X-Ray Inspection and Food Safety

Most Frequently Asked Questions
on X-ray Inspection Technology

Presenter: Guido Mahnke
• R&D Systems Engineer
• Guido graduated from Georg August University of Goettingen in

2008 with a degree in Physics.
• He has held a variety of global R&D positions until joining Eagle

in 2016, including an internship at Coherent, Inc. in the USA,
Applied Materials' R&D division in Alzenau, Germany as a
Process Integration Engineer and an R&D Scientist at Schmid
PV and PCB Manufacturing.
• Designs advanced x-ray machines for food and product safety. A

valued member of the R&D team based in Wallbach, Germany,
his research expertise has interlinked advanced software with
machine hardware applications, all while taking into account field
data and customer specifications to improve clarity and
resolution for greyscale x-ray image acquisition, data processing
and evaluation.
• Key contributors for the development and field-testing of Eagle's

latest x-ray inspection detector technology that delivers
advanced bone and contaminant detection
Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 2

Agenda
1. How Safe is X-ray Inspection?
2. What can X-ray Inspection Technology Detect?
3. Can X-ray Inspection Detect Bones?
4. What is Inline Fat Analysis?
5. Can X-ray Machines be Used for Other Quality Checks?
6. How Accurate is X-ray Detection?
7. Q/A Session

1. How Safe is X-ray Inspection?
• X-rays are considered to be ionizing radiation
• Ionizing means the energy of the radiation is sufficient to ionize atoms.
This can be harmful if it is not sufficiently shielded.
• X-rays (and also Gamma-Rays) are electromagnetic waves
(similar to light or microwaves but with higher energy)
• Unlike radiation from radioactive decay, (e. g. α- and β-radiation)
X-rays can only be generated when the X-ray source is switched on.
• Radiation is quantified by the absorbed dose with the Si unit of the
energy dose "Gray": 1 Gy = 1 J/kg (Energy absorbed per mass).
• The "equivalent dose" considers biological effects, it adds a weighing
factor (1-20, 1 for X-rays) and is measured in Sievert (Sv), 1 Sv = 1 J/kg.
• There are natural and artificial sources of radiation

How Safe is X-ray Inspection?
Continued
• Radiation is part of our of everyday life
• Every human in average receives a Background Radiation Exposure
dose of ~2.4 mSv / year from
natural sources of radiation
and about the same from artificial
sources such as medical X-rays,
CT-Scans, radiation therapy and
from nuclear facilities
• The typical dose rate immediately
adjacent to an x-ray system is less
than 1 μSv an hour (0.001 mSv/hour)
• This makes working next to an X-ray system very safe, unlike many
medical applications you don't need to wear a dosimeter
• X-ray systems are designed with shielding to avoid radiation exposure

X-ray Inspection vs.
Food Irradiation
• Food processors use x-rays to:
– Inspect for foreign bodies or product defects (x-ray inspection)
– Destroy bacteria (Food Irradiation – it involves radiation doses up to
ten million times bigger than those used in x-ray inspection)
• A 1997 study by the WHO showed that x-rays don't harm food
• Even organic food can be subjected to x-ray inspection
X-ray inspection of food does not cause it to become radioactive.

X-ray Systems Are Safe by Design
• There are three key components of and x-ray system
– An x-ray generator (A)
– A detector (B)
– A computer (C)
• When no power is supplied to the
X-ray generator, no radiation
is generated.
Components of an x-ray system Components of an x-ray system

X-rays are absorbed when they pass matter. The intensity exponentially
decreases with the thickness of the absorber:
The coefficient of absorption µ is material dependent, heavier atoms absorb

X-rays better. This is used for shielding and also for imaging.
Shielding materials and effects

stainless steel is the usual choice for x-ray
systems, but Copper, Brass or Lead and
other compounds are used, too.
Shielding of the x-ray beam inside an x-ray system
Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Inspection 8

Highly visible lamp stack

with red X-ray light
Emergency stops accessible from both sides
(power off = X-rays off)
Tunnel curtains absorbing scattered radiation
Safety interlock design
To make sure you operate the system safely,

you may need to get local authorities approval
and have a radiation safety officer.
Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Inspection 9

How Does an X-ray System Catch
Foreign Bodies?

