A Theoretical Study of Body Drag in Subcritical

Axisymmetric Flow
D F MYRING

(University of Salford)

Summary: A method of predicting body drag in subcritical axisymmetric flow is

outlined which requires only detailed body shape, free-stream conditions and transition
point to be prescribed. Results of calculations for a range of body shapes are shown
essentially to confirm information in Royal Aeronautical Society Data Sheets but
clearly demonstrate that fineness ratio alone is not sufficient to characterise body
shape. For example, at a fixed fineness ratio of 0.18, detailed changes in body contour
are shown to produce 10 per cent changes in drag coefficient.

1. Introduction

When predicting body drag in subcritical axisymmetric flows the Royal Aeronautical Society Data Sheets
provide an excellent guide to the influence of features such as Reynolds number, transition point and fineness ratio
(body length/maximum diameter). However, no distinction can be made between bodies of the same fineness ratio
which have different body contours. For instance, the predicted drag coefficient for a constant-section cylindrical
body with faired nose and tail would be the same as that for a streamlined tear-drop shape of the same fineness
ratio.

An assessment of the degree to which drag coefficient is influenced by detailed body shape would seem to
constitute useful information complementary to that already existing.

At the same time, calculations of body drag by a method different from that adopted in the past2 ought to
provide a substantial check of the accuracy of current data.

Unlike the original calculations on which the RAeS Data Sheets are based, the drag prediction method3
summarised here contains empiricism only in the turbulent boundary-layer analysis and does not rely on the
availability of a measured pressure distribution around the body. In fact the problem is treated as a viscous-inviscid
interaction problem in which the outer potential flow is moderated by the boundary-layer growth, solutions for the
potential flow over the body plus boundary-layer displacement effect being matched with boundary-layer growth
which they govern. Thus the drag of any body shape may be predicted by simply feeding details of body contour
into the calculation scheme along with the free-stream conditions of Mach number and unit Reynolds number,
subject to the requirement of fully attached flow and prescribed transition point.

It is demonstrated that agreement with Data Sheets is good for particular body shapes similar to those on
which the Data Sheets were based. More generally it is inferred that changes in profile shape at a fixed fineness
ratio may lead to changes in drag per unit surface area of up to 10 per cent at high subcritical speeds.

Notation
a length of nose
b length of parallel-sided centre section
C
DA drag coefficient based on body surface area
d maximum diameter of body
Received November 1975; revision received April 1976

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 BODY DRAG

G normalised shape parameter: H divided by H for flat-plate flow

Gj normalised shape parameter: Ht divided by Hi for flat-plate flow
H shape parameter, = A*/0
Hi shape parameter, = (A — A*)/0
L body length (taken as 100 units)
M local Mach number just external to the boundary layer
M^ Mach number at infinity upstream of body
n index of nose shape [see equation (8)]
r local body radius
RL Reynolds number based on body length
U velocity in boundary layer flow
Ui velocity at edge of boundary layer (y = S)
V outer flow velocity at displacement surface
V„ free-stream velocity at infinity
x distance measured along body axis
y distance measured normal to body surface
a angle between local tangent to body surface and body axis
5 boundary-layer thickness
A = 5(r + \8 cos a)
5* boundary-layer displacement thickness
A* = 5*(r + \5* cos a)
8 tail semi-angle
@ boundary-layer momentum integral area [see equation (2)J
p fluid density within boundary layer
Pi fluid density at edge of boundary layer (y = 6)

Suffixes

c compressible flow
i incompressible flow

2. Calculation Method

A schematic representation of the theoretical model is shown in Figure 1, which depicts both the real
boundary layer and outer flow over the body, plus the equivalent displacement surface which was assumed to
support fully inviscid flow. For computational purposes the displacement surface was terminated in the wake region
away from the body and the effects of the discarded portion were modelled by the inclusion of a tail-jet issuing

