Professional Documents
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BCWFDDFaith Development Focus Kenya
BCWFDDFaith Development Focus Kenya
The World Faiths Development Dialogue (WFDD) is a not-for-profit organization working at the
intersection of religion and global development. Housed within the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace,
and World Affairs in Washington, D.C., WFDD documents the work of faith-inspired organizations and
explores the importance of religious ideas and actors in development contexts. WFDD supports dialogue
between religious and development communities and promotes innovative partnerships at national and
international levels with the goal of contributing to positive and inclusive development outcomes.
About the Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs
The Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs at Georgetown University, created within
the Office of the President in 2006, is dedicated to the interdisciplinary study of religion, ethics, and
public life. Through research, teaching, and service, the center explores global challenges of democracy
and human rights; economic and social development; international diplomacy; and interreligious
understanding. Two premises guide the center’s work: that a deep examination of faith and values is
critical to address these challenges, and that the open engagement of religious and cultural traditions
with one another can promote peace.
Acknowledgments
This report is a product of the Berkley Center multi-country principal authors. Marshall, Berkley Center senior fellow and
research program conducted in partnership with WFDD and WFDD executive director, provided project oversight and
supported by the Henry R. Luce Foundation Initiative on participated in fieldwork. The fieldwork was conducted in Kenya
Religion and International Affairs. An earlier desk review (inputs on four visits between November 2014 and August 2015, during
from Keavy Nahan) and an event in March 2011 (also supported which WFDD researchers met with about 120 secular and faith-
by a Luce Foundation grant) that focused on Kenya provided a inspired development practitioners, academics, activists, and faith
foundation for the research. In October 2014, the Berkley Center leaders in Nairobi.
and WFDD hosted a consultation with scholars and practitioners to
review research plans and initial hypotheses and questions. During The authors wish to express deep gratitude for the many people
that meeting and over subsequent months, the group helped to who offered guidance during consultation and insight during the
identify gaps in knowledge and priority topics for investigation. visits. Their wisdom and perspective helped to shape this report,
Participants included Ousseina D. Alidou, Diane M. Ciekawy, and in places, add direct input. Comments on the draft report,
Charles DeSantis, Samuel K. Elolia, Andrew Fuys, Callisto notably from John Blevins, David Buckley, Mike Eldon, Andrew
Madavo, Ray Martin, Pauline Muchina, Mary Nyangweso, Travis Fuys, Usra Ghazi, Rosalind Hackett, Thomas Olson, and Robert
Rejman, Daniel Ritchie, Robert Rotberg, Lahra Smith, Lauren Rotberg were invaluable. Daniela Muhaj contributed to charts.
Van Enk, and Jacqueline Wilson. The research program centered Wilma Mui provided considerable support, preparing the report
on extensive and in-depth interviews in Kenya. With agreement for publication.
of interviewees, many are posted online: http://berkleycenter.
georgetown.edu/subprojects/country-mapping-kenya. Photographs in the report were taken by Crystal Corman,
Elisabeth Stoddard, and Nava Friedman, unless otherwise noted.
The report’s development was managed by Crystal Corman,
program manager at WFDD. She, Katherine Marshall, and
Elisabeth Stoddard, WFDD program associate, are the report’s
2 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
FOREWORD
T
his report begins with two central questions: HIV/AIDS pandemic, as well as the evolution of education and
1) How do religious influences affect Kenya’s social health systems. Factors shaping attitudes toward investment,
and economic development challenges and strategies? land management, or gender relations are more difficult to
2) How might these influences translate into policy action pinpoint. The various dimensions of religious involvement
that could strengthen development outcomes? The question of in development are complex and contentious, but in a highly
how Kenya’s development stands to influence and transform religious society, questions about them are worth asking.
religious institutions is not a central theme but is addressed
in passing as an interesting question that could lead to further Kenya, like many countries, is grappling with questions
research. involving values that underlie its development strategies and
policies. The reality of large inequalities, concerns about
The report is part of a broad effort to address these questions social tensions and violence, and a host of questions around
in the context of four countries, including Kenya, Bangladesh, governance—including widespread corruption—are at
Guatemala, and Senegal. The effort involves original research in the center of development debates. Religious leaders and
each country with a range of partners and publication of findings institutions are actors where these issues are concerned. They
in various formats to serve different actors. These include are often seen by themselves and others to have responsibilities
national authorities, the full range of development partners for defining and upholding values that reflect the best in
(including civil society), religiously linked organizations, and Kenyan society. Others, however, may view them as major
others who may not have had the opportunity to focus on contributors to social tensions.
religious dimensions of society and economy. The goal for
this specific report is to provide a comprehensive yet accessible The hypothesis behind this and other country-level analysis is
overview of Kenya’s religious landscape in relation to major that ignoring or minimizing the importance of religious factors
issues for development. can hinder development strategies and objectives. Potentially
positive contributions can be undermined by the fragmented
As is true for many African countries, Kenya is a richly religious nature of engagement among religious actors and with the
society in the sense that a multitude of institutions—widely Kenyan government and its international partners. We are
diverse in nature and dynamic in their response to social, hopeful that a solid base of information, including recognizing
economic, and political change—are linked to religious beliefs diversity and the cumulative impact of religious engagement on
and practice in many different ways. Interactions among ethnic, social and political issues will serve as a jumping-off point for
economic, cultural, and religious forces are complex, making challenging narratives that dismiss religion as too complicated
them difficult—if not impossible—to disentangle. History and or in opposition to development goals.
contemporary practice of religion in the region are extensively
researched, so there is a goldmine of information available to
those who seek it out. Nonetheless, religious elements are rarely
an explicit focus of written development strategies and policies, Katherine Marshall
though they may creep in via discussions of values, culture, Senior Fellow, Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World
or politics. Religious links have sometimes been obvious, for Affairs at Georgetown University
example in aspects of behavior that shaped the response to the Executive Director, World Faiths Development Dialogue
Boxes
Box 3.1 Ethnicity in Kenya
Box 3.2 The Mau Mau Rebellion and Oathing
Box 3.3 Kenya’s Catholic Sisters
Box 3.4 Religious Media
Box 3.5 Race and Status for Swahili Muslims
Box 3.6 Somali Kenyans and Marginalization
Box 3.7 Ali Mazuri
Box 3.8 The Kenyan Ismaili Community and the Aga Khan Development
Box 3.9 African Council for Accreditation and Accountability (AfCAA)
Box 3.10 Members of IRCK
Box 4.1 Harambee
Box 4.2 Government NGO Oversight Arrangements and Issues
Box 4.3 Government-led Initiatives
Box 4.4 Faith and Kenya’s Health Sector
Box 4.5 HIV/AIDS and Religion: Kenya’s Experience
Box 4.6 BRAVE (Building Resilience Against Violent Extremism)
4 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
MAP OF KENYA: COUNTIES
Mandera
Turkana
Marsabit
Wajir
West Pokot
Samburu
Trans Nzoia Isiolo
Elgeyo-
Marakwet
Bungoma
Uasin Baringo
Gishu
Busia
Laikipia
Kakamega
Nandi Meru
Siaya Vihiga
Kisumu
Kericho Nyandarua Tharaka-Nithi
Nakuru Nyeri
Homa Bay Kirinyaga Garissa
Nyamira Embu
Kisii Bomet Murang'a
Migori
Kiambu
Narok Nairobi Machakos
Kitui
Tana River
Kajiado
Makueni Lamu
Kilifi
Taita-Taveta
Mombasa
© d-maps.com
Kwale
150 km
100 mi
8 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Acronyms (cont.)
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNI Gross National Income
GoK Government of Kenya
HDI Human Development Index
HISP Health Insurance Subsidy Program
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
IBRD International Bank of Reconstruction and Development
ICC International Criminal Court
ICT Information and Communications Technology
IDA International Development Association
IFC International Finance Corporation
IHBS Integrated Household Budget Survey
IMF International Monetary Fund
IPK Islamic Party of Kenya
IR Islamic Relief
IRCK Interreligious Council of Kenya
KCCB Kenya Conference of Catholic Bishops
KDHS Kenya Demographic and Health Survey
KEPSA Kenya Private Sector Alliance
KIHBS Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey
KMYA Kenya Muslim Youth Alliance
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MDRI Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative
MEDS Mission for Essential Drugs and Supplies
MIGA Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
MSME Micro, Small, and Medium-size Enterprise
MTP Medium-Term Plan
NAMLEF National Muslim Leaders Forum
NCCAP National Climate Change Action Plan
NCCK National Council of Churches of Kenya
NGO non-governmental organization
NHIF National Health Insurance Fund
NSS National Statistics System
OAIC Organization of African Instituted Churches
ODA Official development assistance
ODI Overseas Development Institute
10 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Timeline
Seventh century Arab Muslims from the Arabian Peninsula begin settling coastal areas, developing trading
(CE) stations that facilitated contact with the Arab world, Persia, and India
1498 First Christian, Vasco da Gama, visits Kenya
Portuguese efforts to establish foothold on Kenyan coast; driven off by Swahili states and
Sixteenth century
Omani Arabs by late seventeenth century
Sixteenth century First missionary priests
1830s Omani Arabs consolidate control of coast
1844 Anglican missionary activity begins
1862 Methodist missionary activity begins
1884-5 Berlin Conference defines colonial boundaries and spheres of influence
1889 Holy Ghost Fathers start missionary activity
Late 1800s African Independent Churches begin to emerge, take off in 1920s
1895 British East African Protectorate formed, comprising present-day Kenya
Early 1900s British settlers move into highlands; railway built from Mombasa to Lake Victoria
1913 Precursor of Kenya Council of Churches formed
1920 East African Protectorate becomes crown colony of Kenya, administered by a British governor
1930s East Africa revival movement
1944 Kenyan African Union (KAU) formed to campaign for African independence
Excavation of fossil bones in East Africa by Mary and Louis Leakey revealed that Homo
1950s
sapiens may have emerged in Africa much earlier than thought
Secret Kikuyu guerrilla group known as Mau Mau begins violent campaign against white
1952
settlers; state of emergency declared
1956 Mau Mau Rebellion put down after thousands, mainly Africans, killed
1960 State of emergency ends; Britain announces plans to prepare Kenya for majority African rule
1961 Jomo Kenyatta freed and assumes presidency of Kanu
1963 Kenya gains independence from U.K.; Kenyatta is prime minister
1964 Republic of Kenya formed with Kenyatta as president and Odinga as vice president
Assassination of government Minister Tom Mboya sparks ethnic unrest; KPU banned and
1969
Odinga arrested
1972 Many Asians expelled from East Africa
1973 SUPKEM founded; attempt to consolidate Muslim organizations
1974 Kenyatta re-elected
1978 Kenyatta dies in office, succeeded by Vice President Daniel arap Moi
1982 June: Kenya officially declared a one-party state by National Assembly
Opposition groups suppressed; international criticism of political arrests and
1987
human rights abuses
1990 Mounting criticism of one-party system from church leaders: Ufungamano Initiative
12 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Timeline (cont.)
