Iraqi Geological Journal Sissakian et al.

2022, 55 (2D), 39-53

Iraqi Geological Journal

Journal homepage: https://www.igj-iraq.org

Geomorphological Study of Sulaymaniyah Vicinity Using Satellite Images,

Kurdistan Region, Iraq
Varoujan Sissakian1, *, Lanja H. Abdullah2 and Balanbo N. Abdulkareem3
1
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Komar University of Science and Technology, Sulaimaniyah, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
2
Department of Geology, College of Science, University of Sulaimani, KRG, Iraq
3
Sulaimaniya Oil and Mineral Directorate, Ministry of Natural Resources, KRG, Iraq
* Correspondence: varoujan@yahoo.com

Abstract
Received: Visual interpretation of satellite images is a very significant technique to recognize and
19 June 2022 interpret geomorphological features. We have used Esri World Imagery and Google Earth
images to recognize geomorphological features at Pira Magroon, Surdash, and Azmar
Accepted:
anticlines in Sulaymaniyah vicinity, Kurdistan Region, north of Iraq. The mentioned
31 July 2022
anticlines are outstanding geomorphological features in the Sulaymaniyah vicinity. The
recognized and interpreted geomorphological features include: wine glasses, water gaps,
Published:
wind gaps, abandoned and recent alluvial fans, different types of valleys, flat irons,
31 October 2022
karstification features …etc. All these features were discussed in detail with many images
to show the discussed cases, most of the interpreted data and presented figures were never
mentioned previously.
Keywords: Water gap; Wind gap; Wine glass; Alluvial fan; Fork-shaped valleys

1. Introduction
The Iraqi Kurdistan Region forms the northeastern part of the Arabian Plate which is in collision
with the Iranian Plate with convergent tectonic plate boundary (Alavi, 2004; Allen et al.; 2004 and
Fouad, 2015). The anticlines in this tectonically active area show different significant geomorphological
features. The developed landscape and the drainage patterns provide indirect information on the tectonic
activity (Burbank and Pinter, 1999; Burbank and Anderson, 2001; Keller et al., 1999).
The mountain building and landscape evolution are controlled by interactions between river
dynamics and tectonic forces (Collignon et al., 2016). The described geomorphic criteria by Keller et
al. (1999) includes, water and wind gaps with decreasing elevation in the propagation direction, and the
presences of forked-shaped, curved, radial, axial, cross-shaped valleys. Pira Magroon, Surdash –Sara,
and Azmar are three main anticlines in the Sulaymaniyah vicinity, located around Sulaymaniyah city,
in the northwest, north, and northeast of the city (Fig. 1). They are outstanding geomorphological forms
with different significant geomorphological features.

DOI: 10.46717/igj.55.2D.4ms-2022-10-20

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Fig. 1. Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) illustrating the location of the studied area; approximately
limited by the black dashed line. Anticlines, PM) Pira Magroon, Su) Surdash, Az) Azmar, SS) Said
Sadiq. AF= Alluvial fan, DS= Dissected slopes, AR= Anticlinal ridges, WG= Water gap, the white
dashed line represents the approximate location of a paleo ridge (SRTM, 2014).

We have reviewed many scientific reports and articles which were published concerning the studied
area and the High Folded Zone. Those which dealt with the current work are mentioned briefly
hereinafter. Ghareeb (1983) studied the geomorphology of the Pira Magroon mountain, compiled a
geomorphological and drainage network map, but he never presented the details, which are presented in
the current study. Karim et al. (2000) studied the rock failure along Pira Magroon anticline, and they
named it as Qarachatan rock slide and they classified it as a plain slide. We have presented more
significant data about the style of the sliding. Bretis et al. (2011) focused on the interaction of the
transient development of drainage patterns along growing antiforms, as this directly reflects the
kinematics of progressive fold growth. We have interpreted many water and wind gaps along the studied
anticlines, which confirm the growing of the anticlines under consideration. A semi-detailed geological
mapping was conducted for an area northwest of Sulaymaniyah covering Pira Magroon anticlines and
part of Surdash anticline (Al-Shwialy et al.; 2011 in Sissakian and Al-Jiburi, 2014). Sissakian and Abdul
Jab'bar (2014) classified the alluvial fans in Iraq, among them they classified Ziwi Fan in Pira Magroon
mountain as a single-stage fan of medium type. Sissakian et al. (2014), studied the geomorphology of
the HFZ and they classified the area into two physiographic provinces with many geomorphological
units. We have adopted the same classification. Sissakian et al. (2015) estimated the age of Qash Qooly
valley using the exposure age determination method and concluded that the age of the basin is Pliocene
– Late Pleistocene, whereas the valley started to be developed during the uppermost Late Pleistocene.
Karim et al. (2015) studied the geomorphology of the Piramagroon and Kalikhan valley, they described
the types and magnitudes of mass wasting phenomena. Sissakian et al. (2017) studied Qara Chattan
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Landslide along the Pira Magroon anticline, they estimated the age to be as a few thousand years during
the Holocene, and they used the exposure dating method in their estimation. Mohammed et al. (2019)
extracted and delineated Pira Magroon alluvial fans by using a remote sensing. Hussien et al. (2020)
assessed the stability of the rock slopes in the northwestern plunge of Surdash Anticline, using
Kinematic analysis, and showed that some stations suffer possibly from planer and wedge sliding
whereas others are stable. Forti et al. (2021) conducted a geomorphological study in the Kurdistan
Region and discussed different geomorphological features.
The current study aims to describe the recognized significant geomorphological features which are
developed within the Pira Magroon, Surdash –Sara, and Azmar anticlines. The visually interpreted and
presented data can be used in similar studies, which use the visual interpretation of satellite images to
recognize geomorphological forms.