2. What Can X-ray Inspection
Technology Detect?
• Traditional X-ray Technology uses a single energy X-ray detector
• Standard x-ray systems provide exceptional detection of dense foreign
bodies, such as:
– Metal
– Glass
– Calcified bone
– Mineral stone, and
– High-density plastics and rubber

Traditional X-ray Technology
• However, they are incapable or detecting:
– Thin glass
– Low-density plastics and rubber
– Small Stones and Rocks
• Finding dense foreign bodies in products
with complex high variation in product
thickness or density levels can also
prove challenging (see the box of
pasta on the right, the smaller
contaminants e. g. 2 mm of
glass disappear)

MDX Technology
• Material Discrimination X-ray (MDX) was originally pioneered for the
security sector
• It uses images acquired ad two different X-ray energies (Dual Energy) to
compute material information
• It's been used since the mid 1990s to find contraband, weapons,
explosives and stowaways
• Since 2007, food processors have relied on MDX to detect materials
previously unseen by x-ray in difficult product applications, such as:
– Flat glass, small rocks and low density rubber and plastics.

Why MDX Technology works
• X-ray absorption coefficients for different materials are different at
different low and high X-ray energy.
• Elements have
different atomic
numbers, with
different
absorbance
• Comparing the
low and high
energy image
allows to
distinguish
product thickness
from differences
in the material 10 keV Photon Energy 100 keV
Low High
MDX for Contaminant Detection
• MDX is better at detecting dense foreign Single energy x-ray
bodies in dense products than standard system:
x-rays Chocolate candy
with glass
• It removes most of the effect of product
thickness variations and leaves an
image that shows density difference
based on chemical composition
• MDX also helps when bulk product is
overlapping causing high variations in MDX:
product thickness. Chocolate candy
with glass

3. Can X-ray Inspection Detect
Bones?
• X-ray technology detects the calcium that is found within bones, the
greater the calcium build up the greater the possibility to detect bone.
• Bone has a varying density and calcium build up as it depends on age.
• Performance X-ray Technology (PXT™) is the evolution of Eagle's
Material Discrimination X-ray (MDX) and provides exceptional image
quality.
• Offers significant proven performance for superior detection of bones
down to 1 mm for a wide range of applications.
• Able to detect bones within thicker poultry products and overlapping
products

PXT vs. Single Energy X-ray
Calcified Bone Sample
(≈13.87mm L x 1.85mm H)
Calcified Bone Sample

(≈9.92mm L x 1.94mm H)
Single energy X-ray has high contrast for thick areas of the sample.
Bones are barely visible. Thickness variations may cause false detects.
PXT
In the PXT detector image the contrast for
the bones is much better, bones have
higher contrast than thick areas of the
image.

PXT and Bones
Chicken breast image showing several bones:
• Rib bones
• Fan bones
(flat thin bones with low calcification)
• As it is a Dual Energy technology it detects
materials (not thickness), it can cope with
overlapping product!
• Not restricted to bones but also beneficial for
– Smallest rocks
– Low mineral glass
– Small pieces of Aluminum
– Tiny wires of Stainless Steel
– NBR rubber, EPDM, ...

Codfish Samples with Bones
Can you see the bones in standard X-ray view?
Here they are with PXT.

