HYDROGEOLOGY (CEC 207)

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The term hydrogeology is a compound word hydro and geology. Hydro is a prefix that means water, while
geology is the science of the physical structure and substance of the earth. It is a combination of two subjects
hydrology and geology. Hydrology deals with the scientific study of the movement, distribution and management
of water on Earth and other planets. It includes the study of the water cycle, water resources and environmental
watershed sustainability. On the other hand, Geology is the primary Earth science and looks at how the earth
formed, its structure and composition, and the types of processes acting on it. The term Hydrogeology is the
study of groundwater, it is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in
the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). it deals with how water gets into the ground
(recharge), how it flows in the subsurface (through aquifers) and how groundwater interacts with the surrounding
soil and rock (the geology).

Water occurring below the ground surface (sub surface water) is an integral part of the endless circulation of
water. Hydrogeology is based on the subsurface aspect of the hydrologic cycle. Underground water is made
up of water in unsaturated zone (Vadose zone) and water in fully saturated zone. (Ground water phreatic water).
The term ground water is used for subsurface water existing below the point where pressure is equal to
atmospheric and geologic formations that are fully saturated. This line differentiates between the two types of
subsurface water. Hydrogeology is defined as the study of ground water or as the science of the occurrence,
distribution and movement of water below the surface of the earth. It also involves studying the quality (the
chemistry) and relation of ground water to the geologic environment.

Underground water is subdivided into Vadoze or water in unsaturated water zone, zone of saturation and
bed rock as illustrated in Figure 1.1 below. In the Vadose (aeration) zone the voids are filled with water and
air and terminates at the ground surface. Water entrapped in this zone is of importance for agricultural
purposes. Water in the zone of saturation is considered in engineering works, geologic studies and water supply
developments.

The subdivision of underground water is illustrated below

Vadoze or water in
U the unsaturated water zone

Water table

Zone of Saturation

Bed Rock
Fig. 1.1: General Distinction of Subsurface Water Ground

1.1 SOURCES OF GROUND WATER

The hydrologic cycle is the principal origin of ground water whereby atmospheric precipitation is the main
source of fresh ground water. Specific areas of the earth crust with water bearing capacity acts as conduits for
transmission of and as reservoir for storage of water. Virtually all ground water originates as surface water.
The sources of ground water can be either natural or artificial. The natural sources are: -
i. Precipitation
ii. Stream flow
iii. Lakes
iv. Sea waters or marine water: This is water that has moved into aquifers from oceans.
v. Juvenile water (primary water). This is subsurface water which are not originally part of this hydrologic
cycle and are formed within the earth and of a volcanic or magmatic origin.
vi. Magmatic water are a derivative of magma and include volcanic water (shallow magma) and plutonic water
(deep magma).
vii. Metamorphic water, water that were in rocks during the period of metamorphism.

Artificial Sources
i. Water from excess irrigation
ii. Seepage from canal
iii. Direct supply of water to shore up ground water supply.
iv. Reservoirs
These are referred to as sources of recharge of ground water. The motion of ground water through the saturated
zone is in a direction determined by the surrounding hydraulic situation.

1.2 USES OF GROUND WATER

Ground water is an important water resource employed to meet water requirement in varied areas. The specific
uses include: -
i. Irrigation: - This is the largest application of ground water. It involves the use of irrigation wells that are dug
into zones of saturation.
ii. Industrial Uses: - Ground water is used in some industries such as oil refineries, paper manufacturing, metal
working plants, chemical manufacturing, air conditioning, refrigeration units and distilleries because of its
unique properties
iii. Municipal water supply: Underground water can be abstracted for the purpose of water distribution to
municipal settlements.
iv. Rural Water supply: This ca be in the form of hand dug, bored or driven wells.

1.3 EFFECTS OF GROUND WATER ON ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION

Basic understanding of subsurface water occurrence and flow pattern is necessary for most Engineering
construction work. This is because ground water affects the structural performance/integrity of most sub
structures, foundations and basements depending on the water table. The foundation of most buildings are
designed such that the depth of footing is taken to a suitable bearing stratum. The design of buried utilities
including pipelines, communication lines and cables are done to cut them off from interference of underground
water. The amount of settlement/consolidation expected of a given structure (foundation/footing) is influenced
by the ground water level, there is increase settlement under saturated conditions with equal loading on the
structure.

