JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

ABA 2309: BUILDING ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE II

(LIGHTING)
4 ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
The type of lighting chosen for a building is closely linked to other design decisions for the building,
such as the shape of the plan, type of window, and heating and cooling requirements.

The main functions of artificial lighting can be summarised as follows:

• Task: To provide enough light for people to carry out an activity.

• Movement: To provide enough light for people to move about with ease and safety.

• Display: To display the features of the building in a manner suitable for its character and
purpose.

To achieve these aims, it is necessary to consider the properties of lamps, the lamp fittings, and the
room surfaces surrounding them.

4.1 PERFORMANCE OF VISUAL TASK

The basic factors that affect the performance of visual tasks can be categorised as follows

A. The task

- Size/ proximity
- Exposure time
- Brightness
- Contrast
- Familiarity
B. The lighting Conditions

- Illumination level
- Brightness ratios glare
C. The Observer

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4.2 TYPES OF LIGHTING INSTALLATIONS
A good lighting setup combines different lighting to create a welcoming space to work efficiently or
relax easily.

There are three basic types of lighting you should layer in a room to accomplish this:

1. Ambient or general lighting

- Provides an overall glow/illumination to a room

- It intends to create a uniform light level throughout a space that allows intended tasks to be
performed comfortably

Figure 4.1 An example of ambient lighting © https://www.angieslist.com/articles/learn-how-use-accent-task-ambient-

lighting.htm

2. Accent lighting

- Provides visual interest in space by highlighting architecture or calling attention to important

items, such as featured merchandise in a store, or decorative items, such as artwork.
- Accent light can also provide information or guide people through a space.

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Figure 4.2 An example of accent lighting. Nottingham Castle © Jerusha Ngungui

3. Task lighting

- This type of lighting is intended to help one to accomplish specific tasks.

- It should be localised, free of distracting glare and shadows, and bright enough to prevent
eyestrain

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Figure 4.3 An example of task lighting © https://www.thelightbulb.co.uk

4.3 RULES FOR LIGHTING DESIGN

• Establish lighting program

• Illuminate the things we need to see

• Quality lighting is largely a problem of Geometry

• Combine direct and diffused lighting

• Darkness is as important as light

• Brightness ratios

• Flexibility and quality

4.4 STRATEGIES FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT LIGHTING

The challenge in lighting design is to provide sufficient light where it is required at the times when it is
required, without providing excess light.

The key strategies to achieving this are as follows:

Define light requirements

The best strategy is probably to use an accounting approach, establishing a clear ‘budget’ that specifies
the lighting levels required at different locations at different times. Make sure you don’t specify lighting
levels that are higher than needed. Low background lighting combined with flexible task lighting at
workstations ensures that adequate light is available where it is required.

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The quality of the light should also be considered, including requirements regarding glare, brightness
ratio, etc. These specifications should be included in the Design Brief and agreed upon with the client
during the project’s pre-design stage.

Use daylight as much as possible

The overall shape and orientation of the building greatly affect the availability of daylight. In general,
North and South facing walls provide more accessible opportunities for daylight without problems from
direct sunlight. The East and West facing walls are subject to direct sunlight in the morning and evening,
respectively, and therefore, openings on these walls need to be provided with shading devices.

Access to external walls restricts the utilisation of daylight. Light shelves, light pipes and skylights are
just a few examples of features that may be used to promote daylight penetration further into a building’s
interior.

Select efficient light sources and fittings

Fluorescent tubes will be the most effective background illumination for most industrial and
commercial situations with low ceiling heights. T5 tubes are the most efficient, and the most suitable
size is 1200 mm, which is easier to change and less prone to breaking than the longer 2400 mm tubes.
They should be considered because indirect fittings produce an equal lighting level (lower luminance
ratio) and allow for lower absolute light levels than direct fittings.

Compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFL) (see section 4.5.4) are ideal for localized task illumination and
most home applications. They should not be undersized, and when replacing incandescent bulbs, a 3:1
ratio is recommended rather than the more optimistic 4:1 ratio typically suggested. (For example, a
75W incandescent bulb can be replaced with a 25W CFL bulb).

High-Intensity Discharge lamps (see section 4.5.5), such as Metal Halide lamps, should be used in
situations where high-intensity point light sources are required, typically in high ceiling industrial or
commercial applications and for outdoor lighting.