September: Somali Al-Shabaab militants seize the Westgate shopping mall in Nairobi, kill
2013
more than 60 people
June: 48 people die after Islamist militants attack hotels and police station in Mpeketoni,
2014
near Lamu
September: Kenya revises economic growth calculations, making economy 25 percent
2014
bigger than previously thought
December: Prosecutors at ICC drop charges against President Kenyatta over 2007
2014
post-election violence, citing insufficient evidence
April: Massacre at Garissa University College in northwest Kenya by Al-Shabaab militants kills
2015
148 people
2015 July: U.S. President Barack Obama visits Kenya
2015 November: Pope Francis visits Kenya
2016 January: Al-Shabaab kills more than 100 Kenyan soldiers in southern Somalia
December: Human rights group claim anti-terror police carried out at least 81 extrajudicial
2016
killings in mainly Muslim coastal region since 2012
Kenya offers inspiring examples of development progress. Kenya exemplifies, in many ways, the core messages behind
It also faces wide-ranging challenges. A hub of East Africa’s the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), endorsed by the
economy and society, Kenyans’ business acumen and pragmatic United Nations General Assembly in September 2015: the
spirit are renowned, as are the nation’s rich history and natural world’s complex challenges are fundamentally interlinked and
beauty. But a growing, young, and restless population demands apply universally. Progress towards social development (for
security and greater political involvement. Varying threats to the people) and economic prosperity are fundamental aspirations,
environment are not abstractions but part of daily life: Public but without peace and care for the planet, success is elusive. The
and private healthcare facilities were long overwhelmed by the complex and interrelated challenges facing humankind demand
HIV/AIDS epidemic; the first lady, Margaret Gakuo Kenyatta, complex and interlinked partnerships across sectors and nations.
is supporting a targeted campaign to reduce high maternal and These global aspirations set in eminently local realities suggest
infant mortality; contested land rights with deep historical roots that Kenya is an excellent place to reflect on and analyze the
foster lingering resentment; and corruption and ethnic divisions challenges and explore what can be done to meet them.
taint the political arena.
14 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Religious actors play important but often unheralded roles challenges and in turn improve the design and implementation
for Kenya’s multifaceted development, and they are far from of programs and, ultimately, the quality of results.
invisible. Kenya is a robustly religious society in the sense that
religious communities can be seen and heard almost everywhere. An early caveat is essential. There is no simple definition or
Kenya’s history is peppered with active and diverse religious understanding of religion, faith, or spirituality. Scholars and
leaders and movements. Religious talk is commonplace in practitioners debate the meaning of terms and the significance
widely different settings and sectors. However, as is the case in of phenomena grouped under the heading of “religion.”
many countries, religious factors are rarely a central feature in Some things are readily understood: the respect that may be
contemporary approaches to Kenya’s development. International earned by leaders ordained in a religious denomination, for
development actors, whose approach is often rooted in Western example, or sacred laws governing aspects of devout behavior.
history, tend to diminish the roles of religion as a private matter However, there are many areas of robust debate, differences
or steer clear of the complexities of differences in beliefs and of interpretation, resentment or discrimination, and layers of
practices. Religious matters receive little explicit attention complexity that intimidate lay people. This is why religion is
in strategic discussions about development, whether it is the among the most contentious and difficult elements to pinpoint
Kenyan “Vision 2030” that frames development work, the and understand despite the fact that motivations, behavior, and
World Bank’s country strategies, or work by religiously identified identity issues underpinned by religion and the significance
groups in refugee camps. However, Kenya’s many development of religious communities are highly pertinent for sustainable
partners include faith-inspired organizations (FIOs1), whose development. The report starts with a keen awareness of the
work is often colored by their religious and spiritual foundations. pitfalls of over-simplifying or over-attributing development
Al-Shabaab-linked terrorist attacks, recruitment of youth to patterns and outcome to religious aspects, but we find that asking
extremist groups using religious rhetoric, increasing tensions probing questions can shine light on aspects of social, political,
among some communities (especially Muslims and Christians), and economic behavior that have to do with religious matters
and burgeoning and influential prosperity gospel churches that may otherwise be obscured or invisible. The underlying
provoke questions about the significance of religious beliefs and hypothesis is that virtually any issue has religious dimensions,
motivations. This attention tends to focus on negative religious that they are almost always part of a complex set of factors that
features, concentrating responses and debate on security rather shapes attitudes and behavior, and that there are benefits to a
than promoting cooperation and understanding. thoughtful effort to understand better both religious factors and
their relationships to other social determinants.
A more nuanced and comprehensive approach presents a rather
different story. Because religious institutions and beliefs are tightly
integrated in Kenya’s politics, society, and economy, religious RESEARCH APPROACH
dimensions are significant for virtually any development topic.
In some cases, for example teaching about religion in schools and WFDD and the Berkley Center, with support from the Luce
seeking to change traditional expectations of men and women, Foundation, have focused on Kenya in a country-mapping project
the links can be quite obvious. In others, like raising awareness within their joint Religion and Global Development program.
about care of the environment and the causes of high maternal The project’s goal is to analyze at the country level the ways
mortality, they may not be immediately apparent. However, in which faith institutions and actors engage on development
religious dimensions often emerge upon closer examination and issues and to explore religious dimensions of these issues. This
enrich or nuance understandings of a given challenge that can approach aims to encourage dialogue and collaboration among
point the way toward constructive action. religious and development communities in ways that enhance
the quality of development programs.
STUDY OBJECTIVES AND The research methodology sought to map religious aspects of
RESEARCH THEMES development programs. In Kenya, this was enriched by parallel
and linked research on religious involvement in humanitarian—
This report presents a broadly framed exploration of how particularly refugee—support and in peacebuilding, addressing
development and faith are linked in Kenya. It is designed to the effects of extremism and building social cohesion (the latter
provide information that can help in understanding the religious supported by the GHR Foundation). This study benefitted
landscape at a level that facilitates examining how any given significantly from the wisdom and hospitality of the Hekima
development issue might involve religious actors and beliefs. Institute of Peace and International Affairs, the Depot, and the
The objective is rooted in offering facts and key concepts that Global Network of Religions for Children.
might, in various ways, enhance understandings of development
16 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
CHAPTER 2: KENYA’S DEVELOPMENT
STRATEGIES AND PARTNERSHIPS
Kenya’s development context involves an unusually pronounced However, among risks and challenges, insecurity looms large,
juxtaposition of positive and challenging features. Grounds accentuated by regional troubles (notably in Somalia and
for optimism include the quite steady economic growth over South Sudan) but also, given past violence associated with
several decades; Kenya’s vital entrepreneurs, exemplars of drive elections, Kenyan internal politics. Associated risks increase
and creativity; and the attractions of Nairobi as a regional pressure on military expenditures and are exacerbated by large
hub for multinationals and other investors (including the numbers of refugees and internally displaced populations.
Kenyan diaspora). These attractions include relatively high Poverty is a serious and stubborn problem, with over a quarter
availability of technical, professional, and managerial talent; of Kenyans falling below the poverty line.3 Inequality, although
widespread digital connectedness; sophisticated financial, ICT not extreme (the richest 20 percent of the population receives
(information and communications technology), and other 53 percent of the nation’s income), is rising.4 A pattern of elite
services; and a pro-business attitude by government (albeit engagement in ostentatious consumption and patronage politics
often compromised by bureaucracy and corruption). has made inequality a central issue. Notwithstanding decades of
grappling with ethnic tensions, solutions seem far off.
Kenya moved recently (2014) from a lower to lower-middle
income country classification (opening the way to new Governance challenges include fragile administrative
financing possibilities),2 and it now ranks as Africa’s fifth largest institutions and widespread corruption (where strong
economy and East Africa’s economic hub. The bold devolution leadership exists significant progress is possible, for example,
program launched with the 2010 constitution promises to in the current Ministry of Education, the Kenya Revenue
link local energies and issues far more directly to practical Authority, and the Commission for Revenue Allocation—not
solutions than in the past, while redressing imbalances that least through the use of automation). Expensive and all too
have marginalized areas such as northeast Kenya. Promising often corrupt political campaigning never stops, and much
natural resource prospects are an additional source of hope. time, money, and energy are devoted to it. Added to this,
18 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Second, the regional impact of the Somalia-based Al-Shabaab has been reframed and was monitored within the context of
has been and remains a critical issue, presenting large security national development objectives and Kenya Vision 2030. With
challenges. The incidence of attacks in Kenya declined sharply the more elaborate global framework for the 2016-2030 period
in 2016, in large part due to improved vigilance and action by agreed upon in 2015 (SDGs), Kenya indicated that it would
the security agencies. However, risks persist, and the lure of focus on five of the 17 goals: health, agriculture and food
violent political action and its links to development nonetheless security, employment and enterprise, universal education and
loom large. Because Al-Shabaab seeks to recruit among the gender, and environment. This focus emerged in part through
Muslim population and uses extremist rhetoric, the situation consultations with different groups, including civil society
contributes to significant Muslim-Christian tensions. organizations. In sum, Kenya’s national strategies are consistent
with the broad and inclusive global architecture that serves as a
And third, the international spotlight on taking religious factors point of reference for development discussions. The SDGs and
into account in development and humanitarian policies argues Kenyan visions are compatible and complementary.