1.4 GROUND WATER FLOW

Ground water is usually in a state of constant motion. The movement of ground water is usually subject to
surrounding hydraulic conditions and hydraulic theories. This is basically facilitated by the fact that most
ground water bearing formation (aquifers etc) are porous media. The flow of water through soils which as
typified by ground water flow is usually laminar.
2.0 FACTORS AFFECTING MOVEMENT OF WATER IN SOILS
Movement of water through soils is affected by three major factors – the permeability, porosity and hydraulic
gradient. Permeability is a characteristic of soil as a porous material which permits the passage or seepage
of water through its interconnecting voids. It is the measures of the ease of flow through a given medium or
the ability of the soil medium to conduct water. The hydraulic gradient, ¿, is the difference in energy levels
(heads) of water flowing through a soil mass. Thus, ground water moves from levels of higher energy to levels
of lower energy. Porosity is a measure of the void or empty spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume
of voids over the total volume. The percentage of voids present in a material is given by:
n = Vv/Vo − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −2.1
Where Vv – volume of voids, Vo – total volume of porous medium
And Vo – Vs + Vv ------------------------------- ------------------------------- --------------------------2.2
Where Vs – volume of solids.
For consolidated materials, n depends on degree of documentation, state of solution and fracturing of the rock.
For unconsolidated materials, n depends on packing of grains, shape, arrangement and size distributions.

2.1 DARCY’S LAW

h = h1 - h2
P1/dz
(1) P2/dz
(2)
h2
h1

Z1
Z
2
L

Fig. 2.1: Head loss in flow through a sand column

It has been experimentally observed that the flow of water through a sand medium is accompanied by
an energy/head loss. This loss has being proven to be proportional to the velocity of flow or
discharge/flow rate, Q. This is more appropriately defined as Darcy’s Law which holds that the flow
rate, through a porous media, or velocity of flow is proportional to the head loss and inversely
proportional to the length of flow path. Simply the flow velocity is proportional to the hydraulic gradient
and is given as:
Q/A = K. ∆h/∆1 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2.3
Where Q – Discharge, A – cross– sectional area of porous medium, K – constant of proportionality,
∆h – head loss, ∆1 – length of flow path, ∆h /∆1 – hydraulic gradient, Q/A – velocity of flow.
This is simulated by the experimental set-up shown below for flow through packed sand contained in a cylinder
of cross-sectional area, A. having piezometers spaced ∆1 m apart.

We have that
∆h = h1 – h2 are total energy heads at points 1 and 2 respectively.
From Bernoulli we have that
H1 = P1/Υ + Z1 And h2 = P2/Υ + Z2
Since we are connecting velocity head
V2/2g
Total energy above the datum plane is given by
(P1 + Z1)/Y = (P2 + Z2)/Y + ∆h
∆h = (P1 + Z1)/Y – (P2 + Z2)/Y
h1 – h2
From Darcy we have that
Q/A α ∆h and Q/A α1/∆L
Q/A = K. ∆h/∆L
Where K is the constant of proportionality or coefficient of permeability. Thus discharge through porous media
is given by
Q = KA ∆h/∆L-------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------2.4
∆h/∆L is defined as the hydraulic gradient and denoted by i or s
3.0 Ground Water Bearing Formations
Ground water refers to water beneath the water table or in the phreatic zone. This body of water are found in
zones or formations having structures that permit appreciable water to move through them under ordinary field
condition.

Aquifers: An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or

unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). They are permeable and porous layers of the earth crust. These
are permeable geologic formations in which ground water occur. They are also referred to as ground water
reservoirs or water bearing formation. Only small fractions of most phreatic zone will yield significant amount
of water to wells.

Aquiclude: Impermeable formation which may contain water but is incapable of transmitting significant water
quantities e.g., clay. It is a zone within the Earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to
another.

Aquifuge: An impermeable medium, like solid granite, which neither contains nor transmits water. is an
impermeable geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable, it that means it cannot store water
in it and at the same time it cannot permit water through i

Aquitard: Natural material that stores water but does not transmit enough to supply individual wells e.g., silty
clay.

Ground water retention and transmitting capabilities of most of the formation diversified is facilitated by the
presence of spaces not occupied by solid mineral matter. These spaces retention and transmitting capabilities
of most of the formation diversified is facilitated by the presence of spaces not occupied by solid mineral
matter. Theses spaces termed voids, interstices, pores or pore
space acts as storage and conducts of ground water in aquifers.