Effective design of lighting layouts

It's important to consider the quantity and placement of light fixtures to ensure that the desired light
levels are met with the fewest possible fixtures. Formulae and diagrams have mostly been superseded
by software tools that model various lighting configurations, many of which are accessible for free.

Effective control systems

After achieving an energy-efficient lighting plan, the lights must be efficiently controlled to turn them
on only when needed and off at all other times.

4.5 ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SOURCES1

The flame from fires, candles, and oil lamps, where light is produced as one of the results of chemical
combustion, is the oldest form of artificial light. However, in modern artificial light sources, electrical
energy is converted to light energy in modern.

1
Get additional information from (Butera, Aste, & Adhikari, 2014, pp. 170–174)
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Electric light sources can be divided into three main groups, differing according to the processes applied
to convert electrical energy into light.

1. Thermal radiators - include incandescent lamps and halogen lamps. These work by heating a
filament to a temperature at which it glows and becomes luminous.

2. Discharge lamps include a wide range of light sources, e.g. all forms of fluorescent lamps, mercury
or sodium discharge lamps, and metal halide lamps—these work by exciting gases or metal vapours.

3. LEDs are semiconductor light sources.

4.5.1 Incandescent Lamps

An incandescent lamp creates light by passing an electric current through the filament, made of
tungsten, a material with high resistance to electricity. The resistance to the flow of electricity causes
the filament to become heated. If the resistance is high enough, the filament will become so hot that it
gives off light or becomes incandescent.

• Relatively low energy efficient

• Typically range from 40 to 100 W

• Give the light output of 420 to 1360 lumens

• Low luminous efficacy (8 – 13 lm/W)

• Low colour temperature (2700 – 3000 K)

• Life expectancy is 750 – 1000 hours

Figure 4.4 Parts of an incandescent lamp (courtesy of Philips Lighting Company)

4.5.2 Halogen Lamps

Halogen lamps are an improvement of the incandescent lamps, and they differ from the older
incandescent lamps in two ways that improve efficacy and extend life. First, the bulb is made of quartz

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instead of glass. Second, the atmosphere inside the bulb is a halogen gas that stops the blackening and
slows down the thinning of the tungsten filament.

These two changes give rise to several differences with the older incandescent lamps. The light
produced by a halogen lamp is described as whiter or bluer than that of an incandescent (colour
temperature of 3000 -3300 K).

Halogen lamps have a lifetime of more than twice as long as a comparable incandescent (about 3000 –
5000 hours). Finally, the halogen lamp is approximately twice as efficient as the old incandescent.

Figure 4.5 Parts of a Halogen lamp (courtesy of Philips Lighting Company)

4.5.3 Fluorescent Lamps

Fluorescent lamps use an entirely different technology than do incandescent lamps. Rather than creating
heat to produce light, they create ultraviolet light to stimulate phosphors, producing visible light. The
process is called fluorescence.

Fluorescent lamps begin with a sealed tube of glass with an electrode at each end. That tube is filled
with one of several gases (typically argon, krypton, neon, or xenon, often two of these together) and
mercury. When an electric arc is established between the two electrodes, the electricity flowing through
the mercury causes it to emit ultraviolet (UV) light.

To transform UV to visible light, the inside of the fluorescent lamp is coated with phosphors, which are
minerals that emit visible light when they are subjected to UV light. Three phosphors are used: one
produces a range of colours centred on blue light, one on the green, and one on orange-red light. The
relative proportions of the phosphors can be adjusted to produce warm, neutral, or cool light.

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 Figure 4.6 Operation of a fluorescent lamp

4.5.4 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs)

• Designed as a more efficient replacement for incandescent lamp

• Range from 7 to 20 W

• The output of 400 to 1200 lumens with an average efficacy of 60%

There are two major types of compact fluorescent lamps: those with screw bases designed to replace
incandescent lamps in incandescent lamp sockets directly, and those with plug-in bases designed to fit
into sockets in luminaires explicitly designed for compact fluorescent lamps.

Figure 4.7 Examples of CFLs

4.5.5 High-Intensity Discharge

Like fluorescent lamps, high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps use a ballast to create an arc in a gas-
filled chamber, called the arc tube. However, the contents of the arc tube produce visible light without
the need for phosphors, although phosphors may be used.

HID lamps are very efficient, making them the ideal choice for many applications. Several families of
HID lamps include mercury vapour, sodium vapour, metal halide, and ceramic metal halide. Only metal
halide (MH) and ceramic metal halide (CMH) lamps have colour characteristics appropriate for indoor
commercial use in spaces like atria, malls, supermarkets, and outdoor applications such as stadiums.