2. Materials and Methods

The studied area is one of the most studied parts in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region; therefore, there are
tens of published scientific articles, post-graduate theses, which dealt with different geological aspects;
some of those articles are reviewed and relevant data is acquired to confirm the visually interpreted data
from the satellite images (Esri World Imagery and Google Earth images) , some of them were confirmed
by field check. Besides those articles, we have interpreted different satellite images (Google Earth, and
Esri satellite image) to elucidate different geological features; mainly geomorphological. Most of the
recently elucidated features were checked in the field by continuous field inspections from 2018 – 2021.

3. Geological Setting
The geological setting of the studied area is briefly described. We have used the best available data
in the description of Geomorphology, Structural geology, Tectonics, and Stratigraphy.

3.1. Geomorphology
The studied area is located physiographically in the High Mountainous Province which is
characterized by rugged mountains and narrow valleys (Sissakian et al., 2014). The main
geomorphological units in the studied area are:
• Units of Alluvial Origin: Alluvial fans are very large, old, and dormant (Fig. 2a), usually covered
by a mantle of calcrete (Fig. 2b), others are small and still active; coalesced together forming bajada.
The activity of the alluvial fans can be indicated from their dark colors and existing soil cover.
Valley fill and flood plain sediments (Fig. 3a) are well developed along the main stream and
valleys; like Qash Qooly, Charmaga, Merga Pan (Shadala), Tabin, Zewe, the size of the pebbles
may reach 1 m or even more.
• Units of Structural – Denudational Origin: Among these units are Anticlinal Ridges (Fig. 1), which
extend for few kilometers. Flat iron topography (triangular facets), are well developed in Kometan
and Qamchuqa formations, they reach few hundreds meter in height (Fig. 3b), and Dissected Slopes
(Fig. 1) which are developed in soft rocks; like the Shiranish, Tanjero, Kolosh, and Gercus
formations.
• Units of Karstification Origin: The most common units are the caves (Fig. 4 a) and solution holes
(Fig. 4b). Both are developed in rocks of the Qamchuqa and Pila Spi formations.

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Fig. 2. a) Old alluvial fan at Jasana gorge in Surdash anticline; b) Calcrete cover of an old alluvial fan
in Surdash anticline

Fig. 3. a) Valley fill sediments in Zewe Valley, Pira Magroon anticline; b) Flat irons in the Qamchuqa
Formation, Surdash anticline.

Fig. 4. a) Jasana Cave, Surdash anticline; and b) Solution holes in the carbonates of the Pila Spi
Formation at the southwestern limb of Pera Magroon anticline.

3.2. Tectonic and Structural Geology

The studied area is located in the High Folded Zone of the Outer Platform which belongs to the
Arabian Plate (Fouad, 2015). Moreover, it is part of the Zagros Fold – Thrust Belt which is developed
within the Zagros Foreland Basin (Alavi, 2004, and Fouad, 2015). The High Folded Zone is
characterized by long anticlines and narrow synclines (Fouad, 2015). Three main anticlines exist in the

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studied area: Pera Magroon, Surdash (Sara), and Azmar. Although some local names are used by many
researchers (Fig. 1); however, we will call them as aforementioned. They all are oriented in NW – SE
direction and the southwestern limb is steeper. Tens of fault of different types are developed along the
three main anticlines with different displacements. The beds are highly deformed and crushed (Fig. 5).
Among the faults are those which have formed Zewe gorge; in Pera Magroon anticline and Jasana and
Qamchuqa gorges in Surdash anticline. The displacements are around few tens of meters.