4. What is Inline Fat Analysis
A measurement device that can:
– Measure fat content
– Measure the mass to determine the weight
– Calculate protein content
– Calculate moisture content
– Check for contaminants inside meat

DEXA Technology
• Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry
• Utilizes dual two energy spectrums to discriminate between the
materials.
• Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) technology is a non-invasive,
inline method of determining the CL value of meat
• It's not limited to boneless, ground meat and is capable of inspecting all
uncooked, natural meat
• It's not affected by freeze/thaw plant conditions or meat conductivity
• DEXA-based x-ray systems inspect 100% of throughput of CL value in
real time and provide lab accuracy at the speed of production
• Produces CL values within +/- 1 CL

How DEXA Technology Works
• Two 2D Images Captured
• One lower energy spectrum
• One higher energy
spectrum

Benefits of DEXA to Meat Industry
• DEXA offers meat processors 7 key benefits. It enables them to:
– Verify purchased meat was accurately priced
– Achieve accurate blending targets and eliminate downgrading
– Reduce inconsistencies
in recipe operations
– Identify preferred suppliers
– Help ensure product safety
– Achieve real-time results
– Access product tracking
information quickly

23
5. Can X-ray Machines Do More?
• As well as providing exceptional contamination
detection, x-ray systems can help manufacturers
increase productivity by simultaneously:
√ Measuring mass
√ Monitoring fill levels
√ Identifying missing or damaged items
√ Inspecting for food or contaminants trapped seals
√ Make the inspection results available in your factory
Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection

24
Mass Measurement
• X-ray systems are capable of exerting better quality control by
measuring overall and zoned mass
• By converting grey tones into a 3D image, x-ray software can
calculate how much product is in a pack
• All products are compared against an ideal reference product – if
the calculated mass falls within a programmed tolerance, the
package is good; if it deviates, the package will be rejected
Figure 1: Pack of doughnuts with one low fill and

one contaminated

Zoned Mass Measurement
• For products that are presented in defined
compartments, mass measurement can provide
results for each individual zone
Figure 1: Twin-compartment ready meal

Fill Level Inspection
• Overfills and underfills have an effect on costs, as well as
consumer satisfaction
• Fill level inspection is a 2D process
• X-ray systems allow manufacturers to set minimum and
maximum fill levels and reject products that fall outside these
• Fill levels can also be adjusted by adding an optional feedback to
the filling machine
Figure 1: Yogurt pot with low fill level

Figure 2: Composite tube of crisps

Zoned Fill Level Inspection
• X-ray systems are capable of checking the individual fill levels
within various zones or compartments of products
Figure 1: Twin lane inspection of six-pack of yogurts

with one low fill

Identification of Damaged Items
• X-ray systems can detect damaged
products, such as:
– Voids within or malformed burger
patties
– Dented, squashed or deformed
packaging
Figure 1: Void in patty
• The detection of damaged products

relies on the same principles as
length and volume measurement
• By setting minimum and maximum
sizes for pack width, height, volume
or surface area, x-ray analysis
software can spot a deformed pack
Figure 2: Malformed patty +/-5%

Identification of Missing Items
• X-ray systems can look inside final sealed packaging to check
that all components are present
• Inspection routines are just as effective when a product is packed
in multiple layers, such as a pack of sausages
• They can count products and components that can’t be seen or
counted by cameras or human eyesight
Figure 1: Detection of missing sausage Figure 2: Detection of missing cap

Package Integrity
• The integrity of airtight seals is a vital quality control issue for
food and pharmaceutical manufacturers
• The safety and sterility of products depends on seals, but
they’re easily compromised
• X-ray systems are capable of identifying particles as small as 1
mm caught in seals
Figure 1: Cheese slices trapped in seal package

Let Your X-ray System Talk
• Rejecting contaminated product is just the start. X-ray systems
become powerful when you fully integrate them into your
production environment
• Your X-ray system can store recorded X-ray images in databases
along with barcodes to prove your product quality.
• Measured values such as CL, mass, counts can be made available
to process equipment (e. g. PLCs) by using various field busses.
This allows blending, batching and similar applications.
• Your production data can be made available to your overall factory
control or SCADA systems for example by using the OPCUA