The arc tube of a metal halide lamp is made of quartz, while a ceramic metal halide is made of ceramic.
Both types of lamps use argon, xenon, and/or neon gas to fill the tube and any dozen metallic elements.
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The arc passes through the fill gas and causes the metals to become gaseous also, and the gases and
metals both emit various wavelengths of light. Electrodes are installed at both ends of the tube. In some
cases, phosphors may also be used to improve efficacy and colour rendering by converting the lamp’s
UV output to visible light.

Figure 4.8 An example of a metal halide lamp with a protective outer enclosure (courtesy of Philips Lighting Company)

4.5.6 Light Emitting Diode

The light-emitting diode (LED) differs from the previously discussed light sources in several significant
ways. First, LEDs are solid, with no gas or vacuum chambers, so they are also referred to as solid-state
lighting. Second, an LED naturally produces directional light. Third, each LED produces only a narrow
band of the visible spectrum, which is why they are sometimes referred to as “narrowband emitters.”

• Energy-efficient and environmentally safe than CFL and incandescent bulbs

• More efficient at turning electrical energy into light

• Use only 10-20% of the electricity used by incandescent lamps to produce the same quantity of
light, and their life expectancy is 100 times greater.

Figure 4.9 A typical LED lamp

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Table 4-1 Lamp Performance and Operating characteristics (Butera, Aste, & Adhikari, 2014)

4.6 SELECTING A LIGHT SOURCE

Consider the desirable qualities of the lamps that the design requires - light levels, energy efficiency,
lamp life, and light quality - then look for a light source that meets those requirements.

The Light Output of the lamp and the efficiency of the light fixture as a system should be considered.
Similar looking fixtures can have widely different efficiencies (meaning they don’t all put the same
amount of light into the room), resulting in the need for brighter or dimmer lamps to achieve the same
illumination levels.

Each light source has a certain quality of light that can add to, or detract from, the aesthetics of the
space being illuminated. The designer must consider the quality of light anew on each project. Each
time a light source is selected, colour rendition, colour temperature, dimming ability, and distribution
are considered.

Efficient and effective optical systems can be built around small light sources such as halogen, LED, or
ceramic metal halide lamps, making them good choices for applications that require excellent light
distribution control. Applications such as selective illumination of a facade, landscape highlighting, and
precise illumination of artworks all require high degrees of control of the beam of light. Designs that
depend on broad distribution may rely on lamps such as linear or compact fluorescents.

Energy efficiency is always important, but it is more critical in some applications than in others. As
usage increases, so does the cost of ownership and the need to minimize the environmental impact of a
light source; for high usage applications such as most commercial projects, select lamps that use less
energy, such as LEDs, ceramic metal halide, and fluorescent. Low efficacy lamps, such as incandescent
and halogen lamps, are better for low brightness and/or short use applications such as residences and
restaurants.

The maintenance requirements of a light source and luminaire become important considerations for
luminaires that are in use most of the time or are in hard to reach locations. Lamp replacement is the
most apparent maintenance issue. Fixtures that are hard to access should use long-life lamps to minimize
the frequency of replacement. Other maintenance considerations are the life of supporting components
such as ballasts and transformers and the installation environment’s impact on the luminaire
(incandescent lamps do not do well with vibration, LEDs are sensitive to high temperatures, etc.). The

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lamp typically represents only 5 per cent of the cost of ownership, labour for maintenance 5–10 per
cent, with the balance of the cost in energy use.

4.7 LIGHTING CONTROL SYSTEMS

It gets increasingly difficult to maintain the levels of daylight lighting necessary for some tasks as one
moves away from a window. When such tasks are localized, such as desk work, artificial illumination
placed near the task and controlled by the user can complement daylight.

• Occupancy sensors respond to people entering and leaving the room and are based on either
infrared or ultrasonic technology or both as hybrid technology.

• Automated daylight controls - Artificial lighting can be controlled by a photosensitive cell. It

is automatically switched on or off when daylighting reaches a certain level or continuously
dimmed so that electric lighting supplies just the supplemental light necessary to meet the
illumination requirements.

• Most timers are centrally located to turn lights on and off at pre-set cycles. These are excellent
whenever there is a regular schedule of activities—for example, streetlights.

• Remote control switching enables people or a computer at a central location to control the
lights. This central control of lights is a part of the energy management system.