3.3. Stratigraphy
The exposed geological formations in the studied area range in age from Jurassic to Eocene, they
are presented in the geological map (Fig. 6) and a columnar stratigraphic section (Fig. 7), based on
Sissakian and Al-Jiburi (2014).

Fig. 5. Disturbed beds due to folding and faulting; a) Pira Magroon anticline, b) Surdash anticline

4. Results
From the interpretation of the aforementioned types of satellite images, geological maps, and field
investigations in the studied area, we found the following geomorphological forms.

4.1. Geomorphological Features

4.1.1. Alluvial fans

• Old (Abandoned) Alluvial Fans: These are well developed in the studied area (Fig. 2 and 8)
covering large areas along the foothills of the mountains. Those developed along Pira Magroon and
Surdash anticlines consist of coarse and angular fragments of hard limestone and are covered by
thick (1 – 3) m of calcrete (Fig. 8), whereas those developed along Azmar anticlines consist of fine
and angular fragments of - Old (Abandoned) Alluvial Fans: These are well developed in the studied
area (Fig. 2 and 8) covering large areas along the foothills of the mountains, whereas those
developed along Azmar anticlines consist of fine and angular fragments of marly limestone and are
covered by hard and compacted soil with rock fragments (Fig. 9). Old alluvial fans are a good
indication of the lateral growth of anticlines (Burbank and Anderson, 2001).

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Fig. 6. Geological map of the studied area (Modified from Sissakian and Fouad, 2014)

• Recent Alluvial Fans: These are still developing along the foothills of all the mountains in the
studied area, but with different intensities (Fig. 9). Those along Azmar mountain; however, are
more closely spaced forming Bajada (Fig. 9), whereas those along Pira Magroon and Surdash
anticlines are less developed. However, in the eastern part of the Pira Magroon anticline, the alluvial
fans have the same characters as those developed along the Azmar anticline. This is attributed to
the types of the exposed rocks of the Kometan and Shiranish formations which cover the eastern
part of the Pira Magroon anticline and the limbs of the Azmar anticline.

4.1.2. Wine Glasses

Wine glasses are well developed along all anticlines in the studied area; Pira Magroon, Surdash
(Fig. 10), and Azmar (Fig. 11). The presence of a wine glass is one of the indications for lateral growth
(propagation) of the anticline. Some of the wine glasses have special successive forms and/ or opposite
forms (Fig. 11).

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Fig. 7. Columnar stratigraphic section of the exposed formations in the study area.

Fig. 8. Old alluvial fans covered by calcrete (C) along Surdash anticline, a) satellite image; b) field
photo. DAF= Dissected alluvial fan, FV= Fork-shaped valley, AR= Anticlinal ridge, Sh= Shiranish
Formation.

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Fig. 9. Esri World image of alluvial fans in Azmar anticline for abandoned (AAf) and active (recent)
fans (AcAf), AxV= Axial valley; PhS= approximate site of the field photos.

Fig. 10. Satellite images facing south showing many wine glasses, a) Surdash anticline, b) Pira Magroon
anticline. In= Inclined valley, FV= Fork-shaped valley, AxV= Axial valley, QL= Qara Chatan landslide.

Fig. 11. Satellite images of Azmar anticline facing southeast showing many wine glasses (W), Wo=
Opposite wine glass, and Ws = Successive wine glass. Note the possible domes at points 1, 2, 3, and 4.

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4.1.3. Water and wind gaps

The presence of water and wind gaps in anticlines is a good indication that the anticlines are
laterally growing (Burbank and Anderson, 2001). We have recognized many water (WaG) and wind
(WiG) gaps in the Pira Magroon anticline (Fig. 12) and one in Surdash anticline (Fig. 13). In Azmar
anticline, however, no wind and/ or water gap was recognized.

4.1.4. Different shaped valleys

Different shaped valleys were recognized; all are a good indication for the lateral growth of
anticlines (Burbank and Pinter, 1999; Burbank and Anderson, 2001). Radial valleys (Fig. 14), Fork-
shaped valleys (Figs. 8 a, and 10 b), Axial valleys (Figs. 9 and 14), Inclined valleys (Fig. 14).

Fig. 12. Satellite images of Pira Magroon anticline facing south, a) Northwestern plunge; b)
Southeastern plunge. (For the presented data, refer to the text).