for a more explicit inclusion of religious factors in development
debates at the country level. Performance on both Vision 2030 and on the MDGs/SDGs has
been mixed (see Appendix A). Economic growth rates, which
KENYA’S NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT are emphasized in Vision 2030 and in most partner strategies
as a backbone of successful development, have not reached
STRATEGY: VISION 20305 the 10 percent mark. Steady recent growth is a noteworthy
achievement, although some groups have benefitted far less
The government of Kenya’s ambitious development agenda is than others. Progress on reducing child mortality and gender
outlined in Vision 2030. The aspiration is for Kenya to be an disparities and on increasing education enrollments has been
upper middle-income country with a high quality of life for significant. Substantial challenges remain; significant areas of
all citizens by the year 2030. Vision 2030, launched in 2008, shortfall include maternal mortality, which is disproportionately
represents a national long-term development blueprint framed concentrated in certain parts of the country, and malnutrition.
along three pillars—economic, social, and political6—and Security challenges and drought have set back some plans.
underpinned by a set of enabling values. The economic pillar
focuses on rapid economic growth (at least 10 percent a year),
large infrastructure investment, and expansion of tourism,
KENYA’S DEVELOPMENT PARTNERSHIPS7
manufacturing, and agricultural industries. Job creation is an
imperative throughout, alongside development of appropriate Kenya has numerous development partners. Many have engaged
skills to meet the emerging needs of the job market (as identified since independence in 1963, but the nature and pattern of
in the education component of the social pillar). partner relationships are changing. Kenya’s status during the
Cold War era as a strong ally of the West has been affected by
The social pillar aims for “a just and cohesive society the Cold War’s end after 1990. With political motivations for
enjoying equitable social development in a clean and secure foreign aid less obvious, and with rising concerns over Kenya’s
environment,” and covers various areas including education, governance, aid flows declined. For some years, relationships
health, gender, youth, urbanization, and water and sanitation. were complex, sometimes tempestuous, characterized by a
The political pillar highlights a democratic system that is frustrating stop-and-start pattern. This was notably reflected
issue-based, people-centered, result-oriented, and accountable in the history of some 19 structural adjustment and budget
to the public. Vision 2030 now focuses heavily on the push support financing operations from the International Monetary
for devolution, to decentralize power and thus do away with Fund (IMF) and the World Bank between 1979 and 1996.
marginalization of hitherto neglected regions. Vision 2030 is Aid was increasingly linked to progress on democratization and
implemented through a series of medium-term plans, the first multi-party elections. Periods of positive engagement with, for
for 2008-2012 and the second for 2013-2017. Planning for the example, debt rescheduling, have been followed by periods of
third has begun. Periodic “progress scorecards” are produced, tension and freezing of aid. Present relationships are generally
reflecting monitoring and accountability provisions. Vision positive, though it is telling that the World Bank’s country
2030 is the point of reference for the partner development partnership document notes that corruption is an “Achilles
strategies that the Kenyan government expects. Heel”8 and observes that Kenya “can be” a success story.9
The Kenyan government has been a champion of the global Kenya relies on financial foreign assistance and technical
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) since they were assistance support, though it is less dependent on them than
framed in 2000. Each of the eight goals and specific targets many African countries. Further, the decision to rebase GNP
20 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Figure 2.2. Kenya: Bilateral ODA Disbursements by Public-private partnerships (PPPs), involving both foreign and
Donor, 1960-2015 (US$ Millions, 2014 prices) Kenyan companies, are a priority for the Kenyan government.
The key rationale is to plug the resource gap for the ambitious
1,600
United States
infrastructure projects the government would like to undertake
1,400 United Kingdom (an estimated US$2 billion per annum infrastructure
US$ Millions, 2014 prices
Germany
1,200
France
investment deficit), but it is also being encouraged in sectors
1,000 Canada such as education and health. Public-private engagement
800
is strong between the government and the private sector,
particularly at the national level, but it is far less developed at
600
the devolved county level. A relevant factor is that the Kenyan
400 government is nearing its 50 percent of GDP debt limit set by
200 parliament.
0
The Kenyan government expects its bilateral and multilateral
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
+
forums, and NGOs are rarely present, although the private include registering, facilitating, and coordinating all national
sector is well represented. and international NGOs operating in Kenya; advising the
government on their contribution to national development;
NGOs IN KENYA providing policy guidelines for NGOs to align their activities
with national priorities; and receiving and analyzing NGO
Kenya’s vibrant civil society includes a wide range of annual reports. In 2014, the board announced that 15
organizations. Thousands of NGOs of all sizes and purposes unnamed NGOs were under investigation for links with Al-
operate all over Kenya. NGOs are active in many sectors Shabaab. In 2015, the board deregistered 959 NGOs following
including agriculture, water, education, environment, health, its audit. Two prominent human rights NGOs, Haki Africa and
human rights, gender and development, children’s rights, poverty MUHURI, were included in a list of “entities suspected to be
alleviation, peace, population, training, counseling, small-scale associated with Al-Shabaab,” published by the police; they have
enterprises, disability, and many others.13 Registration of all challenged the allegation in court with limited success. Toward
such organizations (including churches) with the government the end of 2016, the government suspended a US$19.3 million
is required. Recent years have seen considerable tensions (KSh2 billion) program by the International Foundation for
around these non-profit organizations, both international and Electoral Systems (IFES), an American NGO involved in civic
local, including successive announcements that large numbers education and electoral expertise assistance accused of operating
were shut down for failing to comply with registration and without requisite authorization and having foreign workers
reporting requirements, suspicion that some may be fueling without proper work permits. In January 2017, the board
dissatisfaction with the government, and concerns about announced a crackdown on NGOs working in counties.14 The
financial flows to organizations linked to groups associated question of levels of appropriate government oversight is thus
with terrorism. an outstanding issue. One commentator called government
actions to tighten controls “using a mallet to kill a mosquito.”
The Non-Governmental Organizations Co-ordination Board,
a State Corporation established by the Non-Governmental Civil society coordination efforts include the National Council
Organizations Co-ordination Act (Cap 19) of 1990, is of NGOs, a self-regulating, non-partisan body comprising
responsible for regulating and enabling the NGO sector in all registered NGOs in Kenya. Established in August 1993
Kenya. It began operations in 1992 under the Ministry of under Section 23 of the Non-governmental Organizations
State in the Office of the President, and currently comes under Co-ordination Act, 1990 (Laws of Kenya) its mandate includes
the Ministry of Devolution and Planning. Its responsibilities self-regulation, capacity building, and policy intervention. The
22 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
NGO council membership includes international, regional, political issues involving Muslim communities have assumed
and national NGOs operating in Kenya and those working greater prominence.
with a host of community organizations and groups. It aims
to provide overall leadership to the NGO sector, championing Several recent events associated with politics and governance
“the key values of probity, transparency, accountability, justice, have had a marked impact on development strategies. These
and good governance” and assisting members in realizing their include the unexpected and severe violence following the 2007
potential to improve the socioeconomic status of Kenyan election; the 2010 constitution and its sweeping devolution
society in pursuit of sustainable development. reforms; efforts to combat corruption that is seen as pervasive
and debilitating; and the broader impact of violence and
Civil society is generally understood to include religious insecurity. Religious dimensions of conflict and peacebuilding
organizations, though this can be a matter of dispute (notably are addressed in a 2016 WFDD report.15
where religious organizations see themselves as distinct from
other NGOs). A notable point advanced is that religious
institutions are more rooted and of far longer duration than Election-linked Violence
what are referred to disparagingly as “brief-case NGOs.” Many
Kenyan NGOs in practice have a religious link or formal Violence exploded in Kenya immediately following national
religious affiliation. However, they are not treated as a separate elections in December 2007, shocking both Kenyans and their
category within or alongside civil society more broadly. There international partners with its suddenness and ferocity. Protests
is no specific oversight or coordinating body for faith inspired by the opposition against President Mwai Kibaki’s re-election
organizations. and allegations of vote rigging escalated swiftly with violent
clashes across some parts of Kenya, inflamed by ethnic and
tribal rhetoric. A power-sharing agreement brokered by a team
POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE of international mediators led by former UN secretary general
Kofi Annan curtailed the violence, but not before an estimated
Political and ethnic tensions pose large challenges to Kenya’s 1,200 people were killed and 300,000 displaced.16 Kenya came
development progress. Conflicts (which present obvious to the brink of civil war.
obstacles to policy and programs) have historically focused on
ethnicity, rooted above all in unequal access to political power Because the scale of violence was so unexpected, the events have
and resources, particularly land, water, and public sector jobs. sparked much reflection on deep social tensions that had been
Extensive patronage systems benefit particular ethnic groups largely masked and on appropriate ways to move forward.17
and exacerbate divisions and tensions. Political and class The formulation and public approval by referendum in 2010
dimensions also contribute to tensions that tend to be (mis-) of a new constitution and the establishment of a National
characterized as ethnic. Ethnic tensions owe much to British Cohesion and Integration Commission represent a response
colonial policies and have persisted since independence. A to the entrenched ethnic and political behavior patterns. The
legacy of related religious tensions was inherited from British roles of religious leaders and institutions have been prominent
colonial relationships with missionary groups and their focus in these reflections. A report on the post-election violence by
in specific areas of the country—for example, the Seventh-day the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights found
Adventists in Kisii. Inevitably, and not related to the colonial that the failure of faith organizations further compounded a
influence, Muslims mainly live along the coast, with its strong “situation where no single national institution appeared neutral
Arab influence, and in the northeast, near Somalia (See enough to offer moral leadership when the country descended
Chapter 3). into chaos.”18,19 Religious leaders lacked the credibility and
cohesion to be impartial arbiters—although some individual
Openly religious conflicts have not played a prominent role religious leaders, the peacebuilding NGO community, and the
in Kenya’s history. However, because of the common overlap Kenya Private Sector Alliance (KEPSA) did make significant
between ethnic and religious identities, ethnic conflicts and positive contributions. Subsequently the main religious groups,
tensions often have at least some religious overtones. Religious as well as numerous grassroots organizations, have committed
leaders have long played significant roles in Kenya’s political themselves to reconciliation and deterring violence.20 Religious
affairs. Active roles of Christian churches, especially in politics, groups, for example, participate in nationwide early warning
weave through pre- and post-independence Kenya. Churches and early response networks to monitor hate speech and to
were identified with the independence movement as well as deter violence, especially among youth, before it spreads.
with colonial rule and the fight against racism and ethnic
divisions. The reality is complex, however, as some actions by As a result of the 2007-2008 turmoil, all elections are approached
churches have at times perpetuated divisions. In recent years, with some trepidation. The March 4, 2013, presidential,
County Assembly
Speaker Governor
Elected Members
Head of County
Deputy Governor
Public Service
KEY
County Service Departments
Elected
Civil Servants
• Agriculture and Live Stock • Physical Planning/Housing
Appointed
• Finance and Accounting • Public Works and Utilities
Departments
• Environment and National Resources • Public Service MGMT
• Health Services • Trade, Industry, Development and Regulation
• Education Culture, Social • Road and Transport
Source: Samuel Mwenda, “Devolution of Health Services in Kenya: Issues Affecting Faith Based Health Services” (presentation, March 18, 2015), http://
www.slideshare.net/achapkenya/devolution-of-health-services-in-kenya-by-dr-samuel-mwenda-chak-45977514.