• Dimmers are another powerful tool for energy savings. When daylighting is used, switching
and dimming are crucial.

Factors to consider for the selection of electrical lighting controls include:

• Quantity of light level required/available

• Fixture layout and room size

• Lamp type

• Quality of space

4.8 LIGHT REQUIREMENTS

The amount of light necessary in each area varies depending on the space's use. It's important to consider
the recommended light levels for completing a task accurately and comfortably without risk (Standard
service illuminance2).

For regular tasks, light levels in the range of 100 - 300 lux were usual in the past. Depending on the
activity, today's light levels are more common in the 500-1000 lux range. The light output may
potentially approach 1500 - 2000 lux for accurate and detailed work.

2
Standard service illuminance is the mean illuminance achieved during the maintenance cycle of a lighting
system, and acveraged over the area being considered.
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Because the source of recommendations differs by country, you may notice minor variances based on
the information you obtain from sources such as international standards, building regulations, health
and safety legislation, and lighting practice codes.
Table 4-2 Examples of some standard service illuminance values

4.9 LUMINAIRES
A luminaire is a container for one or more light sources and the components needed to secure, protect,
and connect them to the electric mains. It contains the lamp, the lamp socket, the ballast (if necessary),
the reflector, diffuser, shielding, and the housing for all of these items.

Purpose:

• To accommodate/protect one or more lamps plus any other necessary gear

• To position the lamp in space

• Enhance fixture appearance

• To control the luminous flux

• Reduce glare

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Figure 4.10 Section through a typical luminaire

The general types of luminaires are categorized according to the effect they have on light distribution.
In other words, according to the proportion of light emitted upwards or downwards, the horizontal plane
passes through the particular unit's centre. They can be:

• Direct

• Semi-direct

• General diffuse

• Semi-indirect

• Indirect

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Figure 4.11 General types of luminaires according to the effects on light distribution

Direct

• Direct luminaires emit light downward. These include most types of recessed lighting,
including downlights and troffers.

• Most efficient use of the luminaire to provide lumens to the work area.

• Produces the greatest amount of glare unless shielded.

• Best used where you desire a high ambient lighting level.

• May be recessed into the ceiling, surface-mounted on it, or suspended below it (pendant).

Semi-direct

• Have an upward component, so they must be either surface-mounted or suspended

• Used for the same purpose as direct luminaires, except that when suspended, the upward
component lights the ceiling and eliminates the ‘cave effect’ produced by the suspended direct.

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Semi-indirect and indirect

• Semi-indirect and indirect luminaires must be suspended to utilize the upward reflected
component of light.

• These luminaires differ only in the percentages of uplight and downlight that they produce.

• Indirect luminaires produce almost 100% uplight

General diffuse

• Lighting involves luminaires that distribute 40% to 60% of the emitted light downward and the
balance upward

• Fixtures for these systems distribute approximately an equal amount of light upward and
downward

• They should be suspended at least 12 inches below the ceiling to avoid excessive ceiling
brightness

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There are numerous types of luminaires in the market, for example, chandeliers, downlights, troffers,
track lighting, wall washers, wall sconce, cove lighting, pendants, floodlights, lamps etc.

4.10 THE LAWS OF ILLUMINANCE

Calculation techniques are used to estimate the number of lights of a specific kind required to provide
the desired lighting level (illuminance) in a given space. Although it is not always essential to generate
estimates for home lighting, it is vital to quantify the number, kind, and locations of the lights and to be
able to analyze their influence when planning the lighting of larger buildings.

The task is generally illuminated directly or indirectly by reflection and inter-reflection from the room's
interior surfaces. As a result, the overall illuminance has both a direct and indirect component.

4.10.1 Direct Component of Illuminance:

The direct illuminance produced by a source can be calculated using the following two illuminance
laws:

1. The Inverse Square Law of Illuminance:

The illuminance (E) at a point on a surface varies inversely as the square of the distance (d) between
the surface and the point source of light that illuminates it. In other words, the illuminance produced by
a source falls off inversely with the square of the distance from it.

For a surface normal to the direction of the incidence light:

𝐼
𝐸=
𝑑2
Where

I = intensity in the direction of the surface(in candelas)

d = distance in between the source and the surface (in metres)

E = illumination on that surface (lux)

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2. The Cosine Law of Illuminance

The illuminance (E) on any surface varies as the cosine of the angle of incidence of the surface to the
direction of the light. The illuminance on a plane normal to the incident light calculated by the Inverse
Square law must now be corrected for the angle of incidence on any other surface because the flux is
distributed over a larger area.