3.1 AQUIFER GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS

A significant proportion of all formed aquifer are made up of unconsolidated rocks, mainly gravel and sand.
These occur as:
Water Courses: These are the alluvium that underlie stream channels and form adjacent flood plains.
Buried or Abandoned Valleys: Valleys no longer occupied by streams.
Plains: There are usually underlain by unconsolidated sediments. The aquifers under such plains are composed
of graved and sand beds.
Intermontane Valleys: Aquifers made up of tremendous volumes of unconsolidated rock materials derived
by erosion of bordering mountains.
Alluvial: Made of sand and earth that is left by rivers or floods. Generally, aquifers can develop from limestone
in which a considerable proportion of the original rock has been dissolved and removed.

Permeable aquifers can also be formed from volcanic rocks for which permeable zones might be due to flow
breccias, porous zones between lava beds, lava tubes, shrinkage cracks and joints sand store aquifers develop
occur from sands and gravel on which the constituent particles are partially cemented or in which water yield
are from their joints. Clay aquifers only provide enough yield of water to meet small domestic demands.

3.2 CATEGORIZATION OF AQUIFERS

Aquifers are classed as either confined or unconfined depending on the presence of a restraining medium or
phreatic surface above the water bearing medium. Confined aquifers are restrained or
overlain by comparatively impermeable strata. They are also referred to as artesian or pressure aquifers and
they are usually confined at pressures greater than atmospheric. Free, phreatic or non -artesian aquifer are
unconfined aquifers in which water table serves as the upper boundary of the saturation zone. The water level
coincides with the points at which the pressure equals atmospheric and at varies according to areas of recharge
and discharge, Pumpage from wells and permeability. There are as idealized in the figure shown.

Artesian well – hole made in the ground through which water rises to the ground surface by natural pressure.

Phreatic describes soil or rock below the water level, in which all the pores and inter-granular spaces are full
of water.

Fig. 2.3: Confined and unconfined aquifers

Water table
Piezometric
surface
Ground
surface

Flowing well

Water
table

Unconfined aquifer

Confined aquifer
Impermeable Strata

The following points should be noted

i. The recharge area serves as the region of supply of water enters a confined aquifer in areas where the
restraining bed rises to the surface. Where this bed ends underground an unconfined aquifer result.
ii. The piezometric surface of a confined aquifer as an imaginary surface coinciding with the hydrostatic
pressure level of the water in the aquifer.
iii. A flowing well is the resultant effect of a piezometric surface which lies above the ground surface.
iv. A perched aquifer results when a ground water body is separated from the main ground water by relatively
impermeable stratum of small area extent. This is typified by clay lenses in sedimentary deposits which often
have shallow perched water bodies overlying them. Additionally, the piezometric surface is to the surface to
which water would rise in the confined aquifer if it could.
4.0 FLOW PATTERN IN AQUIFERS
The entrance of water into aquifers through natural or artificial recharge serve as underground reservoirs. This
water flow through aquifers under the influence of gravity and thus the flow is aligned along the induced
hydraulic gradient. This is as thee result of the differential created by water existing at different elevations
which corresponds to pressure levels. Flow rates are used to simulate the flow pattern of underground water
flow in aquifers with defined extremes. This is the resultant of the plot of the flow lines, depicting the direction
of flow and the lines joining all points of equal pressure (equal-potential lines). There are mutually
perpendicular (orthogonal) set of line and is as shown below

h
h – dh
Equal potential

dq Line ()
Dm

Flow lines ()

dm dq

ds
ds

Fig. 4.1: Part of a typical flow net developed from  and lines

Flow rate are also near accurate means of evaluating the amount of discharge from a given water bearing
stratum as proved. For the flow net shown the hydraulic gradient is given by
i = dh/ds …................................................................................................................................(4.1)
Where dh – change in pressure across each square formed by the flow net ds = length of square
The flow through each square, between two flow lines is
dq = K dh/ds dm {: - Azdm x 1, Q = KIA = Kdh/ds x dm x 1....................................................(4.2)
This for square thickness (Lar to page) as derived from Darcy’s (Q = KiA) ….......................................(4.3)
For each of the squares of the flow net it is assumed that ds Ω dm
thus
dq = K dh …...............................................................................................................................(4.4)
But dh = h/x
{For a total head drop of h across n squares)
Thus, for a flow net of m channel or m + 1 flow lines, total flow Q is
given by Q = mdq = Km h/n------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------2.5
= K x Nf/Nd x Hw----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2.6
Where K – Permeability constant
Nf – of flow channels
Nd – Numbers of pressure drops
Hw – Total pressure head.
For the special cases of flow through aquifers, flow nets are constructed using a contour map of static water
table levels since flow is induced by the different level of water table, flow lines are direction of movement.
Flow lines parallel impermeable boundaries, for confined aquifers, because no flow crosses such extremes and
no flow crosses the water table of an unconfined aquifer.