6. How Accurate is X-ray Detection?
Probability of detection (POD) is defined
as the likelihood of an x-ray system to
detect a specific contaminant based on
previous experimental data.
• An x-ray equipment manufacturer
should never claim 100% POD as
there will always be some variables
that cannot be captured in the tests.
• 99% POD ‒ a challenging number
to empirically prove
(99 +/- 1 % @ 95 % confidence
~380 scans required to prove)
• > 95% POD is more realistic to

prove with 30 scans
(as long as the product is
representative)

What Contributes To POD?
Variations of the signal level and product properties may cause variations as:
• X-ray generation is a statistical process following a Poisson statistics
• Hence the number of X-ray photons on the detector vary (noise)
• The X-ray detector amplifies the signal (possible electrical noise)

• At fast scanning speed the X-ray exposure time (dose) on the detector is lower
• Variations in the product (filling level) and package (e. g. wall thickness of
glass jars) may impact the signal level, too
• Therefore the detection levels of a certain contaminant on a given machine will
depend on X-ray system, product to be inspected and application speed.

Measuring Detection Rates
Your X-ray system categorizes every product to be a pass or reject:
• A contaminant was detected and rejected in the product (positive, P).
If there is a contaminant, this is a True Positive (TP),
otherwise it is a False Positive (FP)
• No contaminant was detected in the product (negative, N).
If there is none, it is a True Negative (TN), otherwise a False Negative (FN)
We can calculate the following numbers:

• True Positive Rate (Sensitivity or Recall): TPR = TP / (TP + FN)
• False Positive Rate: FPR = FP / (FP + TN)
• True Negative Rate (Specificity): TNR = TN / (TN + FP)
• False Negative Rate ('Miss Rate'): FNR= FN / (TP + FN)
• Accuracy (ratio of samples rated correctly): ACC = TP + TN / (P + N)
• Precision PRC = TP / (TP + FP)

Visualizing Performance
• The Receiver-Operator-
Characteristics-Curve
(ROC) plots TPR vs. FPR.
• Guessing (throw a
coin) would have a
50-50 chance to
get a sample right.
In this case you can only get
100 % TPR by rejecting all
(100 % FPR) - or 0 % FPR
at the cost of 0 % TPR.
• Good machines operate at
high TPR and low FPR
• You can optimize TPR vs

FPR on a given system
(machine configuration)

Variables that Affect Sensitivity of
Contaminant Detection
Variables that affect detection can be split into 3 categories:
1. Product characteristics and application
2. Types of packaging
3. System design
Any changes to physical

parameters within each of
these groups will affect how
well an x-ray system works.

Product Characteristics and
Application
The main factors that affect absorption are:
• Chemical composition (atomic mass number)
• Product density and depth
• Product packaging and consistency
• Process speed
(shorter scanning time means
less X-ray dose on the detector)
• Product texture or uniformity
• Contaminant placement

Application and Placement
Some considerations where you can get most out of your X-ray
• Inspect incoming raw materials
– Prevent downstream equipment damage due to stones or metal contaminants
– Remove contaminants before they enter the process line
– Measure raw-material properties such as Fat/Lean etc.
• Inspect finished goods after packaging

– Check all products meet the required quality standards
– Document the quality of your products
• The performance of the X-ray inspection systems should be validated

periodically. If validation fails some standards require the separation and
re-inspection of all goods which have been inspected since the last successful
validation (e.g. BRCGS).
• X-ray systems can be set up to supervise the rejecter and make sure all goods
end up on the belt or in the reject bin (as demanded in certain specifications)

Product Density and Depth
• Absorption of x-rays is proportional to the density and depth of the product
through which they travel and contaminants absorb more x-rays in less
dense product.
• Detection in less dense product will increase because the density of the
contaminant will generate more contrast making it more easily identifiable
in an x-ray image improving POD.
• Penetrating thick X-ray samples may require higher keV
X-ray image of a less dense loaf of bread X-ray image of a dense cheese block
with contaminants. with contaminants.