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The illuminance on any surface varies as the cosine of the angle of incidence of the surface to the
direction of the light.

The illuminance on a plane normal to the incident light calculated by the Inverse Square law must now
be corrected for the angle of incidence on any other surface because the flux is distributed over a larger
area.

𝐼
𝐸= cos 
𝑑2
Where:

𝐼 = intensity of a point source (cd)

𝑑 = distance between source and surface (m)

𝐸 = illumination on that surface (lx)

 = angle between direction of flux and the normal Note: When  = 0º then cos  = 1

Example 1:

A uniform source giving out 25133 lumens is placed 3m directly above point A on a working plane.
Point B is on the same plane, but 4m away from A. Calculate the direct illuminance at each point.

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Solution

1. Determine the intensity of the lamp.

𝐹 25133
𝐼= = = 2000 𝑐𝑑
4𝜋 12.568
Therefore the source will have intensity in all directions of 2000 candelas.

NB: One lumen is the flow of light emitted by a unit intensity (1cd) point source within a unit solid
angle. As the surface of a sphere subtends at its centre (4 = 12.56) units of solid angle, a 1cd point
source will emit a total of 12.56 Lm in all directions.

2. Determine the illuminance at point A (the inverse square law is applicable).

𝐼 2000
Illuminance at a point A = = = 222.22 𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑑2 32

3. Determine illuminance at point B (the Cosine Law of Illuminance is applicable).

𝐼 2000 3
Illuminance at a point B = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑥 = 48 𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑑2 52 5

4.1.1 Indirect Component of Illuminance

If illuminance measurements on the working plane are made in a room where the reflection factors of
the various surfaces (ceiling, walls and floor) are not zero, the measured illuminance values would be
higher than the values calculated using only the measurements of the inverse square and cosine laws.
This is because the working plane receives a bonus of light by reflection and inter-reflection from the
room surfaces to add to the direct illuminance.

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The average illuminance (Eind) on the horizontal-working plane provided by the indirect component can
be given by:

𝑢𝜌𝑢 + 𝑑𝜌𝑑
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑑 =
𝐴(1 − 𝜌)

Where:

• u = the amount of luminous flux emitted upwards from the luminaire

• d = the amount of luminous flux emitted downwards from the luminaire

• u = the average reflectance of the room surfaces above the plane of the luminaire

• d = the average reflectance of the room surfaces below the plane of the luminaire

•  = the average reflectance of all the room surfaces

• A = the total area of all the room surfaces

4.11 THE LUMEN METHOD OF GENERAL LIGHTING

The lumen method serves to provide approximate calculations for planning indoor lighting systems.
The method is used to determine the number of luminaires and lamps required to achieve a given
illuminance. It considers both indirect and direct components of illuminance in calculating the average
illuminance on the working plane. This method can be applied only to square or rectangular rooms with
a regular array of luminaires.

There are equal spaces between luminaires along a row and half spaces to the walls in a regular array.
If the luminaires were point sources, the spacing would be the same on the other room axis. However,
the spacing may be different on the other room axis for linear fittings, but the rule about half-spaces to
the walls still applies.

The lumen method is intended primarily for task lighting situations. Other forms of treatment are more
appropriate in cases such as hotel foyers, restaurants and lounges.

The lumen method calculates the number of lumens required from the sources to produce a given
average illuminance.

Average illuminance can be given by:

n x  x 𝑈𝐹 x 𝑀𝐹
𝐸𝑎𝑣 =
𝐴
The product n x  gives the total luminous flux available in the luminaires. This is then reduced by
multiplying by the utilisation factor (UF) and the maintenance factor (MF) to give the lumens reaching
the working plane. A division by the area of the working plane yields the illuminance (in lux).

Rearranging the equation can give the number of lamps i.e.

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 𝐸𝑎𝑣 x A
𝑛=
 x 𝑈𝐹 x 𝑀𝐹
Where:

Eav = The average illuminance usually required on a horizontal working plane.

n = The number of lamps needed

 = The lighting design lumens (These are flux values representing the average through-life output
of a lamp, i.e. it allows for lamp depreciation. In the case of a fluorescent tube, the lighting design
lumens are taken as the output after 2000hrs burning)

A = Area of the working plane – usually taken as the plan area of the room in square meters

MF = The Maintenance Factor is a coefficient less than 1.0 to allow for the average light reduction
due to dirt accumulation on the luminaire and deterioration of the reflectances of interior surfaces during
a maintenance period. In general, 0.8 may be taken as the MF for average conditions, varying upwards
in the case of air-conditioned rooms where dust is filtered out of the air and downwards where the room
use and surroundings are dirtier.)