24 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
services including water, roads, health facilities and electricity percent of those who get sick are asked for an average bribe
to marginalized areas to the extent necessary to bring the of KSh1,866 (US$18). An average bribe of KSh200 (US$2)
quality of those services in those areas to the level generally is required to obtain burial permits.24 The crowd-sourced
enjoyed by the rest of the nation, so far as possible.” Areas that website “I Paid a Bribe,” established by activist Anthony
benefit include Turkana and Kajiado, which were traditionally Ragui, provides a window into the extent of corruption in the
neglected by the centralized system. Kenya’s counties now everyday life of Kenyans. The website logged many thousand
have considerable autonomy, including over public service reports of Kenyans being asked to pay bribes. The devolution
management. The Constitution gives the county governments’ process offers important windows to improving services and
executive and legislative branches the authority and mandate to accountability, but the still weak capacity and will of local
raise revenue (still in its early stages), craft policies, and make government present significant challenges. While the need
their own budgets for the purpose of devolving services to the to improve on development and service delivery to citizens is
people.22 fully accepted by the county government leadership (or else
they will not be re-elected), they must also finance the means
Debates on the 2010 constitution involved a significant of being “generous” to their constituents as candidates, as well
focus on the political roles of religious actors. Latent religious as keeping the members of their county assemblies friendly in
tensions between and within Kenya’s Muslim and Christian passing the county budget and holding back from launching
organizations surfaced around two issues in particular: the role impeachment initiatives.
of Islamic Kadhi courts and abortion. Various polls conducted
at the time suggested that two-thirds of Kenyans backed the
draft constitution but several Christian institutions actively Crime and Violence
opposed both the Kadhi amendments (reflecting concerns
around Muslim roles in society) and modifications in the High rates of urban crime and violence, violent reactions to the
limited circumstances in which abortion was permitted. 2007 elections, and terrorist attacks highlight the challenges
of fragility that Kenya faces. As a measure of international
perception, Kenya scored 9825 in the “alert” category of the
Poor Governance and Corruption 2016 Fragile State Index, ranking 20 in the list of countries,
admittedly in part due to regional fragility.26 Kenya is vulnerable
Corruption has a pervasive impact both on the everyday to the spillover of violent extremism from neighboring Somalia,
lives of Kenyans and at high levels of political office, and as well as to trans-regional trafficking of illegal drugs through
it is a persistent concern for Kenyan citizens and Kenya’s the country.27 As host to some 600,000 refugees, the largest
development partners. Successive anti-corruption mechanisms numbers from Somalia, Kenya faces tensions with populations
and commissions have sought to address the problem, but with in the affected regions, as well as broader Muslim-Christian
mixed results. Kenya ranks poorly in international comparative tensions. International concern resulting from terrorist
measures of governance and corruption, albeit with some recent incidents affects Kenya’s vital tourism industry, although there
evidence of improvement: for example, it was 145 of 176 in the has been some significant recent recovery. The Social Progress
2016 Transparency International (TI) Corruption Perceptions Imperative rates Kenya low on personal safety.28
Index.23 Corruption penetrates every level of society. Kenya’s
competitiveness suffers because of corruption and other Longstanding tensions around land rights and resources fuel
factors that include obstacles to starting a business, access to internal conflict, especially among ethnic groups. Human
electricity, registering property, protecting minority investors, rights groups highlight flaws in justice systems, especially
and resolving insolvency. In 2016, Kenya improved its ranking those accessible to poor citizens. Indeed, discriminatory and
in the World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business assessment by 21 unjust contact with law enforcement is a factor contributing
places to reach 92 of 190 countries; it was ranked the world’s to extremist group recruitment. The 2017 Human Rights
third most reformed country. Watch report comments: “respect for human rights in Kenya
remained precarious in 2016, with authorities failing to
Bribery and extortion are common experiences for citizens in adequately investigate a range of abuses across the country and
their access to public services and in seeking justice. A report undermining basic rights to free expression and association.
by the Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission (EACC) gives Human rights activists and journalists working on a range of
details on how Kenyans pay bribes for services, reporting a issues face increasing obstacles and harassment. Human rights
crime to the police, or obtaining a national identity card. The organizations continue to implicate Kenyan police and military
size of bribes varies from one county to another; Mandera leads in disappearances and killings of individuals allegedly linked to
with the average bribe at KSh80,000 (US$773). Although Al-Shabaab.”29
medical attention is the most sought after service, 20.7
26 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
showing significant improvement as a result of focus and which are linked to changing climate conditions. Substantial
resources at that local level. New clinics, extra equipment, work and pilot programs focus on spreading practices such as
and more ambulances improve matters, though insufficient water harvesting, storage, and utilization, but there is far to
attention continues to be paid to preventive healthcare. go before these are widespread or fully address the problems.
The famous snow-cap on Mt. Kenya is rapidly melting, which
High population growth rates are a long-standing issue for threatens to leave the region without fresh water sources.
Kenya and are linked to high rates of maternal and infant Particular geographic locations are vulnerable to drought or
mortality. Knowledge of contraceptive methods is high, but flooding, such as the coastal city of Mombasa, a major tourist
usage rates are relatively low (53.2 as of 2014). The proportion destination. Due to its low altitude, it is estimated that 17
of births attended by skilled health professional has barely percent of Mombasa will be submerged with a sea-level rise
changed since 1990, while fertility rates remain high. The 2014 of only 0.3 meters.50 Climate change has consequences for the
Kenya Demographic and Health Survey shows that Kenyan social sectors; for example, the 2011 Horn of Africa drought
women have an average of 3.9 births, marking a decline from caused 508,000 children to leave school and brought an
the total fertility rate of 4.6 recorded in the 2008-2009 survey. estimated 290,000 Somalis to Kenya as refugees. Religious
Religious and cultural beliefs play especially significant roles in leaders and institutions are increasingly active as advocates for
issues that involve reproductive health, shaping, for example, action on environmental and climate change issues.
approaches to sex education in schools.
Kenya faces complex issues for orphans and vulnerable
Gender issues are central both to development policy and children (OVC). The National AIDS Control Council
the intersection of religion and development.47 Kenya has reported that Kenya’s total number of orphans was worryingly
made progress especially in increasing women’s participation high at nearly 2.5 million in 2013.51 Data on vulnerable
in governance. The number of women in parliament rose from children are problematic, as different organizations use varying
1.1 percent in 1990 to 20 percent in 2013. Women’s share of parameters to define vulnerability. The 2012 Social Protection
employment in non-agricultural sectors also jumped from 21 Review by the Kenyan Government states that out of the
percent in 1990 to 36 percent in 2013. Many challenges remain, 19.1 million children aged 0-18, 3.6 million (19 percent) are
however. Girls’ retention rates in primary and secondary school considered orphans and/or vulnerable children.52 The leading
continue to lag—although 16 out of the top 20 in the recent cause of vulnerability is HIV/AIDS, although new infection
Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) examinations rates and deaths are declining, and the use of ARVs means
were girls, and there is increasing concern as to whether boys that the number of AIDS orphans is on a steady downward
face particular obstacles that deserve attention. Harmful cultural trajectory. Other causes of vulnerability and orphanhood
practices such as female genital mutilation, early marriage, and center on the broad challenges of poverty. The government has
child labor persist, and sexual and gender-based violence (rape, established policies and programs that target OVC, working
for example) is widespread at all levels of society. collaboratively with organizations concerned with child welfare
(including many faith-linked organizations). A nationally
Kenya’s penal code criminalizes sodomy. Under this law, a representative survey in 2012 emphasized the low coverage of
“person who…has carnal knowledge of any person against OVC support services: of the sampled OVC population, only
the order of nature…or permits a male person to have carnal 3.7 percent received medical services; 4.1 percent received
knowledge of him or her against the order of nature” commits psychological services; 1.3 percent received social services; 6.2
a felony, punishable by a 14-year prison term. An attempt to percent received material support; and 11.5 percent received
commit an unnatural offense, also a crime, is punishable by a educational support within the last 12 months.53
seven-year prison term.48 Religious teachings and beliefs play
roles in attitudes toward homosexuality.
Many features mark Kenya as a particularly diverse country; these Table 3.1. Kenyan Population by Religious Affiliationa
include its religious landscape, the product of its complex history
and dynamic present. Thousands of religious communities, over Tradition Population % of Total
70 distinct ethnic groups, and some 30 languages and dialect
Catholic 9,010,684 23.4
clusters54 are central features of Kenya’s plural society. Cultures and
belief systems vary widely even as they interconnect or overlap. Protestant 18,307,466 47.7
This chapter provides an overview of the religious landscape, Other Christian 4,559,584 11.2
drawing on historical and contemporary narratives and on
interviews conducted as part of the research. The central focus Muslim 4,304,798 11.2
is the involvement of religious actors, formally or informally, in Hindu 53,393 <1
development and humanitarian aid. This analysis thus addresses
religious institutions more than underlying beliefs. It highlights Traditionalist 635,352 1.7
resources that might be useful for engaging with or researching Other Religion 557,450 1.4
Kenya’s various faith actors, especially drawing on field research.