Fig. 13. Satellite image of Surdash anticline facing S-SE, note the water gap along which the Dokan
Dam is constructed, en-echelon plunge with Khalakan anticline.Valleys: InV= Inclined, FV= Fork-
shaped, AxV= Axial

Fig. 14. Satellite image of Azmar anticline facing NE. Note different shaped valleys: In= Inclined, Ax =
Axial, AAf= Abandoned alluvial fan, Af= Active alluvial fan. The arrows point to plunges of minor folds, f-
f is a fault.
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4.1.4. Anticlinal ridges

Anticlinal ridges are well developed in the Surdash and Pera Magroon anticlines. They extend for
few kilometers on both limbs and reach in height to few tens of meters and locally few hundred meters
Fig. 8).

4.1.5. Mass movements

Different types of mass movements are developed in the studied area like landslide, rock fall,
toppling. A very good example is the Qara Chatan landslide in the southwestern limb of the Pera
Magroon anticline (Fig. 10).

5. Discussion
The anticlines in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region are still active and exhibit later growth (propagation)
as witnessed by the presence of different geomorphological and structural forms; some of those
indications are presented in the current research. The anticlines accompanied by synclines in the study
area are developed due to the clock-wise movement of the Arabian Plate and its collision with the
Eurasian Plate forming convergent tectonic plate boundary (Alavi, 2004 and Allen et al., 2004). The
exerted forces due to the collision of the plates have developed regional thrust faults and other local
thrust, reverse, normal, and strike-slip faults.

5.1. Water and Wind Gaps

Water and wind gaps are good indications of the lateral growth of anticlines (Burbank and
Anderson, 2001 and Ramsey et al., 2008). In the Pira Magroon anticline, typical water and wind gaps
are developed (Fig. 12). In the northwestern plunge of the anticline (Fig. 12 a), two water (WaG 1 and
WaG 2) are developed. It is clear that WaG 1 is older than WaG 2, and accordingly should be shallower
than WaG 2 (Burbank and Anderson, 2001 and Ramsey et al., 2008); however, it is deeper (940 m and
903 m, respectively). This is attributed to the closure of the younger water gap (WaG 2) by the alluvial
fan sediments flowing downslope from Surdash village (Fig. 12 a); therefore, the Mirga Pan stream was
blocked, and the stream found an outlet through the abandoned water gap (WaG 1) which was changed
to a wind gap during continuous lateral growth of the anticline. Afterward, the growing alluvial fans at
point 2 (Fig. 12 a) was dissected by a small part of the still flowing stream through the younger water
gap (Wa G 1) as a minor stream, whereas the mainstream is still flowing through the old water gap
(WaG 2). An old water gap, now changed back to a wind gap (WiG, Fig. 12 a) still can be seen at a
height of 1170 m, which indicates the continuous lateral growth of the Pira Magroon anticline. A small
alluvial fan (Point 1, Fig. 12 a) has shifted the course of the stream, this is again a good indication that
alluvial fans’ sediments can block the courses of streams. In the southeastern plunge area, a typical wind
gap form can be seen (Wi G, Fig. 12 b); however, two valleys are flowing in opposite directions at points
2 and 3 and the water divide is at point 1 (Fig. 12 b). In such a form, with a small size, it is not likely to
have valleys flowing in opposite directions; unless it was originally one valley flowing from point 3
(923 m) towards point 2 (898 m) (Fig. 12 b), which is the main trend of all other valleys. However, the
valley was most probably dissected into two parts either by the sediments of alluvial fans from both
sides of the cliffs or by an old landslide at point 1 (956 m) (Fig. 12 b). The action of Neotectonic
movements; however, cannot be ignored. A normal fault (F–F) with the eastern side being the
downthrown side runs in an oblique direction to the trend of the Pira Magroon anticline has formed an
outlet of the mainstream (Fig. 12 b) and looks like a water gap, but it is not. Another small fault (f – f)
(Fig. 12 b) east of the main normal fault also has dissected the Pira Magroon anticline, and a small valley
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is crossing the anticline as a water gap. In the Surdash anticline, the northwestern plunge, which forms
en-echelon plunge with Khalikan anticline (Fig. 13) a large water gap was developed through which the
Lesser Zab River was flowing, and the Dokan Dam is constructed over the water gap.
In the Azmar anticline, many water gaps and one wind gap were recognized; however, the
indications are faint, since all the recognized gaps are occupied by valleys and no stream; even perennial
can be seen in the southeastern plunge (Fig. 15).

Fig. 15. Satellite image of the southeastern plunge of the Azmar anticline facing NW. Red arrows are
water gaps and the blue arrow is a possible wind gap. Note the well-developed recent alluvial fans.