_ £°Z E J?T! A i: L LO - w - —
VISCOUS FLOW
Figure 1 Schematic of basic flow model
DISPLACEMENT TRUNCATION
SURFACE p0|NT

from the base region produced by the truncation. The central feature of the calculation method involves the
determination of matched solutions for the displacement surface shape and the pressure distribution which this
engenders in potential flow. Numerically this was accomplished by setting-up an iteration scheme using both
boundary-layer and potential-flow calculation methods. The iteration cycle was initiated by making a first
approximation to the potential flow solution - either constant resultant velocity or velocity proportional to the

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 D F MYRING

cosine of the local body surface angle — which was then used to calculate boundary-layer displacement effect.
A second and more accurate potential flow solution could then be obtained using the chosen method, thus
completing the first cycle of the iteration sequence. The first approximation to the potential flow is an important
aspect, since any attempt to use an accurate solution for the basic body alone leads to an intolerably large
perturbation away from the desired solution. The iteration sequence was stopped when the change in calculated
body drag from one cycle to the next was less than 0.1 per cent of the penultimate value of body drag.

In calculating the potential flow field around the displacement surface, density changes were accommodated
by means of the Gothert transform, thus producing a slenderised body appropriate to constant density flow. Once

TAIL-JET
Figure 2 Source-ring elements covering displace-
ment surface

the resultant velocity distribution in the incompressible field had been found, that for compressible flow was found
simply by using the relationship

CV/v M ) c = — T - ] ^ — , CD

where suffixes c and i refer to compressible and incompressible flow respectively and M is the local surface
Mach number in the compressible flow.

Calculations for the incompressible flow field were performed using the method of Hess and Smith4, involving
the superimposition of source-rings over the displacement surface in the form of flat-sided frustrum elements, as
shown in Figure 2. Local source-strength is assumed to be constant over any given element with a value determined
by the prescribed boundary conditions in terms of velocity component normal to the body surface; this was zero for
all elements except that at the truncation point, which was determined by the condition that at infinity downstream
the tail-jet should just be contained by the momentum area. In order to calculate individual source-strengths an
iteration scheme was adopted, giving a second or inner sequence nested within the main iterative sequence between
boundary layer and potential flows. In principle therefore a variety of schemes may be used on the basis of a
partially or fully converged inner sequence being obtained for each cycle of the main iterative sequence. In practice,
however, it was found that just one cycle of the inner sequence per cycle of the main sequence resulted in the
shortest calculation times, with between six and eight cycles being required for a converged solution.

Displacement surface shape was calculated by using integral boundary-layer methods expressed in terms of
axisymmetric area integrals, with momentum area 0 and displacement area A* being given in general terms by

® = 2TC (LJCOS oc+v)dy (2)

and

A* = 8Tt (y coso6+r)dy. (3)

Here p and u are fluid density and velocity parallel to the body surface, at an angle a to the body axis. Body
radius is represented by r , with y being the distance measured normal to the body surface. Except near the tail,
where the boundary-layer thickness is large compared with body radius, equations (2) and (3) reduce to

®=2ttr (4)
-,„ ^
and
,<« ,
A*=ETtr (5)
P,a, Wy>
where, of course, as in equations (2) and (3), suffix 1 refers to conditions at the edge of the boundary layer, The
effective increase in body radius 5* due to the displacement effect may be written implicitly as
A*=6*(v- + i 6 * c o s o c ) . (6)
A full description of the derivation of the relevant equations governing the boundary-layer flow is given in
Reference 3. Briefly, upstream of a prescribed transition point Luxton and Young's5 laminar boundary-layer method
was adopted, together with the assumption that, through transition to turbulent flow, momentum area and the ratio
of H to its value appropriate to zcro-pressure-gradient conditions remained constant. Here H is the equivalent of

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 BODY DRAG

the usual boundary-layer shape parameter and is given by

(7)
The ratio of H to its zero-pressure-gradient value has been referred to as the normalised shape parameter G