No Religion 922,128 2.4
Don’t Know 61,233 <1
KENYA’S CONTEMPORARY RELIGIOUS
Total 38,412,088
DEMOGRAPHY
The majority of Kenya’s population is Christian—over 80 a “Kenya Open Data Survey: 2009 Census, Volume 2, Table 12:
Population by Religious Affiliation,” Kenya Open Data, last
percent. The 2009 census showed a breakdown of total modified 2014, https://www.opendata.go.ke/-Environment-And-
population by Protestant (48 percent), Catholic (23 percent), Natural-Resources/2009-Census-Volume-2-Table-12-Population-by-
and other Christian (11 percent) (see table 3.1). The Roman Religi/jrmn-krnf.
28 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Catholic and Anglican Churches are the most established; other RELIGION AND THE STATE
influential denominations include the Seventh-day Adventists
(SDA), African Inland Church (AIC), and the Presbyterian
Church of East Africa (PCEA). Data on the dynamic Pentecostal Religious freedom is a foundational principle in Kenya,
and evangelical churches in Kenya are difficult to come by, but and it is largely applied in practice; the explosion of new
the Evangelical Alliance of Kenya (EAK) estimates numbers and different religious communities highlights how far this
at 10 million members, 308 denominations, and 38,000 freedom is applied. Kenya’s 2010 constitution stipulates that
congregations.55 African Independent and Instituted Churches there is no state religion; it prohibits religious discrimination
(AICs)—homegrown churches with indigenous worship, and guarantees freedom of religion and belief individually or
theology, and social organization—are an important part of in community, including the freedom to practice any religion
Christianity in Kenya. through worship, practice, teaching, or observance. The
constitution affirms that individuals will not be compelled
Muslims, at about 11 percent of the population, represent the to act or engage in any act contrary to their belief or religion.
largest minority religious group in Kenya. The majority are Sunni
Muslims of the Shafi’i school of jurisprudence, but there are also By law, new churches, other places of worship, and faith-
Shi’a and Ahmadi Muslims. Muslims live in all regions of Kenya, based NGOs must register with the Registrar of Societies,
with the majority in the coastal and northeastern regions. which reports to the attorney general’s office. Recently
tightened registration requirements have been quite
Smaller religious communities include Hindus, Sikhs, and controversial, with questions raised as to the practical bar
Baha’is. About 10 percent of Kenyans are thought to adhere that organizations like small churches and NGOs must
to traditional or indigenous beliefs; these are often mixed with cross and the motivations for changing the process. Various
mainstream Christianity or Islam. There are quite small numbers restrictions on both Christian churches (directed largely to
of professed atheists. prosperity gospel preachers) and Muslim organizations are
discussed below. The situation has been complicated because
the capacity to register, much less to oversee its application,
can be limited. The government allows indigenous and
traditional religious groups to register, though many
choose not to. In order to register, an individual must
Box 3.1. Ethnicity in Kenya have a valid national identification document and pay a
fee. Registered religious institutions and places of worship
Ethnicity is relevant for an understanding of religious
demography because of considerable overlap and
interconnections. Kenya’s population comprises 42 Figure 3.1. Kenya’s Ethnicity Map
African ethnic groups and significant minorities of
Arab, South Asian, and European descent. The largest
groups include the Kikuyu (20 percent of the total
population), the Luhya (14 percent), the Kalenjin
(13 percent), and the Luo (10 percent).a The Kikuyu
traditional homeland is in the former Central Province
(see map); as they lost significant landholdings to British
colonists in the early twentieth century, many migrated
to other regions, including the Rift Valley. The Luhya
are located mainly in the western region, the Kalenjin
mostly in the Rift Valley, and the Luo predominantly in
Nyanza. Other groups include the Kamba (10 percent),
Kenyan Somali (6.2 percent), and Kisii (5.7 percent).
30 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
illustration is the widespread presence of SACCOs (Savings HISTORICAL LEGACY
and Credit Co-Operatives), some of which are established by
faith communities, that offer members a system to pool funds
and have access to loans. Such tangible religious community Kenya’s contemporary religious landscape, as well as laws and
support has deep roots in Kenyan history and tradition. governance traditions, were shaped in significant ways during
Kenya’s first president, Jomo Kenyatta, asked all Kenyans to the colonial period. Christian missionary expansion into Kenya
embrace harambee61 (community self-help events) to develop was facilitated by association with European colonialists (and
Kenya shortly after independence, a traditional concept that vice versa). As the British presence expanded in what is now
has taken on some religious overtones. Kenya from 1874, British authorities saw missionaries from
the Church Mission Society (CMS) as having an integral role
In many societies, religious leaders are among those who in advancing the colonial missions in Africa. One result was
are most trusted. They play leadership roles in areas ranging what some describe as a nationalist missionary consciousness,67
from teaching and reinforcing values and behaviors to specific but it also embedded many colonialist approaches and values in
leadership on care of vulnerable populations, education, and emerging denominations. Tensions mounted between missions
health. Reliable data on levels of trust of religious leaders, and the state, especially after Kenya became a protectorate in
especially compared to other groups, is rather sparse for Kenya. 1895 and regulations were established for missions, for example
Both Afrobarometer and Pew Research Center surveys have requiring a minimum of ten miles (or 16 kilometers) between
found indications that levels of trust in religious leaders are stations of different groups. Christian missionaries were
quite high. In a 2016 national survey of 1,854 youth conducted generally seen as an integral part of the European presence, and
by the Aga Khan University, when asked what they value most, Africans, at times, accepted them based on political pressure or
85 percent placed faith first; religion was reported as the second to be brokers or intermediaries. After Kenya became a colony
most trusted institution (86 percent), following family.62 in 1920, the government began to regulate areas dominated by
Religion is seen to provide “a haven of relative institutional missions more directly, including, for example, defining where
trust.”63,64 However, a common observation is that trust levels they could run education and health facilities. Authorities
may be eroding, as religious leaders have been involved in a series played roles in arbitrating among missionary groups, straining
of scandals and are seen as closely associated with the broader or at least altering relations.
corruption and impunity that are the face of poor governance
in Kenya. As a group, religious leaders lost credibility following Relations with Muslims along the coast of East Africa followed
the 2007-2008 post-election violence and debates around the a different path that left lasting legacies. An agreement was
referendum on the 2010 constitution because many were seen signed with the Sultan of Zanzibar in 1886 (Anglo-German
as partisan or failing to act in meaningful ways. For example, agreement) and renewed in 1895 (British). The commissioner
a newspaper survey from the Star reported that a 2010 poll of the protectorate assured Muslims along the coast that
indicated that 58 percent of those interviewed trust their they could practice their religion and sharia law. Unlike the
religious leaders less than they did before the referendum.65 British colony, where inhabitants were “British subjects,”
costal residents were considered “British protected persons.”
While levels of religiosity appear to be relatively high in Kenya, Arabs and Swahilis, literate and experienced in administration,
it is difficult to measure with any precision the number of would maintain their special status. Thus, traditional Muslim
adherents and the impact of religious beliefs on behaviors administrative mechanisms on the coast were integrated into
related to development. The question is complicated by the British administration.
difficult boundaries between culture and religion. There is
considerable fluidity between African traditional religions The contemporary geography of religious denominations thus
(ATRs) and mainline religious traditions. For example, people owes much to colonial experience, with the notable lasting feature
seeking healing through prayer or spiritual healing may go to of considerable overlap between ethnic and religious identity.
multiple worship services at different places of worship on a Early Christian missions targeted particular geographic areas or
given weekend and also seek traditional healing. Statistics on ethnic communities in Kenya. As the colonial administration
recourse to traditional religion for immediate needs are limited, encouraged expansion to the interior, competition for location
but estimates may understate those who both affiliate with resulted in delineation of geographic boundaries for missionary
a religious community and occasionally turn to traditional focus.68 By the 1910s, Christian missions had established an
religion. Few Kenyans admit openly to believing in or using agreement to respect spheres of work (or spheres of influence) to
traditional spiritual healers, but close observers argue that they manage competition, confusion, and denominationalism.69 For
are an important part of spirituality.66 example, the Anglican Church of Kenya and the Presbyterian
Church concentrated missionary and education efforts in
central Kenya, attracting many Kikuyu.70 The colonial powers
32 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
As nationalist movements emerged among Africans, religious
institutions and leaders were found on all sides of the debates.
Religious beliefs and ties were a fundamental motivating force
for both nationalist leaders and those who opposed the very Box 3.2. The Mau Mau Rebellion and Oathing
idea of independence. The role of the emerging AICs was
especially significant. The Mau Mau Rebellion (see box 3.2) The Mau Mau Rebellion (1952-1959) represented
was a prominent manifestation of the reaction and its complex a basic challenge to the state’s authority to maintain
social and political dimensions. It put Kenyans on different law and order and included elements of supernatural
sides, their positions often articulated in starkly religious terms. beliefs and practices. It also reflected reactions to
land alienation. The movement is an early example
The post-independence period has seen an explosion in Kenya’s of religion—or spirituality—blended with a political,
population and a remarkable increase in its religious diversity. socioeconomic agenda and responding to anti-colonial
A distinctive feature is both transformations within mainline grievances.