5.2. Alluvial Fans

The studied area is characterized by old and recent alluvial fans (Figs. 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, and 15).
Some of the alluvial fans have changed the courses of streams, on small and large scales. The Mirga Pan
(Shadala) stream (Fig. 16) was flowing originally westwards and was one mainstream with the Qash
Qooly stream (Sissakian et al., 2015); however, the continuous growth of Surdash alluvial fans has
dissected the mainstream into two parts as can be seen in Figure (16). The existing dissected alluvial
fans south of the Qash Qooley stream are a good indication. The size, intensity, and activity of the
alluvial fans in the study area are quite different. In the Azmar anticline, where the exposed rocks are
marly limestone and marl (Balambo and Kometan formations), the alluvial fans are still active and large,
they reach the Tanjero stream (Fig. 9) within the wide Shara Zoor Plain. The activity of the fans is
attributed to the hardness of the exposed rocks, which are softer than those exposed within the
Qamchuqa Formation which forms the carapace of the Surdash anticline and western part of the Pira
Magroon anticline. It can be noted that in the Surdash anticline, the alluvial fans are not active, mainly
capped by thick calcrete (Figs. 2, and 8).

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Fig. 16. Satellite image facing SSE. Note the old alluvial fans and the dissected alluvial fans (DAF).
ZOAF and SOAF are Zewe and Surdash old alluvial fans, respectively.

Although all anticlines are receiving the same amount of rainfall; but because of the difference in
the hardness of the exposed rocks, the anticlines in the Surdash anticline are very rarely active, just the
opposite of those along the Azmar anticline and eastern part of the Pira Magroon anticline (Fig. 12 b).
This is attributed to the hardness of the exposed rocks along the mentioned anticlines. Moreover, the
size of the alluvial fans along the Surdash anticline is small as compared to those developed along the
southern limb of Azmar and Pira Magroon anticlines. This is attributed to the presence of the Qash
Qooley stream which acts as a limit for the fans (Fig. 16), whereas in Azmar and Pira Magroon
anticlines, the Tanjero (Fig. 9) and Charmaga streams (Fig. 16), form the limits of the alluvial fans, and
are part of the wide and large Shara Zoor Plain. A very special form of disturbed alluvial fans occurs in
the Pira Magroon anticline. A large and very old landslide called the Qara Chatan landslide had swept
the sediments of an older alluvial fan (Fig. 17). Along both sides of the old alluvial fan, the sediments
of the fan still can be seen clearly as two longitudinal masses (Fig. 17 c). The slid rock masses are very
large; up to 3 m (Fig. 17 a) and can be easily differentiated from the sediments of the old alluvial fan
(Fig. 17 b). The landslide has swept the sediments leaving a flat longitudinal area (Fig. 17 c), whereas
the slid blocks are accumulated at the toe area (Fig. 17d). Although it is a very old landslide; about 3000
years old (Sissakian et al. 2017), but the relics of the crown area are still visible (Fig. 16).

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Fig. 17. Qara Chatan old landslide. a) The size of the slid blocks, b) Compare between the slid blocks
and the sediments of the old alluvial fan (left and right side of the standing lady), c) longitudinal remnant
of the old alluvial fan in the eastern side, and d) general view of the slid blocks.

5.3. Anticlinal Ridges

Anticlinal ridges are developed along both limbs of the Pera Magroon anticline and western
half part of the Surdash anticline, whereas in the Azmar anticline there are very fairly developed. This
is attributed to the exposures of the very hard and massive rocks of the Qamchuqa Formation in the Pera
Magroon anticline and the western part of the Surdash anticline. Whereas in the eastern part of the
Surdash anticline and Azmar anticline, the Balambo Formation is exposed, which is composed of fairly
hard rocks (Fig. 6).

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5.4. Mass Movements

The developed mass movements in the studied area are attributed to: 1) Presence of steep
slopes along the anticlines, 2) Presence of thick successions of hard rocks alternated with soft rocks, and
3) Presence of marl and claystone beds, which act as lubricants.

6. Conclusions
From the interpreted data and field investigations, the following can be concluded: The studied
anticlines exhibit different geomorphological features. Different geomorphological features and forms
are recognized; among them are different shaped valleys like (Radial, Fork-shaped, Axial, and Inclined),
water and wind gaps, and abandoned alluvial fans. All these recognized features are good indication for
the lateral growth of the studied anticlines. The alluvial fans can be classified into two types old and
recent fans. The old fans are usually capped by calcrete. The constituents of the fans are different at
different anticlines, depending on the type of the exposed rocks in each anticline.

Acknowledgements
The authors are very grateful to the Reviewers, Editor in Chief Prof. Dr. Salih M. Awadh, the
Secretary of Journal Mr. Sameer R. Ahmed, and the Technical Editors for their great efforts and valuable
comments.

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