In the turbulent region an extension to compressible, axisymmetric flow of Head's6 entrainment method was
developed, using an existing extension7 to compressible flow as a basis. Normalised shape parameters G and Gj
(here G, is the ratio of Head's shape parameter H, relative to the value of Hj in zero-pressure-gradient flows) were
used, based on area integrals as in relation (7), and the relationship between shape parameters was assumed to be
unchanged from that appropriate to two-dimensional flow. This assumption was supported for the wake flow by
setting out an analysis based on Coles8 wake profiles which, for axisymmetric flow, gave a shape-parameter relation-
ship asymptotically similar to that for two-dimensional attached flows. In addition it was shown that, over the full
range of 6/r from zero to infinity, shape-parameter relationships for attached flows vary very little and hence the
form for two-dimensional attached flow was used throughout the turbulent flow region. A summary of shape-
parameter relationships is given in Figure 3.

1-8

Figure 3 Shape parameter relationships

ASYMPTOTE V.\

08

0-6

0-4
POWER LAW PROFILES /
r = 0 , oo
0-2 I I I I I
0-6 OS 10 12 14 l'6 1-8 20 22

In both laminar and turbulent boundary-layer calculations quadrature methods were used in which part of the
integration of the differential equations was performed analytically, with the remainder being treated numerically.
Comparisons with experimental tests of flow over bodies of revolution were included in Reference 3, which showed
very good agreement with theoretical results obtained by the method just outlined.

3. Body Shapes

In order to study the effects of body shape on body drag calculated numerically, a family of body shapes
must be specified. Illustrations of the family chosen for the present study are given in Figure 4, where the body is
seen to comprise a nose-section of variable length a , a centre-section of variable length b , with a tail-section
making up the total body length of 100 units. Nose shape is given by the modified semi-elliptical radius distribution

(8)
( \ ^ JJ
where d is the maximum body diameter, which may be varied, and n may also be varied to give different shapes,
as shown in Figure 4. Tail shape is given by the cubic relationship
3d taw 6 ] r ., C d tan, e
a(100-a-bf (100 C100-a-b)3 ( J o o - ^ - b ) 2 - ^ * b
3 > (9)

where 29 is the included angle at the tip of the tail. By varying d different tail shapes are produced, as depicted
in Figure 4. Thus overall body shape is a function of the five parameters a, b , n , Q , d and, in the results which
follow, a particular body will be identified by a code of the form a/b/n/0/^d , where 6 is in radians. Taking into
account the three flow variables - free-stream Mach number, unit Reynolds number and transition point — there are
in total eight independent parameters which may influence body drag. However, for the most part it has been found
that the effects of varying one parameter qualitatively depend only weakly on values of the remainder; thus it is
useful to study the effects of, say, nose shape for one or two combinations of the other variables.

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 D F MYRING

n=3.
T-2S
& = >
L = IOO
NOSE SHAPES
OVERALL BODY SHAPE

Figure 4 Family of body shapes

TAIL SHAPES

OUTER FLOW
VELOCITY A 15/55/1-5/1745/9
V
B I5/55/I-25/-4363/5
C 25/25/1-25/0/5
Moo«0 Rt = l 0 7

Figure 5 Outer flow velocity distributions

1-2 r
OUTER FLOW
VELOCITY B I5/S5/I-25/-4363/5
V LOW DRAG BODY 5 0 / 0 / 2 / - 4 3 6 3 / 9
RL = I 0 7

0-9

OS
IO 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 IOO IIO
AXIAL DISTANCE X

Figure 6 Outer flow velocity distributions

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 BODY DRAG

4. Results of Calculations

Since basic trends with changes in Reynolds number and transition point confirm those predicted by Young,
further mention of these parameters will be kept to a minimum. In fact, the following results were all obtained with
a fixed transition point at 3 per cent body length downstream from the nose. Additionally, Reynolds number was
kept constant at 107 for most of the calculations.