4.1 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION

Ground water exploration methods refers to the various means of determining the location, movement and
quality of water in geologic formations. Other parameters that are determined include the thickness,
composition, permeability and yield of ground water for large scale usage. The use of proper exploration
technique helps in estimating the qualitative and quantitative parameters of water bearing zones within the
earth crust and other impermeable and non-retaining geologic structures.

4.2 GROUND WATER EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES

Ground water exploration techniques can be categorized into two - surface and subsurface techniques. Surface
methods involve studying ground water occurrence by working from the surface while subsurface
investigation entails a detailed underground survey of ground water and conditions governing its occurrence.
The two methods supplement each other and for a thorough investigation, surface survey can serve as a sort
for reconnaissance.

4.3 SURFACE INVESTIGATION OF GROUND WATER

The various type of surface investigations are:-
i. Geologic methods
ii. Hydrologic methods
iii. Surface geophysical methods.

4.3.1 Geologic Methods

The method is used to obtain preliminary information of the occurrence of subsurface water in a short time. It
is used in locating water bearing zones in areas of complex geology. The procedures of investigation involve
the use of aerial photographs, regional geologic maps and rapid ground reconnaissance. It should be noted that
ground water occurrence is directly dependent on geologic structure.

The specific geologic methods are: -

1. Petrography: - In this method of ground water exploration, the parameters controlling the amount of water
that can be stored and transmitted through different rock types are appraised. The parameters so determine are
porosity and permeability. It is complemented by hydrologic maps showing surface extent of various rock
types (lithologic units) and their water bearing characteristics.

2. Statigraphy: - The method reveals the position and thickness of water bearing regions as well as presence
and extent of confining strata (beds).

3. Structural Geology: - This gives an indication of displaced water bearing zones due to earth movement
and fractured areas in dense brittle rock.

4. Geomorphology: - Used in locating areas of glacial sediments and studying occurrence of subsurface water
in areas of recent deposits. The specific information obtained from geologic work include extent and regularity
of water bearing formation, magnitude of water yield from aquifers, occurrence of aquifers beneath unsuitable
upper strata, continuity and interconnection of aquifers and aquifer boundaries.
4.3.2 Hydrologic Methods
This is used mainly to recharge, ease of recharge as well as location and quantity of ground water discharge at
the surface. The probability of ground water discovery increases with available recharge. This is also a function
of the ease of recharge because recharge is a measure of the infiltration capacity of the surface. Thus,
impermeable surface such as shale, clay and quartzite lead to rapid and high run off in place of infiltration and
hence inadequate recharge.

Hydrologic and geologic investigation should be done concurrently for enhanced result because a geologically
adverse region may not be suitable for ground water development even with favorable hydrologic conditions.

4.3.3 Surface Geophysical Methods

This is the scientific measurement of physical properties of the earth’s crust for the purpose of investigation
ground water. This is based on the relationship between the values of measured physical properties and the
presence of ground water in the formation for which physical measurement is done. It involves detecting
difference of physical properties. The properties most commonly measured are density, magnetism, electrical
potential and resistivity, elasticity, seismic refraction and electrical conductivity. The slight but distinct
variation in the measured quantities of these parameters were interpreted in terms of geologic structure, rock
type and porosity, water content and water quality.

The different geophysical methods are; Electrical resistivity method, electrical potential methods, seismic
refraction method, gravity and magnetic methods.

4.3.3.1 Electrical Resistivity Method: This is used to establish measured resistivity values of rock types at
different depths to give information on suitable water bearing rock types. It is a widely employed means of
geophysical exploration method due to ease of operation and portability of equipment. The electrical resistivity
of a formation limits the amount of current passing through the formation and is given as
Q = RA/L or 2π a R = 2π a V/I
Where a – electrode spacing (in units of length), A – cross – sectional area, L – length of material
V – potential, I – current
Resistivity for rock formations vary over a wide range based on material, density, porosity, pore size and
shape, water content/quality and temperature. The resistivity (apparent) Ra, increases with increasing porosity
of the material, decreasing water content and decreasing salt content of water in the formation.