UF = The Utilisation Factor is a coefficient less than 1.0 that considers both the fall off of illuminance
with distance due to the inverse square law and the lighting bonus derived from inter-reflection for the
whole scheme.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

For example, if all lamps together emit 10,000Lm, and a plane 0.8m high over the whole room
5000
receives 5,000Lm, the UF is: = 0.5
10000

The illumination will therefore be the flux received divided by the area (A). For example, if the
𝐹 5000
room is 50m2, then: 𝐸 = = =100 lux
𝐴 50

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Figure 4.12 Utilisation Factors for some luminaires

4.12 FACTORS AFFECTING THE UTILISATION FACTOR

The Utilisation Factor is the proportion of luminous flux emitted by the lamp which reaches the working
plane. It is a measure of the effectiveness of the lighting scheme, and it is affected by the following
factors:

a) Light output ratio of the luminaire;

b) The flux distribution of the luminaire;

c) Room proportions;

d) Room reflectances;

e) Suspension;

f) Spacing/ Mounting Height Ratio.

a) The Light Output Ratio of Luminaire:

The amount of light emitted by the source is reduced by the luminaire because light energy is lost both
inside and by transmission through the fitting. The Light Output Ratio (LOR) of a luminaire is the
percentage of light emitted by a luminaire compared with the flux produced by the source(s) inside.

The light output ratio is further subdivided into light available in the upper hemisphere (above a
horizontal plane through the fitting) compared with the total source flux- the upward light output ratio
(ULOR) and the downward light output ratio (DLOR), respectively.

ULOR + DLOR = LOR.

For example, a luminaire with the following specification:

ULOR = 20%
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DLOR = 50%

Then, LOR = 20% + 50% = 70%

i.e. of the total lamp lumens available inside the fitting, 20% are radiated upwards, 50% downwards
and 30% are absorbed as heat in the luminaire.

The luminaire's upper and lower flux fractions (UFF and LFF) are derived from the light output ratios.
The flux fractions are the percentage of light coming out upwards or downwards compared to the total
emitted light.

For example:

Light Output Ratios Flux Fractions

DLOR = 50% LFF = 50/ 70 = 71%

ULOR = 20% UFF = 20/ 70 = 29%

𝑈𝐹𝐹 29
LOR = 70% Flux fraction ratio = = = 0.41
𝐿𝐹𝐹 71

The flux fractions give a basis for luminaire classification as shown in Figure 4.13.

The critical step is to establish the value of the UF. This will depend on the geometrical proportions of
the room, the mounting height of the lamp, surface reflectances and the type of fitting used. Values of
UF can be found in fitting catalogues or in specialist publications. For general purposes, it can be stated
that its value ranges;

- For downward direct lighting - 0.4-0.9.

- For diffusing fittings - 0.2- 0.5.

- For indirect lighting - 0.05-0.2.

Figure 4.13 Luminaire classification

(b) Flux Distribution of the Luminaire:

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Data tables can be simplified if:

(i) the upward light is all assumed to fall on the ceiling so that it is only the quantity of upward
light and not its distribution, which is important;

(ii) the downward light distribution can be based on a set of standard light distributions.

The intensity distribution patterns of the light radiated from a luminaire in the lower hemisphere will
affect how much of the downward flux falls directly on the working plane and how much will be
available for reflection from the walls in a given room. It affects the direct ratio, the ratio of flux
received directly on the working plane to the total downward flux. The British Zonal Classification can
define the downward light distribution characteristics of luminaires.

In the BZ classification, 10 theoretical lower hemisphere intensity distributions are used to evaluate the
direct ratio zone limits that would be produced in rooms of different sizes with appropriate spacing to
mounting height ratios, which would give a uniformity ratio (Emin/ Eav) equal or greater than 0.8.

A luminaire is classified as a certain BZ number if it produces a variation of direct ratio with room
index for a given spacing to mounting height ratio within a zone defined by one of the 10 theoretical
intensity distributions.

The lower the BZ number of a fitting, the narrower the distribution of light from it. The higher the BZ
number, the greater the proportion of sideways flux. The BZ classification serves to aid the calculation
of utilization factors and the computation of Discomfort Glare Index.

𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

(c) Room Proportion:

The direct and reflected light (by walls) received by a working plane for a particular BZ number
luminaire will depend on the room proportions. The room proportions are described by the Room Index
(RI).

The room index is the ratio of the areas of two bounding horizontal planes, one through the luminaire
and the other the working plane, to the area of the walls between them.

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Figure 4.14 Room proportions for room index calculation

The area of the two horizontal planes is 2 x L x W.

The vertical area is Hm x 2(L + W).

Where L = Room Length.

W = Room width.

Hm = The mounting height of the luminaire above the working plane.

𝟐𝒙𝑳𝒙𝑾
The room Index (RI) =
𝑯𝒎 𝒙 𝟐(𝑳+𝑾)

𝑳𝒙𝑾
Therefore RI=
𝑯𝒎(𝑳+𝑾)

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If the luminaire is ceiling mounted or recessed into the ceiling, the room index is alternatively called
the room ratio.

Practical values of room index vary from 0.6 to 5.0.

(d) Room Reflectances

The reflectances of the principal surfaces in the room will affect the quantity of reflected light received
by the working plane. The important surfaces are the walls, ceiling, effective working plane or floor.

(e) Suspension (Hs)

If the luminaire is ceiling mounted or recessed, most or all of the light output is in the lower hemisphere.
As soon as the luminaire is suspended from the ceiling, the upward light makes a contribution depending
on the effective reflectance of the ceiling cavity, i.e. the reflectance of the upper walls and ceiling
averaged by area weighting.

Some manufacturers’ datasheets give three suspension conditions expressed as a suspension (Hs) to
mounting height (Hm) ratio.
𝐻𝑠
= 0 for ceiling mounted luminaire. (Hs=0)
𝐻𝑚

𝐻𝑠
=0.3 if the luminaire is suspended a quarter of the way down from the ceiling to the working
𝐻𝑚
plane (i.e. Hs = 1x, Hm = 3x).
𝐻𝑠
=1.0 when the luminaire is halfway between the ceiling and working plane. (Hs = 1x, Hm = 1x)
𝐻𝑚

(f) Spacing/ Mounting Height Ratio (S/ Hm)

The illuminance produced on the working plane under a regular array of luminaires varies with position
in a room. Higher values of illuminance occur directly beneath luminaires and lower levels between
rows of luminaires.

The minimum illuminance (Emin) ratio to the average illuminance (Eav) is called the uniformity ratio
for the installation. It has been shown that people prefer a uniformity ratio of 0.8 or greater for the type
of work interiors where the lumen design method is suitable.

For a given BZ distribution and room index, the uniformity ratio will depend on the spacing of the
luminaires and their height above the working plane. The closer spaced the luminaires for a given
mounting height, the higher the uniformity ratio and the greater the mounting height for a given spacing,
the greater the uniformity ratio.

For the minimum uniformity ratio criterion to be obtained, limits must be set on the spacing (S) /
Mounting height (Hm) ratio.

For BZ classified luminaires, these include:

Maximum S/Hm

BZ 1-3 1:1

BZ 4 1.25:1

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 BZ 5-10 1.5:1

Manufacturers quote a maximum S/Hm ratio that will still produce a satisfactory uniformity ratio, based
on the detailed photometering of the individual luminaire and mid-point ratio calculations. This
maximum S/Hm might be greater than the value suggested by the BZ number.

The following equation can be used as an initial check on the S/Hm ratio of a layout.

𝟏 𝑨
𝐒/𝐇𝐦 = √
𝑯𝒎 𝑵

Where A = The working plane area.

N = The number of luminaires.

Hm = The mounting height.

𝑨
The term √ is the spacing for a square grid installation of symmetrical luminaires. Further S/Hm checks
𝑵
are necessary for linear fittings for the actual layout, as each luminaire does not necessarily command
a square area of the working plane.

If uniformity of illuminance is to be acceptable for general lighting, S/Hm should not exceed maximum
spacing to height ratio (S/Hm MAX) of the given luminaire as quoted by the manufacturer,

Linear source Smax = 1.5 x Hm

Point source Smax = 1.0 x Hm

Where:

Smax = maximum horizontal spacing between fittings

Hm = mounted height of the fitting above the working plane

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 Figure 4.15 Spacing of luminaires

ARRAYING A NUMBER OF LUMINAIRES

A regular array of fittings is central to the lumen design method. The spacing is the distance from the
centre of the fitting with half-spaces to the walls. In the case of small symmetrical fittings, the spacing
will be the same on each room axis. The spacing of linear fittings will not necessarily be the same on
each axis (Figure 4.16).