Protestant and Catholic communities and the emergence of
what the Pew Research Center calls “charismatic Christianity.”75 The movement started within the Kikuyu ethnic
This has notably involved the rapid growth of both AICs and group, developing in the 1940s as a nationalist political
many new Pentecostal and evangelical churches.76 These “new” movement that escalated to violence in the 1950s.
churches began as early as 1912, when a first Pentecostal It resulted in a state of emergency, declared in 1952.
missionary arrived from Finland. The forbears of the Pentecostal Colonial authorities initially labeled the movement
Assemblies of God began work in Kenya not long afterward. as a religious cult that used spiritual rituals and oaths
Among others, U.S. and Canadian missionaries played active to ensure commitment of supporters and warriors.
roles, especially after independence in 1963, and an umbrella European settlers reacted with suspicion of virtually all
body (Evangelical Fellowship of Kenya) was formed in 1976 of Kikuyus, and thousands were displaced or detained for
mostly Pentecostal and charismatic churches. A survey in the early “rehabilitation.” The Mau Mau movement used two
1990s found that the Assemblies of God was Nairobi’s fastest types of oathing to gain support and cooperation: one,
growing denomination. Between 1972 and 1986, the number an oath of unity, and the other, a warrior’s oath.b The
of Pentecostal churches in Nairobi doubled. Televangelism, colonial powers responded to the uprising with policies
prosperity theology, and crusades by Western preachers were and practices aimed at “cleansing” or “de-oathing”
and remain a common feature of Kenyan religious life. Nigerian known or suspected Mau Mau adherents, essentially
mega-churches, for example Winner’s Chapel, are among those bureaucratizing the supernatural. Kikuyu from the
that draw tens of thousands of congregants each Sunday. In early Central Province bore the brunt of these tactics, though
2006, American Pentecostal preacher T. D. Jakes attracted nearly other ethnic groups were also targeted. Attempts to
one million people to Uhuru Park in Nairobi. The Pew Forum’s convert individuals away from Mau Mau influence
2006 survey suggested that what they term “renewalists,” which in detention camps included, among other strategies,
includes charismatics and Pentecostals, accounted for more encouraging confession of sin and Christian teaching
than half of Kenya’s population with approximately seven in ten (the Anglican and Presbyterian churches in Kenya were
Protestants in Kenya either Pentecostal or charismatic.77 largely Kikuyu and were supportive of this approach).c
The Mau Mau Rebellion was crushed in 1959 with a
political solution emerging shortly after.d
RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES
AND INSTITUTIONS a Bruce J. Berman, “Nationalism, Ethnicity, and Modernity: The
Paradox of Mau Mau,” Canadian Journal of African Studies 25
(1991): 181-206.
Traditional Religions and Spirituality b Maia Green, “Mau Mau Oathing Rituals and Political Ideology
in Kenya: A Re-Analysis,” African Journal of the International
Indigenous cosmologies influence the way Kenyans view and African Institute 60, no. 1 (1990): 69-87.
interact with the world in important but complex ways. A rich c John Lonsdale, “Mau Maus of the Mind: Making Mau Mau
and Remaking Kenya,” The Journal of African History 31(1990):
set of research documents this facet of the religious landscape, 393-421.
although it is often segmented through in-depth case studies or d See chapters 17 and 18 in R. Mugo Gatheru, Kenya: From
a canvas that looks at a broad pan-African spirituality. Colonization to Independence, 1888-1970 (Jefferson, NC:
McFarland, 2005).
Traditional belief systems predominated in the region that is
present-day Kenya long before Islam, Christianity, or other
world religions were introduced. Traditional or indigenous but despite profound transformations brought by conversion
“religions” often form the basis for understanding how humans to Islam and Christianity, the role of traditional religions in
relate to the environment and to other people.78 Against the structuring relationships to landscape and identity is still relevant.
reality of little contemporary written evidence, anthropologists
and historians have examined documents from missionaries An issue calling for caution is the frequent bias reflected in
and the colonial bureaucracy to piece together a picture of what written histories that describe religious changes, including
predated conversion to Christianity and Islam. Researchers those touching on traditional religions. Evangelization often
meet where they can with elders who can tell the spiritual story. encouraged replacing indigenous beliefs with what were
seen as more acceptable beliefs and practices. As an example,
Understanding traditional religious approaches is complicated missionaries viewed the Kikuyu dance-songs accompanying
by their diversity, changes associated with modernization, and circumcision ceremonies as designed to encourage sexual
an increasingly intermingled population. Historically, each of lust and immortality. Polygamy was associated with sexual
the various ethnic groups in what is today Kenya had their excesses, and “witch doctors” were seen to use material means
own language, cultural practices, belief systems, and rituals. to encourage superstition.82 The colonial powers viewed
The indigenous religions of the four largest ethnic groups traditional religion, especially witchcraft, with suspicion and
of northern Kenya, still clearly important today, offer some sought to diminish its influence and power, commonly framing
illustrations. The Borana, Gabra, Rendille, and Samburu action in moral terms. The first Witchcraft Ordinance was
ethnic communities share four common traits: nomadic (or passed in 1909 with the goal to punish persons practicing or
semi-nomadic) lifestyle, economy based on raising livestock, making use of “witchcraft.”83 The 1931-1932 Wakamba Witch
a culture closely aware of the passage of time, and a religion Trial, which charged 70 men for killing a witch, was a pivotal
closely connected to natural phenomena.79 Even after case in the minds of the public and colonial administration.
conversion to Islam or Christianity, the Borana, for example, The 1930 Kenya Penal Code left no other option than death
retain customs about birth, marriage, social integration and sentences for the men,84 and the executions were seen as a loss
position, and traditional ways of calculating time. Their religion of social control to Kenyans who wished to assert the legitimacy
uses a lunar calendar that ascribes auspiciousness to each day, of their own form of justice. An attempt to set standard policies
month, and year.80,81 More broadly, nomadic lifestyles allowed for witchcraft-related cases across the British Empire elicited
multiple ethnic groups to move and share space. Many of mixed yet strong reactions and had limited real impact.
these migrations had an element of ritual. Sedentary lifestyles
assumed increasing importance in the 1970s, and attending Kenyan converts were generally socialized to revere Western
school and church took on greater significance. Educated symbols, art, music, dress, and language and, thus, devalue
youth today tend to show waning interest in retaining rituals, or reject local cultures and religious elements. Resistance to
34 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
change took various forms. Reactions to female circumcision building of the railway, begun in Mombasa in 1895, other
(FGM/C) are an important example, with both active and missions ventured further from the coast and competition
passive resistance over many years.85 The Mau Mau Rebellion increased. Among others, the English Society of Friends began
also involved forms of resistance. Despite the significant changes, an industrial mission on the Island of Pemba, later expanding
attitudes toward the significance, permissibility, or respect of to western Kenya. Missionaries from the United States started
traditional religion have endured in complex and sometimes the Church of God in western Kenya in 1905. The Pentecost
elusive ways. Less than 2 percent of Kenyans (2009 census) Assemblies of Canada began their ministry in 1921, the
now identify as primarily adhering to traditional religions. Southern Baptists in 1956, the German Seventh-day Adventists
Further, and distinct from a number of African countries where in 1906, and the Salvation Army in 1921. More recent groups
traditional authorities play significant contemporary roles, include the Mormons, para-church organizations such as
it is difficult to identify leaders in Kenya who authentically the African Evangelistic Enterprise, World Vision, Campus
represent traditional religions and communities. Crusade, the Navigators, the YMCA., and the YWCA. In sum,
Kenya has been called “a haven for missions.”87
Christianity in Kenya
Roman Catholic missionary outreach proceeded in parallel.
Kenya’s colonial history is deeply entwined with Christianity’s From a first base in Zanzibar, missions expanded to Kosi on
rather complex geographic, ethnic, and denominational the Tana River in 1883, moving to Mombasa in 1890. In
patterns (discussed above).86 From the start, missionary 1899, immediately after the railway line reached Nairobi,
activity was part of the colonial enterprise. When explorer the Holy Ghost mission moved there, and the St. Austin
David Livingstone returned to England in 1856 after his first Mission developed Kenya’s first large Arabica coffee plantation.
exploratory journey, Christianity was barely known in Eastern Outstations were established in other regions of Kenya. The
Africa, despite earlier (failed) efforts to establish missions first Italian Fathers arrived in June 1902, establishing the
along the coast. Missionaries came along with merchants, Consolata mission, whose main focus was training. Between
governors, soldiers, and philanthropists, all with different but 1911 and 1913, they established four stations in Meru. The
interconnected interests. The Christian explorers tended to be Holy Ghost missionaries were predominantly French, and
especially keen to open up opportunities for evangelization. the Consolata missionaries were wholly Italian. The Mill Hill
group, which came later, was English and Dutch, arriving in
Christianity’s first lasting introduction to Kenya is attributed Kenya from Uganda. Numerous orders of sisters were part of
to a German peasant farmer, John Ludwig Krapf. Trained as a the Roman Catholic missionary outreach; the first to arrive
missionary in Basel, Switzerland, he spent five years in Ethiopia were the Daughters of St. Vincent in 1903.
as a missionary of the Church Missionary Society (CMS),
and then moved to Mombasa in 1844. Within two months Not surprisingly, this pattern of missionary expansion
his wife and newborn baby were dead, but Krapf intensified generated competition and sometimes tensions. One result
his evangelizing, translating the Bible into Kiswahili and was a series of efforts to promote cooperation and unity, at
producing a Swahili dictionary (he baptized only one person, least of purpose. Various missions worked together from the
however). Krapf ’s book Travels, Researches and Missionary start, and missionaries soon discovered that although missions
Labours inspired Methodists to start work in Kenya, and he had informally marked out different spheres of influence, it
helped Thomas Wakefield, the first missionary of the United was difficult to confine evangelistic work to a defined sphere.
Methodist’s Free Church, to establish a mission station in Ribe While the Catholic Church was not part of the arrangement,
in 1862. Protestant missions felt that it was scandalous when two or
more missions were engaged in outward rivalry. Other pastoral
In the late 1860s, European attention focused on the East problems called for cooperation between different missions.
African slave trade; the CMS and Methodists found themselves For instance, when catechists were dismissed from one mission
with rescued slaves who needed resettlement. Sir Bartle Frere, for misbehavior, another mission just a few miles away engaged
as special emissary in Zanzibar, encouraged Christian missions them; Christians disciplined by one mission would transfer
to address the problem, and the CMS began a large settlement their allegiance to a different mission. This inspired efforts to
of freed slaves. Missions grew from this base. After the Berlin define common standards and codes of discipline and a shared
Conference (1884-1885), missionary societies tended to look to attitude toward African customs. Meetings among missionaries
their nation of origin for support and protection as they moved began around 1908 with a fully-fledged conference on the
into the interior, and the number of mission societies grew. unity of the church at Kikuyu in 1913. These early efforts
A Scottish administrator, William Mackinnon, encouraged contributed to a strong tradition of ecumenical cooperation
the establishment of the East African Scottish Mission. With currently manifested in the National Council of Churches of
the formation of the British East Africa Protectorate and the Kenya (NCCK) and the Evangelical Alliance of Kenya (EAK).