4.1 EXTERNAL VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION

Solutions for the outer potential flow over three different bodies are shown in Figure 5 in terms of the
resultant velocity V which is taken to be unity at infinity upstream. The larger diameter body (A), as expected,
produces the largest velocity perturbations, with the usual maxima near the nose and tail. A velocity minimum
arises at a point near x = 94 owing, in part, to the chosen value of tail angle which gives an inflection point in the
tail profile. The velocity returns asymptotically to unity in the wake region. The two smaller diameter bodies
produce smaller velocity excursions, the smallest being those of body C by virtue of the longer nose and tail
sections. Again the inflection point in the tail profile of body C promotes an upstream shift in the point of
velocity minimum. In contrast, for body B the velocity minimum is located at the tail tip.

In the course of the present study a low-drag body shape was evolved, based on the requirement of efficient
volume carrying capacity, for given free-stream conditions and a fixed transition point. Young2 has discussed this
previously and his optimum value for thickness ratio of 0.20 was confirmed in this study. However, near the
optimum value of fineness ratio, departures for the low-drag condition occur gradually as fineness ratio is changed.
Thus a slightly lower value of 0.18 was chosen from the present work in an effort to maintain the low-drag state as
Mach number was increased. The low-drag body shape is shown in Figure 6, together with the external velocity
distribution. In an attempt to shift the upstream velocity peak towards the tail the centre section of constant radius
was removed entirely, in effect leaving just one velocity peak near the tail. The contrast between this velocity
distribution and that for the same fineness ratio body (A) of Figure 5 is very clear. Also shown in Figure 6 is the
effect of increased free-stream Mach number (M^) on the distribution of velocity for body B ; accentuated peaks
due to density changes are evident.

As body Reynolds number is increased boundary-layer effects tend to become smaller; the effect on the
external flow may be seen from Figure 7, which shows the velocity distribution in the tail region for two Reynolds
numbers. Although the higher Reynolds number of 109 is well outside the range of validity of the Ludwieg-Tillmann
skin-friction law used in the prediction method, the results are presented here as a means of emphasising the well-
behaved nature of the calculation scheme as Reynolds number is increased. One notable feature is the smoothing
effect of the low Reynolds number flow which tends to increase the effective streamlining of the tail.

1-04
XS x X
ST X \
I-02
' \ \
OUTER FLOW
VELOCITY
^— A
V \\
IOO
\\
\\\\
0-98 Ma>=0
BODY B
/ /
/
0-96 \ 1
\>t=ios/ /

0-94 \ ^ / /

092

\ /RL=IO9
0-90

o.ftn
50
(1 60
i 1
70 80
1
90
AXIAL DISTANCE X
1 ^"^J
IOO
1
no

Figure 7 Effect of Reynolds number on outer flow

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 D F MYRING

4.2 PROFILE DRAG COEFFICIENT

Reference areas for drag coefficients are best chosen to suit the application. In what follows body surface area
is used, but for some problems body volume to the power 2/3 may be more appropriate. Changes in tail angle 9
produce minima in C0A curves, as can be seen in Figure 8. The largest differences are small - of the order of 2.5
per cent — with tail angles of 0 and 26°, giving roughly the same value of C^A for the longer tail. However, at
8 = 26° the C DA curve for the long tail is beginning to rise rapidly, suggesting that at larger tail angles (still short
of flow separation) significant increases of C DA may occur.

Effects of nose shape on profile drag coefficient C UA are presented in Figure 9 for two different nose
lengths over a range of nose index n . Since Young's calculations did not include a specific treatment of the effects
of changes in nose profile, a single value of C UA is included on Figure 9, based on his results. Again the greatest
differences shown are small and amount to approximately 1.5 per cent only; but, clearly, departures from Young's
predicted value become larger as the nose becomes longer and more rounded.

