Ingarao et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 632–638
Giuseppe Ingarao, Dario Baffari, Ellen Bracquene, Livan Fratini, Joost Duflou / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 5

Table 1. Main LCI data and sources

Primary specific energy Reference
(MJ/kg)
Cleaning 8.1 [18]
Cold Compaction 8.8 [13]
ECAP hot extrusion 12.8 [13][16]
FSE 23.5 Experimentally measured
Hot extrusion 10.7 [16]
Primary Production AA-6060 210 [17]
Wire drawing (AA-6060) 17 [17]
Melting and casting 7.6 [16]
100
90
Concerning the electric energy characterization of FSE, the Fluke 435 power quality analyzer was used to measure
tension, current, and power over process time. The Power profile of the whole working to produce 0.03 kg of aluminum
80
alloy wire depicted in figure 4. 70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Fig. 4 Power trend for FSE recycling.

Four different power levels can be noticed, corresponding to different production phases. In figure 4 seven different
production phases are highlighted, an explanation of these phases follows:

1. Machine switch/on
2. Hydraulics on/ Stand-by mode
3. Spindle on and first plunging phase (0.5 mm/s, position control)
4. Switch to force control (5 kN)
5. Force increase to extrusion value (18 kN)
6. Extrusion phase
7. Spindle stop and hydraulic off

For the present study only phase 4, 5 and 6 have been considered for quantifying the electric energy demand of
wire production, other non-productive production modes were left out for lack of industrial time studies.
 Giuseppe Ingarao et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 632–638 637
6 Giuseppe Ingarao, Dario Baffari, Ellen Bracquene, Livan Fratini, Joost Duflou/ Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000

5. Discussion of the results

The results of the developed comparative analysis are reported in figure 6. For each analyzed recycling route the
contribution of each process step/factor, towards the total demand, is highlighted. An intermediate scenario with 15%
material losses is reported, to get this share of permanent losses a briquetting step to compact scraps is to be
implemented [18]. It is possible to see that both SSR processes outperform conventional remelting based route. This
is mainly due to the avoided permanent material losses. In fact, in terms of pure processing energy, the conventional
route would demand less energy with respect to SSR processes. It is worth pointing out that FSE based route is the
most energy efficient for the analyzed case study; as a matter of facts, FSE enables the primary energy demand to be
reduced by 53% and by 33% with respect the remelting and the ECAP route, respectively. The energy reduction,
characterizing the FSE process is 100 due to the absence of the wire drawing step which is an energy-intensive one. In
fact, if the drawing process is left out
90 of the comparative analysis, FSE as ECAP route primary energy demands are
100 close to each other. In addition, the variability of the data characterizing the eco-properties (Embodied energies
very
80
for
90 material production as well as processing energies values) of materials and processes [19], does not allow a more
70
general
80 and clear identification of the most efficient SSR process.
18.87 60
70
Wire drawing 50 Wire drawing
15.9060 Hot18.87
extrusion 40 Hot extrusion
10.72
1.82 50 Cleaning
30
Magnesium addition Extra Pressing Energy
40 FSE
Permanent 20
15.90 losses Compaction
30 31.15
46.62 3.04 10
Melting/Alloying/Casting Cleaning
20 MJ/kg 13.01 100
100 0 100
100
10 90.81 FSE route 90
Primary specific energy

9090 11.99 90
80
7.61 0 80 80 18,87
18.87 80

7070 ECAP route 70 Wiredrawing

Wire drawing 70
Remelting route 62.8 Wire drawing
15,90
15.90 60 Hotextrusion
Hot extrusion 60
6060
1,82
1.82 18.87 Hot extrusion
5050 50 Magnesium addition50
Magnesiumaddition 41.9
Extra Pressing Energy
4040 40 Permanent losses 40
Permanentlosses
15.90 Compaction
30 FSE
3030 46,62
46.62 30 Melting/Alloying/Casting
Melting/Alloying/Casting
3.04 Cleaning31.15 Cleaning
2020 20 13.01 20

1010 10 10
7,61
7.61 11.99 10.72
00 0 0
route
Remelting route ECAP route FSE route
Fig.5 Primary specific energy demands of the analyzed recycling routes.

6. Conclusions and further developments

In this research, a comparative analysis of three aluminum recycling routes is developed. The aim was to
characterize the energy efficiency of FSE as a new variant of SSR processes. According to what reported by Duflou
et al. [13], the advantages of SSR processes with respect to the remelting route was proved. In case of wire production,
the FSE enables a further primary energy demand reduction with respect to ECAP based route. Results do not allow
the authors to generalize such results for other output shapes/semi-finished products (billet, profiles, etc.). It is worth
pointing out that FSE process is still a discontinuous process and cannot provide the same productivity of extrusion-
based processes, some authors of the present paper are focusing their research effort in making FSE recycling process
a continuous one. A further development of the present research will concern the quantification of energy efficiency
of FSE processes to recycle magnesium chips, in fact, some of the authors of the present paper have already
successfully recycled magnesium alloy chips into wire [14].
It is worth pointing out that, at present, SSR might represent a part of the solution; in fact, such techniques do not
allow composition changes (either alloying elements or primary aluminum addition) as remelting based route does.
638 Giuseppe Ingarao et al. / Procedia Manufacturing 33 (2019) 632–638
Giuseppe Ingarao, Dario Baffari, Ellen Bracquene, Livan Fratini, Joost Duflou / Procedia Manufacturing 00 (2018) 000–000 7