36 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
headed by a bishop, with dioceses divided into archdeaconries The Africa Inland Church (AIC),97 one of Kenya’s largest
headed by a priest. Parishes are headed by a rector, with sub- Protestant churches, has about four million members. It grew
parishes headed by lay readers. The synod is the governing from the Africa Inland Mission (AIM) and is still closely tied to
council of the church as a body through three houses: the AIM. AIC has 15 bishops and a national office in Nairobi. The
House of Bishops, the Clergy, and the Laity. The Alliance church runs about 20 Bible training centers for missionaries and
High School, one of Kenya’s leading schools, was inaugurated church leaders. Projects focus on evangelism and community
in 1926 at Kikuyu by the Alliance of Protestant missions. development, including health, agriculture, animal health,
In 1954, Anglicans, Presbyterians, and Methodists jointly income generation, water development, and education. AIC
established St. Paul’s United Theological College in Limuru. has a strong mission program.98
Today, St. Paul’s is a Christian chartered university offering a
broad theological education with its main campus in Limuru The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Kenya (ELCK) is a
and other campuses in Nairobi, Nakuru, and Machakos. The member of the Lutheran World Federation, which it joined
Reformed Church of East Africa joined the Anglican Church in 1970, and the International Lutheran Council. It was born
in 1973. In 1956, Church Army, an Evangelistic and social out of the missionary work of the Swedish Lutheran Mission
welfare arm of the Anglican Church, began work in Kenya. in 1948 (SLM). In 1973, the name was changed to ELCK with
The first mothers’ union members were admitted at Kabete three districts: North, Kisii, and Nyanza districts.
church; the union was started in Kenya in 1918 by European
women. The Anglican Development Services (ADS-Kenya) is The Holy Archdiocese of Kenya is an Eastern Orthodox
charged with the church’s development issues.94 Church diocese that is under the jurisdiction of the Greek
Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria and All Africa. The
The Presbyterian Church of East Africa (PCEA)95 consists Orthodox community of Kenya is the largest on the African
of about 10 percent of Kenya’s population. Early missionaries continent with about a million parishioners. The Kenyan
from Scotland, notably Dr. John Arthur, combined business Archdiocese of the Alexandrian Patriarchate has about 200
with evangelizing. After a somewhat turbulent early history churches, dozens of church parochial schools, and a seminary.
and various schisms, the mission was handed over to the
Church of Scotland and focused among the Kikuyu and Meru Quakers in Kenya make up about half of the world’s Quakers
people.96 In 1920, the first Kenyan elders were ordained. In (Kenya has the largest body of Quakers in a single nation), with
1946, the Gospel Missionary Society (GMS), an American- about 130,000 members of the Religious Society of Friends
oriented church based at Kambui in Kiambu, joined the (according to the Friends World Committee for Consultation,
overseas Presbytery of Kenya, a catalyst for church growth and 2000). The Quaker faith has been thriving in Kenya for over
official formation of the denomination. Today the church has 100 years. The Society of Friends was the first Christian group
over 1,000 congregations, 310 parishes, and 54 presbyteries, to minister to the Luhya people in western Kenya. From
divided into five regions. The PCEA maintains relations with that small beginning, Quakerism spread throughout Kenya,
the Church of Scotland, the United Church of Canada, the although it is still concentrated in the western area. East Africa
Presbyterian Church (USA), the Reformed Church of America, Yearly Meeting (EAYM), set up in 1946, has morphed into
and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland. It has been a pioneer nearly 20 yearly meetings, though all come together under
in education and medical work, founding Kenya’s first hospital the umbrella of Friends Church Kenya. Some mission work,
in 1908. It now maintains three hospitals and several health notably social services, is ongoing, concentrated in the Turkana/
centers, two schools for deaf children, a home for the elderly, Samburu districts in northern Kenya. Friends United Mission
and a home for destitute children. It sponsors 700 schools, has an Africa office in Kisumu, and shared projects continue.99
both primary and secondary.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) traces its first
The Methodist Church of Kenya (with membership around missionaries to the early twentieth century and is active today
450,000) began as United Methodist Free Church in 1882 in Kenya. In 2012, the SDA Church East Africa Union was
from a base in Ribe. It works today in several regions of Kenya, reorganized into the Kenya Union Mission, which further
with ministers from almost all ethnic groups. It became split into two East and West Kenya Union Conferences.
autonomous in 1967. The church sponsors over 140 schools, SDA’s services include Adventist University of Africa, which
one hospital, 10 clinics, three agricultural training centers, provides theological training to pastors across Africa. SDA
15 youth polytechnics, the Kenya Methodist University, and also operates several other universities and many secondary
two guesthouses. It runs St. Paul’s University together with schools. The territory of eastern Kenya and Somalia comprise
other churches. the Central Kenya, Central Rift Valley, Nyamira, and South
Kenya Conferences and Kenya Coast Field. There are 2,832
38 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Fellowship of Kenya (EFK), an umbrella body formed in 1976
of mostly Pentecostal and charismatic churches.112 The latter
group has tended to be less involved in political matters, in part Box 3.4. Religious Media
because they have less “cover” from external support.
Kenya has an active religious media and religious
The different strands have evolved in different historical eras. topics are regularly reported in mainstream media. The
A Pentecostal evangelist founded the African Israel Church Pentecostal churches are those most closely linked to the
Nineveh in 1942 after breaking with the Pentecostal Assemblies media and to the revolution it is undergoing. Kenya has
of Canada. Two significant Pentecostal denominations many religious radio stations and a Christian TV station.
emerged: the Pentecostal Evangelical Fellowship of Africa Some programs are broadcast from the United States.
(started by U.S. missionaries in 1944) and the Full Gospel
Churches of Kenya, started by Finnish missionaries in 1949.
In 1957, American evangelist T.L. Osborn set up a mission on
the Kenyan coast with an emphasis on healing and readiness
to confront issues like witchcraft. After independence in of contemporary urban Christianity in Kenya is “business
1963, indigenous churches grew rapidly and many foreign management” Christianity, often linked to approaches
missionaries arrived. In 1967, American Pentecostal Dale inspired by the prosperity gospel.
Brown founded the Kenya Assemblies of God, which joined
with the Assemblies of God (USA) in 1972. It was Nairobi’s
fastest growing denomination, reporting an annual growth rate Contemporary Islam in Kenya
of 38 percent. The Pentecostal Deliverance Church of Kenya
was founded in 1970, an indigenous ministry that attracted Though precise numbers are contested, approximately 11
urban youth. The Deliverance Church became an important percent of Kenya’s population is Muslim, with many living on
member of the EFK. Between 1972 and 1986, the number of the coast and in the northeast. Islam has a longer history than
Pentecostal churches in Nairobi doubled, with televangelism, Christianity in Kenya, though it has remained geographically
prosperity theology, and crusades by Western preachers focused in urban coastal communities, with a nomadic
increasingly significant. In early 2006, American Pentecostal community near the Somali border. The vast majority of
preacher T. D. Jakes drew nearly one million people to Uhuru Kenyan Muslims follow Sunni Islam and the Shafi’i school
Park in Nairobi. of jurisprudence. There are, however, sizeable populations of
Shia and Ahmadi adherents. Most Shias are Ismailis, descended
Scholar Paul Gifford points to middle-class Pentecostalism from or influenced by oceanic traders from the Middle East
as an important, even dominant strand of contemporary and India. As noted above, colonial history shaped where
Pentecostal churches in Kenya, with many people leaving most Muslims live, as well as specific legal provisions that are
mainline churches for newer churches like the Nairobi reflected in the 2010 constitution.
Pentecostal Church and Nairobi Chapel. Hallmarks of these
churches are independence and flexibility, in approach (to the
HIV/AIDS issue, for example) and music and social activity.
Core messages tend to focus on leading a moral life and social
responsibility. Another important strand is a wide range of
churches that focus on what is often termed the “prosperity
gospel.” Many are “Kenya grown,” but others have ties to
other regions, notably the United States and South Africa.
Living Faith Church Worldwide is better known as Winners’
Chapel, and was founded in Lagos, Nigeria, in 1983. Gifford
also notes a category he calls “proto-Pentecostal” that includes
the Redeemed Gospel Church, the Deliverance Church,
and Chrisco. They have “taken on faith, success, prosperity,
seemingly driven by market forces to provide what people
want.”113 The “natural home” for such Christianity is, he
argues, the cities. “Crusades” are a major phenomenon in
Kenya’s cities, drawing huge crowds. These churches are Jamia Mosque, Nairobi
associated with wealth. One side product is a series of highly
publicized scandals because of outright fraud. Another feature
Hindus114 have a strong presence and are well integrated into On the eve of independence, Swahilis faced a dilemma, as
Kenyan society. The history of their migration and settlement the fate of the coastal strip became the primary concern for
is only known in a patchy fashion. Many historical documents its residents. In 1952 Swahilis in Mombasa were officially
did not classify the Indian migrants to Africa by their religion. recognized as Arabs and were registered as such in elections
Indian migration to what is now Kenya began with the in 1957 and 1961. As the end of colonialism seemed
construction of the Uganda railway between 1896 and 1901. imminent, would Swahilis side with black Africans or with
An estimated 32,000 indentured laborers were recruited from Arabs? Swahilis did not have the full support of Arabs,
British India; many died during the railway’s construction, and many African leaders, especially Christians, distrusted
including those famously killed by the Tsavo lions. Many of the Swahilis. Some Swahilis and Arabs supported separation
of the coastal strip from Kenya (mwambao), and they
created the Coastal Peoples Party in hopes of preserving
the inhabitants’ special rights. Black Africans, including
Christians, Muslims, and animists, wanted the province to
integrate with Kenya. In 1963 the British government and
Sultan of Zanzibar signed an agreement to annex the coast
to Kenya, compensate the Sultan, and guarantee human
rights and freedom of religion for residents.