40
Product Texture or Uniformity:
Homogeneous Packs
• Homogeneous packs are the easiest type of product to inspect
• Contaminant detection depends on consistency of a product
• And how consistently the product will be presented
X-ray image of a tub of

peanut butter that has a
homogenous texture with
contaminants.

41
Product Texture or Uniformity:
Non-homogeneous Packs
• X-ray Energy (keV) needs to be sufficient
to penetrate the highest absorbing area of
the product for contaminant detection in
this area.
• Increased keV reduce the contrast in

areas where there is little, or no product
leading to a reduced sensitivity.
• High keV may tend to over penetrate the

contaminant, especially low density
contaminants in these less dense areas.
• The X-ray energy needs to be selected to

be sufficient to penetrate the product but
not to over shine the contaminant (more X-ray image of a bag of cereal that
has a non-homogenous texture with
can be less) contaminants.

42
Contaminant Placement
• Contaminant detection is affected by placement whether it is embedded in a
product or outside a product. (contaminant displaces product vs. on top)
• Contaminants located in the center of a product compared to the edge are easier
to find due to the higher contrast that is created.
• Advanced dual energy (MDX) x-ray technology is capable of locating hard-to-find
contaminants either at the edge or in the center of products.
• A true POD test should be conducted in all locations to be more accurate.
X-ray image with contaminants in the center. X-ray image with contaminant at edge of product.
Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection

43
Types of Packaging
• Different packages create different challenges
– Foil trays can have very dense edges
– Metal cans that have pull tabs or lids
– Glass jars can have metal lids, crowns and heels (jar bottoms)
• These features affect POD because they are always present during inspection
X-ray image of tuna can with pull tab

separated to detect contaminants.
Advanced technology helps analyze different objects in

a product separately allowing for better sensitivity or detection in
areas with different densities.

System Design
• Single beam inspection is a single X-ray beam shooting through the product
to detect contaminants.
• Advanced dual view inspection technology contains a single generator that

creates two views out of two beams, improving POD.
• Four beam technology increase the overall inspection by using four x-ray
beams to reduce areas with limited detectability and optimizing detection in the
most challenging areas – the base, sidewalls and neck.
In conclusion, the system selected should take into account package type
to help determine the optimum design for best POD over time.

Q&A

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Most Frequently Asked Questions

on X-ray Inspection Technology

• Guido graduated from Georg August University of Goettingen in

• He has held a variety of global R&D positions until joining Eagle

• Designs advanced x-ray machines for food and product safety. A

• Key contributors for the development and field-testing of Eagle's

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 2

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 3

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 4

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 5

X-ray inspection of food does not cause it to become radioactive.

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 6

Components of an x-ray system Components of an x-ray system

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 7

The coefficient of absorption µ is material dependent, heavier atoms absorb

Shielding materials and effects

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Inspection 8

Highly visible lamp stack

Tunnel curtains absorbing scattered radiation

Safety interlock design

To make sure you operate the system safely,

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Inspection 9

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 10

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 11

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 12

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 13

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 15

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 16

Calcified Bone Sample

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Here they are with PXT.

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Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection

Figure 1: Pack of doughnuts with one low fill and

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 25

Figure 1: Twin-compartment ready meal

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 26

Figure 1: Yogurt pot with low fill level

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 27

Figure 1: Twin lane inspection of six-pack of yogurts

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 28

• The detection of damaged products

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 29

Figure 1: Detection of missing sausage Figure 2: Detection of missing cap

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Figure 1: Cheese slices trapped in seal package

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• > 95% POD is more realistic to

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 33

• The X-ray detector amplifies the signal (possible electrical noise)

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 34

We can calculate the following numbers:

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 35

• You can optimize TPR vs

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 36

Any changes to physical

Uncover the Truth Behind X-ray Product Inspection 37