The effects of body thickness ratio are shown in Figure 10 for three different body shapes. It will be seen
that for the moderately streamlined shape (15/55/1.5.1745/-), which includes a significant region of parallel-sided
body but maintains a constant tail angle as thickness ratio is changed, the predicted values of Cp A lie very close
to those of Young. In comparison the low-drag body, at a thickness ratio of 0.18, shows a reduction in CDA of
some 4 per cent. Results are also shown for scaled versions of the low-drag body, down to a thickness ratio of 0.10,
which indicate that the percentage reductions in C DA expected as a result of body streamlining will become smaller
as thickness ratio is reduced.

As a means of emphasising the effects due to changes in body contour at a fixed thickness ratio, a high-drag
shape was chosen, having a large tail angle and a thickness ratio identical to that of the low-drag body. In order to
avoid contour overshoot associated with the cubic profile, (9), using large tail angles, a modified tail shape was used
in the form of an ogive profile given by

(10)

100-a-b
Here w= 2. taw e (ID
J
and with a thickness ratio of 0.18 the tail semi-angle was taken as 60°. It will be seen from Figure 10 that this
high-drag shape produces an increase of some 10 per cent in C DA compared with the low-drag shape, reducing to
an increment of some 3.5 per cent in C DA at the lower thickness ratio of 0.10 appropriate to scaled bodies.

The good agreement between the present calculations, applied to a certain shape of body, and the predictions
of Young is again apparent in Figure 11, where the effect of Reynolds number on C DA is depicted. However, it
should be noted that the skin-friction law used in the present work tends to become less accurate as Reynolds
number is increased beyond 107.

25/25/I-25/-/5
/
' 15/55/1-25/ -15

YOUNG

316 RL= lO'.Mo^O

YOUNG
I5/55/-/-I745/5
315
12 16 20
s
TAIL ANGLE 9° -0A 10
Figure 8 Effect of tail angle on drag coefficient 314

3-13

25/25/-/-I745/5
312

I 1-2 1-4 1-6 1-8 20 2-2 2-4

NOSE INDEX n

Figure 9 Effect of nose shape on drag coefficient

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 BODY DRAG

HIGH DRAG SHAPE 70r

^ ^ ( O G I V E TAIL)

60 Moo = 0
I5/55/I-5/-I745/-
I5/55/I-25/-4363/5

50

c' B i io 3
YOUNG
4-0 - YOUNG
RL=I07 Moo=0
y
LOW DRAG BODY 3-0 -

20 -

J I
OIO OI2 OI4 OI6 OI8 0-20 i-o
6 7
THICKNESS RATIO LOG 10 RL

Figure 10 Effect of thickness ratio on drag Figure 11 Effect of Reynolds number on drag
coefficient coefficient

4.3 COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS

As free-stream Mach number is increased beyond the upper bounds of notionally incompressible flows at
around M = 0.2 — 0.3 , the effects of compressibility begin to show up in the form of reduced values of C DA .
The rate of fall of C DA with increased Mach number shows a distinct dependence on body shape, as can be seen
from Figure 12, in which the ratio of profile drag to drag for incompressible flow is plotted against Mach number
for four different cases. The low-drag body produces the smallest reduction in drag coefficient, suggesting that the
optimum thickness ratio (for low drag) will decrease as Mach number rises. For more slender bodies the reductions
in C DA become more pronounced, with the greatest reductions being apparent for the flat-plate curve, which for
present purposes may be seen as the hypothetical limit of zero thickness ratio.

Physically the reduced tendency for C DA to fall with Mach number, compared with the trend of the flat-
plate curve, may be attributed to the magnitude and spatial extent of velocity peaks produced by the finite
thickness of bodies. A useful characterising feature in this respect would appear to be the form drag, which is
shown as a function of Mach number in Figure 13. It will be seen from this figure that the percentage contribution
of pressure drag to the total drag increases with Mach number. Significantly, there appears to be consistent associa-
tion between large form drag and large rate of change of form drag with increased Mach number. Moreover,
reference to Figure 12 leads to the inference that bodies with larger percentage form drag tend to exhibit smaller
reductions in C DA as Mach number rises.