In consequence, only closed-loop recycling strategies can be applied and the big variety characterizing the aluminum
demand cannot be met by SSR. On the other hand, SSR approaches are particularly suitable for in-house recycling
and the supply chain could be significantly compressed enabling further energy savings.
Also, cost comparison among the available recycling routes it not available in literature yet, such further analysis
could provide more clarity in suitable recycling option identification.
In conclusion, researchers should focus on identifying the suitable applications for SSR and, more importantly,
should identify the best matching between SSR processes and the shape of the obtained semi-finished product (slab,
billet, profiles, wires, etc.).

References

[1] E. Worrell, J. Allwood, T.Gutowski, The Role of Material Efficiency in Environmental Stewardship, Annual Review of Environment and
Resources, 41 (2016), 575-598.
[2] T. Gutowski, S. Sahil, J. Allwood, M. Ashby, E. Worrell, The Energy Required to Produce Materials: Constraint on Energy Intensity-
improvements Parameters of Demand. Philosophical Transaction A, http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2012.0003, (2013).
[3] T. Tolio, A. Bernard, M. Colledani, S. Kara, G. Seliger, J. Duflou, O. Battaia, S. Takata. Design, management and control of demanufacturing
and remanufacturing systems. CIRP Annals-Manufacturing Technology, 66, Issue 2 (2017) 585-609.
[4] G. Ingarao, Manufacturing strategies for efficiency in energy and resources use: The role of metal shaping processes, Journal of Cleaner
Production, 142 (2017) 2872-2886.
[5] Y. Xiao, M.A. Reuter, Recycling of distributed aluminum turning scrap, Miner. Eng., 15 (2002) 963-970.
[6] M. Haase, B.N. Khalifa, E.A. Tekkaya, W.Z. Misiolek, Improving mechanical properties of chip-based aluminum extrudates by integrated
extrusion and equal channel angular pressing, Mat. Science and Engin. A, 539 (2012) 194-204.
[7] F., Widerøe, T. Welo, H. Vestøl, A new testing machine to determine the behavior of aluminum granulate under combined pressure and shear.
Int. J. Mater. Form. 6 (2012) 199–208.
[8] N. Kamilah Yusuf, M. Amri Lajis, A. Ahmad. Hot Press as a Sustainable Direct Recycling Technique of Aluminium: Mechanical Properties
and Surface Integrity. Materials 10 (2017) 902.
[9] Tang, W., Reynolds, A.P., 2010. Production of wire via friction extrusion of aluminum alloy machining chips. Journal of Materials Processing
Technology. 210, 2231–2237.
[10] X. Li, D. Baffari, A. P. Reynolds, Friction stir consolidation of aluminum machining chips. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technologies, 94 (2018) 2031–2042.
[11] D. Paraskevas, K. Vanmeensel, J. Vleugels, W. Dewulf, Y. Deng, J.R. Duflou, Spark Plasma Sintering As a Solid-State Recycling Technique:
The Case of Aluminum Alloy Scrap Consolidation, Materials, 7 (2014) 5664-5687.
[12] B. Wan, W. Chen, T. Lu, F. Liu, Z. Jiang, M. Mao, Review of solid-state recycling of aluminum chips, Resources, Conservation & Recycling
125 (2017) 37–47.
[13] J.R., Duflou, E., Tekkaya, M. Haase, T. Welo, K. Vanmeensel, K. Kellens, W. Dewulf, D. Paraskevas, Environmental assessment of solid-
state recycling routes for aluminum alloys: can solid-state processes significantly reduce the environmental impact of aluminum recycling?.
[14] D. Baffari,G. Buffa, D. Campanella, L. Fratini, AP. Reynolds, Process mechanics in Friction Stir Extrusion of magnesium alloys chips through
experiments and numerical simulation Journal of Manufacturing Processes. 29 (2017) 41-49CIRP Ann. Manuf. Technol. 64 (2015) 37-40.
[15] Baffari, G. Buffa, D. Campanella, l. Fratini, Al-SiC Metal Matrix Composite production through Friction Stir Extrusion of aluminum chips.
Procedia Eng. 207 (2017) 419–424.
[16] EAA – European Aluminium Association, Environmental Profile Report for the European Aluminium Industry. Life Cycle Inventory Data for
Aluminium Production and Transformation Processes in Europe (2013).
[17] CES Selector 2017 (v. 17.2.0), Granta Design Limited.
[18] Master Thesis developed at KULEUVEN under the supervision of Professor Joost Duflou, Dutch title: Onderzoek naar het valorisatiepotentieel
van smeltloze recyclageprocessen: Een economische en ecologische analyse van aluminiumrecyclage via warmextrusie en vonkplasmasinteren
(2016)
[19] Ashby MF. Materials and the Environment: Eco-informed Material Choice (2nd Ed.) 2013; ISBN: 978-0-12-385971-6. Butterworth
Heinemann/Elsevier.