Resistivity Range for Different Materials

Resistivity (Ra)(Ω – m) Material type/characteristic
2 8
10 – 10 Igneous/Metamorphic rocks
>108 Solid igneous rock/quartzite
100 – 104 Sedimentary/unconsolidated rocks
<1 Clay with salty water
15 – 600 Sand/gravel aquifers with salt water
15 – 20 Aquifers with high salt content
300 – 600 Aquifers with salt free water
<10 Aquifers with brackish/saline water
50 Fresh water.
For porous media ̺ ℓ̺ depends largely on water content and quality and thus control the ̺ ℓ̺ for aquifers.
Specifically, for aquifers ̺ can be expressed in terms of ground water resistivity Pw and porosity, α in the
relationship.
ℓ̺/̺ℓ̺w = 3 – α/2 α-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4.7
Where ̺ℓ̺ – aquifer resistivity, ℓ̺̺w – ground water resistivity, α – porosity
The network shown in figure 4.2 formed from orthogonal current and potential lines. There is an observed
variation of apparent resistivity with variation of electrode spacing. This is due to penetration of the electric
field with increased electrode spacing.
Ammeter
I
Voltmeter
Potential
electrode
Current V Current
E electrode Electrode
P C
C

Current
lines
Equi potential
lines
Fig. 4.2: Electrical circuit for determining network of current and potential lines
Thus, apparent m resistivity varies with depth but is restricted to relatively shallow depth. Resistivity can be
shown to vary with depth for different rock types, hence measured resistivity values can give relative extent
of different rock formations. This is based on their distinct or range of resistivity values. Also, since resistivity
values of aquifers are distinct due to the porosity and moisture content, resistivity measurement are reliable
methods of locating water bearing formations. Resistivity values are obtained from potential differences and
current measurement. This is facilitated by placing electrodes in the ground surface and connecting the relevant
meters to measure potential difference and current as shown in the arrangement below in figure 4.2.

There are two practical arrangement for measurement of resistivity;

(a) Shlumberger arrangement
(b) Wenner arrangement

V
C P P C

Wenner
a a
 I
(ii)

V
C P P C

L Schlumberger

Fig. 5.2: Electrodes arrangement for Ra measurements

For case (i) Qa = 2π a V/I----------------------------------------------------------------------------------4.8
Where Qa – apparent resistivity, a – electrode spacing, V – potential, I – current
And for case (ii) Qa = π(L/2)2 – (b/2) 2 V/I -------------------------------------------------------------4.9
b
A plot of measured apparent resistivity at varying electrodes spacing is made and can be interpreted to depict
spacing approximately as depth of rock types. This is illustrated in figures 4.3 and 4.4 showing resistivities of
various layers with precise interpretation of the geologic type as indicated.

1.5 Soil/Sandy

3.0 Soil and gravel + till 3.0

Electrode
Spacing (m)
15
and Gravel 15
Glacial till little

30
30

150 Precambrian rock

150

100 500 100

Apparent resistivity, ̺a ( 500 – m)

Fig. 4.4: Apparent resistivity of subsurface material determined by the expanding electrode
Method
4.3.3.2 Seismic Method: - This method is based on the different velocity of travel of wave across different
medium. The specific method suited for ground water investigation is the seismic

refraction method which provides information on geologic formation at relatively shallow depth. Velocity of
sound in underground material increases with increasing density and water content. Thus, seismic survey
results are used to interpret type, porosity and water content of the material. The wave velocities are indication
of geologic formation. Alternation in seismic wave velocities are due to change in elastic properties and the
contrasts indicate demarcation of material formation and boundaries. The waves generate in seismic studies
are induced by small shocks applied at the earth’s surface either by the impact of a heavy instrument (sledge
hammer) or a small detonator and measuring the time required for the resulting sound or shock wave to travel
known distance. Consider the formation below with saturated and unsaturated zones delineated as shown in
figure 4.5.

Ground Surface

S B
Unsaturated

D E

Saturated

Fig. 4.5 Seismic wave front advance

Shock wave is applied at S, the distance of separation between saturated and unsaturated layers is d. The
velocity of the wave front in the unsaturated and saturated zones are V1 and V2 respectively. This is depicted
by the refraction simulated below in figure 4.6. The distance d is determined thus: Wave travel from S to B via
path SB or Indirectly via SDEB.

Path of V1
i reflection

Boundary

R
V2

Path of reflection

Direct travel time t1 = SB/V1 = X/V1 {x – distance from shot point to point of observation}
indirect travel time t2 is t2 = SD/V1 + DE/V2 + EB/V1
But SD = EB = d/Cosi [d/SD = cosi SD = d/cosi]
t2 = 2d/V1cosi + DE/V2
And t1 = t2
x/V1 = 2d/V1cosi + DE/V2
but DE = x – 2d tani
x/V1 = 2d/V1cosi + x/V2 – 2d tani/V2
d = x / 2 \/(V2 −V1 /V2 +V1)