Discussion and Conclusions

In assessing the magnitude of drag reductions likely to be engendered by changes in body shape a study of
trends in drag coefficient alone is not always a reliable guide since, for example, the reference area used in deriving
values of C DA will be a function of body shape. However, since reductions in surface area in general tend to lead
to reduced values of ' D A ' the chances of a change in reference area masking a change in drag tend to be very
small.

A particular class of body shapes has been chosen for the present study, characterised by the parameters tail
angle, tail length, nose length, nose index and fineness ratio. In drawing conclusions from the results presented it is
essential that the influence of each of these parameters should not be dissociated from the present class of body
shapes. For example, in discussing the effects of tail angle on C DA it should not be forgotten that in detail such
effects are linked strongly to the cubic profile used here.

However, certain general inferences may be drawn which do not have a strong dependence on detailed body
contour. By adopting a body design with a continuously changing area distribution, a reduction in C DA has been
obtained relative to that of a body of the same fineness ratio but consisting primarily of a constant-area centre
section with a faired nose and tail. Within the general category of attached boundary-layer flows, it has been
demonstrated that, at a fixed thickness ratio, differences in body shape can lead to significant changes in C DA ,
such changes being more pronounced at higher thickness ratios. For example, at a thickness ratio of 0.18 a change
in body shape produced a change in C DA of the order of 10 per cent, whereas at a lower thickness ratio of 0.10
the equivalent change in C DA was reduced to 3.5 per cent.

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 D F MYRING

i-oo

"«^ LOW DRAG BODY

0-99
\N
LOW DRAG BODY
0-98 I5/55/I-2S/-I745/5

25/25/1-25/0/5
0-97
RL = lO 7 , I5/55/I-25/-I745/5

0-96
25/25/1-25/0/5
FLAT PLATE
0-95 I
O 0-2 0-4 0-6 0-8 l-O
FREESTREAM MACH NUMBER
Figure 12 Effect of Mach number on drag

02 o-4 0-6 o-s i-o

FREESTREAM MACH NUMBER

Figure 13 Effect of Mach number on form drag

It has been shown that increased Mach number tends to reduce C DA , depending in magnitude on the
particular body shape. By inference from the evidence presented, bodies which produce velocity excursions large in
both magnitude and spatial extent tend to produce higher percentage form drag and smaller reductions in C DA as
Mach number rises. Hence there tends to be a stronger association between large percentage form drag and small
reductions in C DA with increased Mach number. Continuous body fairing can certainly be used to good effect in
reducing both velocity peaks and form drag and can therefore make for additional benefits of drag reduction at high
subsonic speeds.

References

Royal Aeronautical Society Aerodynamics Data Sheets. Engineering Sciences Data

Unit.

A D Young The calculation of the total and skin-friction drags of bodies of revolution at zero
incidence. R&M 1874, 1939.

D F Myring The profile drag of bodies of revolution in subsonic axisymmetric flow. RAE TR
72 234, 1972.

J L Hess Calculation of potential flow about arbitrary bodies. Progress in Aeronautical

A M 0 Smith Sciences, Vol 8, Pergamon, 1967.

R E Luxton Generalised methods for the calculation of the laminar compressible boundary-
A D Young layer characteristics with heat transfer and non-uniform pressure distribution.
R&M 3233, 1962.

6 MR Head Entrainment in the turbulent boundary layer. R&M 3152, 1960.

7 D F Myring The interaction of a turbulent boundary layer and a shock at hypersonic Mach
numbers. AGARD Conference Proceedings 30, 1968.

8 D Coles The law of the wake in the turbulent boundary layer. Journal of Fluid Mechanics,
Vol l , p 191, 1956.

194 Aeronautical Quarterly

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