Figure 4.16 Arraying luminaires in different room shapes

The total number of luminaires must be factorized to give the number of luminaires in each line and
row. For a “squarish” room, similar-sized factors are needed, whereas, in a long thin room, it would be

ABA 2309 28 | Page

a pair of more widely different factors. For example, in the figures below (Figure 4.17), 12 luminaires
are required.

The physical length of linear fittings in a row must also be checked to see if they will fit into the room
size. Alternatively, a layout may be determined first, and a lamp and luminaire are sought out, giving
the required illuminance and uniformity ratio.

Figure 4.17 Twelve luminaire array – influence of room shape

Summary of steps required in Lumen Method

• Select the required illumination, E

• Determine the Received Flux

• Determine the Mounting Height, Hm

• Determine the Room Index

• Determine the Room Reflectance

• Determine the Utilisation Factor (select from given data)

• Determine the Maintenance Factor (0.6 for the dirty situation and 0.8 for the clean situation)

• Determine the Number of luminaires

• Propose layout and check the spacing of fixture

Example

A factory measures 50m x 30m x 6m high. A general lighting scheme is to illuminate the whole area to
500 lux-maintained illuminances using 1000-watt metal halide lamps with an initial efficacy of 90
lumens per watt. The maintenance factor is 0.6, and the utilisation factor is 0.5. A space height ratio of
1.5: 1 is recommended for the luminaire chosen, and a mounting height of 5m over the working plane
is assumed. Design a suitable lighting scheme.

Solution:

ABA 2309 29 | Page

We know Efficacy = 90 lm/w 𝑈𝐹 = 0.5, 𝑀𝐹 = 0.6, 𝐸𝑎𝑣= 500 lx, 𝐴 = (50 x 30)

m2 SHR = 1.5:1, 𝑛 = ? =? lm

a) Establish the lumens required:  = 1000W x 90 lm/W = 90,000 lm

𝐸𝑎𝑣 x A 500 x 50 x 30
b) Calculate no. of lamps: Using the formula 𝑛 = = = 27.7 ~ 28
x 𝑈𝐹 x 𝑀𝐹 90,000 x 0.5 x 0.6

1 𝑨 𝟏 𝟓𝟎𝒙𝟑𝟎
c) Check space height ratios (S/Hm) ratio: = √ = √ = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔 Therefore S/Hm 1.46: 1.
𝐻𝑚 𝑵 𝟓 𝟐𝟖
Since the manufacturer’s recommendation is 1.5:1, it should be possible to use 28 luminaires.

d) Determine a suitable layout (Trial layout)

Room shape 50 m x 30 m

Factors of 28 28 x 1, 14 x2, 7 x 4 (based on the room geometry, select the more realistic
factor. In this case, a 7 x 4 array is suitable.

e) Determine the actual spacing between rows and columns

𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 30
Spacing between rows = = = 𝟕. 𝟓 𝒎
𝑁𝑜. 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑤 4

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 50
Spacing between columns = = = 7.1~𝟕 𝒎
𝑁𝑜. 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑤 7

f) Draw a reflected ceiling plan showing the distribution of the luminaires.

ABA 2309 30 | Page

4.13 REFERENCES
Butera, F., Aste, N., & Adhikari, R. (2014). Sustainable Building Design for Tropical Climates:
Principles and Application for Eastern Africa. Nairobi, Kenya: UN-Habitat. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282857238_Sustainable_Building_Design_for_Tro
pical_Climates
Lechner, N. (2008). Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Sustainable Design Methods for Architects (3rd
edition). Hoboken, N.J: Wiley.
McMullan, R. (2010). Environmental Science in Building (6th ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Retrieved from https://www.abebooks.co.uk/Environmental-Science-Building-McMullan-
Randall-Palgrave/30371281346/bd
Smith, B. J., Phillips, G. M., & Sweeney, M. (2014). Environmental Science. London: Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315838205
Szokolay, S. V. (2014). Introduction to Architectural Science: The Basis of Sustainable Design (3rd
edition). London ; New York, NY: Routledge.

(Lechner, 2008) (Smith, Phillips, & Sweeney, 2014) (Szokolay, 2014) (McMullan, 2010)

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