40 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
laborers settled in what was then the East Africa Protectorate
and were joined by their families. Most early settlers came
Box 3.6. Somali Kenyans and Marginalization from Gujarat and Punjab. Many also engaged in trade,
especially in Nairobi. Unlike black Africans, Asians were
Ethnic Somali Kenyans have a long history of tensions permitted to live legally in Nairobi, which was then a white
and marginalization. Most live in the northeastern region settler town.
and are pastoralists. Other Somali Kenyans have long
engaged in commercial activities and are found primarily The Kenyan Hindu community has tended to be averse to
in Nairobi’s Eastleigh neighborhood and in Mombasa. As public exposure of their religious affiliation, in part because
Kenyan independence neared, a movement grew among Hinduism is generally a non-missionary religion. Hindus
Somalis who sought secession and union with Somalia. comprise an estimated 70 percent of the total Indian
A referendum was eventually passed in 1959 in the population in the African diaspora and are mainly urban
Northeastern Province calling for secession. When this was dwellers with a vast majority involved in trade and commerce.
ignored, groups of armed Somali Kenyans called shiftas Hindu communities in Kenya have tended to be divided
clashed with Kenyan security forces. The Shifta War lasted into various sectarian and sub-ethnic groups, some of them
from December 1963 to 1968. The secessionist movement mutually exclusive. Criteria for subdivision vary but may
disintegrated, but actions of Kenyan security forces at include factors such as their area of origin in India, religious
Wagalla airstrip near Wajir in 1984 further isolated the sect, dialect, ethnicity, occupation, and social status. Most of
Kenyan Somali community; the army moved up to 5,000 the Hindu immigrants came from Gujarat, Sindh, Kutchi,
male Degodia (a Kenyan Somali sub-clan of the Hawiye) Punjab, Tripura, Kerala, Kannada, and Maharashtra, located
to the airstrip for interrogation, allegedly holding them on the southwestern and western coastline of India.115
for five days without food or water and executing more
than 300. The government declared a state of emergency, There are an estimated 20,000 Sikhs and 14,000 Jains in
silencing witnesses and banning writings about the event, Kenya. Their active communities are involved in many
which were not formally acknowledged until after 2002.a development activities, most specifically related to their
communities.
The Somalia conflict has brought closer scrutiny of ethnic
Somalis by the Kenya government. By 1989, rising Other active minority faith communities in Kenya include
security risks linked to the conflict and growing refugee the Baha’i (estimated 40,000), Jews (estimated 400), and
numbers from Somalia led the Kenyan government Brahma Kumaris. All have played innovative roles in various
to require Somalis (both Kenyan citizens and resident development activities.
Somali nationals) to carry a special identification card.
Screenings of Somalis lasted until 2002.b Following The Kenya Baha’i community traces its origins to the 1950s
the 2001 terrorist attack in the United States, Kenya when Baha’i teachers began outreach in Nairobi. While precise
sided closely with the U.S. global war on terror, which statistics are not readily available, the community today may
included a renewed focus on Somalia. Somali Kenyans include some 40,000 people concentrated in Nairobi and the
and Somali refugeesc continue to be viewed as potential western counties. As it is globally, the Kenyan community is
security threats in part due to their religious affiliations intentional in its engagement on national and global issues
and the tactics of Al-Shabaab. and in its commitment to core principles like equality and
participation. This translates into the focus on the interests of
a The Wagalla massacre was investigated by the “Truth, Justice,
and Reconciliation Commission” set up in 2008 and called
Baha’i communities in different parts of the country. Many
the worst violation of human rights in Kenyan history. See community activities thus reflect local initiatives focused
David M. Anderson, “Remembering Wagalla: state violence in on topics like environment, education (mostly spiritual
northern Kenya, 1962–1991,” Journal of Eastern African Studies formation), health, and conflict resolution. During the
8 (2014): 658-676.
2007-2008 violence, the community played local mediation
b Donovan C. Chau, “The fourth point: An examination of
the influence of Kenyan Somalis in Somalia,” Journal of roles and provided support and protection to those at risk.
Contemporary African Studies 28 (July 2010): 297-312. The community’s commitment to interreligious dialogue
c For more, see Elizabeth Stoddard, “Refugees in Kenya: Roles is reflected in active participation in national interfaith
of Faith,” (Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World organizations.
Affairs: November 2015), http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/
publications/refugees-in-kenya-roles-of-faith.
National Council of Churches of Kenya (NCCK) Ali Mazrui, who died in 2014, dominated the field of
African Studies for 50 years. An intellectual giant, he
NCCK traces its origins to 1913. Today, it encompasses 27 helped shape academic and scholarly understandings of
member churches and 17 Christian organizations that work Africa during a critical period, for Africa and for global
collaboratively to further the holistic development of Kenya.116 history.a
The organization was originally named the United Missionary
Conference, but through the years evolved to be, sequentially, Mazrui was born in Mombasa, Kenya, into a prominent
the Federation of Missions, Alliance of Protestant Missions, Muslim family. His father was the Chief Kadhi of
Kenya Missionary Council, Christian Council of Kenya, and Kenya, the highest legal authority on Islamic law. The
National Christian Council of Kenya, until it took its current Mazrui clan ruled Mombasa in pre-colonial times and
name in 1984.117 NCCK is open to all Christian churches, was powerful during British colonial rule.
regardless of denomination.118 It has nine regional offices.
Mazrui attended Qur’anic schools, and then earned a
NCCK works in close collaboration with its member churches B.A. from the University of Manchester in the United
and organizations to implement programs at the grassroots Kingdom, an M.A. from Columbia University in New
community level. It functions by first promoting unity, York, and finally a Ph.D. from Oxford University.
fellowship, and dialogue among its members, and then using His research interests ranged from African politics to
its networks to manage programs that meet the emerging needs international political culture, as well as North-South
of its regional communities. NCCK operates in two main relations. Beyond colonialism, Mazrui focused on three
areas: capacity building for membership and governance and facets of Africa’s history: the classical Mediterranean
social services. These broad categories include many specific world, Africa’s interaction with the Semitic peoples,
program areas such as refugee services, family and community and the impact of Islam on the continent.
health, education, environment, economic empowerment,
peacebuilding, and constitutional reforms. A widely known public intellectual, Mazrui witnessed
the ebbs and flows of local and global events affecting
Africa and the Muslim world. The anti-colonial
Organization of African Instituted Churches (OAIC) revolutionary struggles across the continent provided
a compelling backdrop for Mazrui to project the hopes
The OAIC, a continent-wide organization founded in 1978, and dreams of millions of people. Mazrui was also an
has been headquartered in Nairobi since 1982, with a Kenya early critic of the type of African communism that
chapter that has taken form since the early 1990s. The AICs are developed in the post-colonial era, which he saw as yet
an important part of Kenya’s religious history and present and another dimension of Western influence. He provided
are growing today with many new AICs emerging (including a critical assessment of African neo-liberal economics
many calling themselves Pentecostals). Before 1978, no specific while remaining committed to the notion of African
organization had represented or supported them as a group; liberalism as a concept emerging from the historical
they often were barely recognized by mainline Christian experiences of the continent and its diverse people. He
churches. Most AIC leaders had little formal education, and offered constructive analysis of Islam’s role in society
many came from the ranks of the poorest and most vulnerable and the emergence of Islamism, at the same time
in society. It was in this context of marginalization that Pope rejecting the emerging violence in many parts of the
Shenouda III of the Egyptian Coptic Church invited various Muslim world. His many books include Towards a Pax
African AIC leaders to meet in Cairo; Coptic Church patronage Africana (1967) and The Political Sociology of the English
and support for the new organization grew from there. Language (1975).
OAIC’s original objectives were to provide a forum for AIC a “An intellectual giant: Ali Mazrui (1933-2014),” Al Jazeera,
leaders to share concerns and promote fellowship. OAIC October 18, 2014, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/
2014/10/an-intellectual-giant-ali-mazru-201410177120665454
initially kept a low profile, but over the years it has become
.html.
increasingly active and visible. Its focus is on theological and
biblical education for its members, including promoting
Sunday schools.119 OAIC has also been involved in direct
42 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Association of Evangelicals in Africa (AEA). EAK is a member
of the World Evangelical Alliance (WEA), which has over
650 million members globally. EAK’s vision is “to empower
the evangelicals to bring God’s transforming grace to the
people of Kenya through a united prophetic voice and holistic
ministries.”120 It is thus focused on evangelism, with a robust
set of objectives that include providing a national forum for
partnership, networking, and fellowship among the members,
as well as advocacy and leadership on issues “affecting the
spiritual, social, and physical welfare of the nation”; training
and capacity building; research, study, and assistance to member
churches and groups; and facilitating conflict resolution and
peacebuilding within and outside of EAK.
The Kenyan Ismaili community has played important roles in Kenya’s history and, notably through the Aga Khan
Development Network (AKDN), is actively involved in many development activities. It is small in numbers but large
in influence and impact.
Ismailis from the Indian sub-continent migrated to East Africa in significant numbers in the second half of the 19th and
early twentieth centuries. They have thrived in Kenya although they have faced challenges over the years. In 1945, the
community created the East African Muslim Welfare Society (EAMWS). By the 1950s EAMWS was already engaged
in an effort to train businessmen, agriculturalists, and professionals. Thus the community has focused on development
and eschewed involvement in politics.
Events in 1972 were something of a watershed for the East African Ismaili community, including in Kenya, drawing
the community directly into the politics of race and discrimination in the region. Then President Idi Amin expelled
Ismailis and other Asians from Uganda, although they were citizens and had lived there for generations. The community
has recovered and continued its leadership in establishing major social welfare and economic development institutions,
including schools and community centers and a modern, fully equipped hospital in Nairobi. The Diamond Jubilee
Investment Trust (now Diamond Trust of Kenya) and the Jubilee Insurance Company are major players in national
development. Both are part of the Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development (AKFED), which translates profits from
these companies into ventures that support employment and agricultural development.
The personal interest of the His Highness Prince Karim Aga Khan, the forty-ninth hereditary Imam of the Shia Imami
Ismaili Muslims, has played important roles in the Kenyan Ismaili community’s history and development approach.
Born in Geneva, he spent his early childhood in Nairobi and has traveled often to Kenya. He succeeded his grandfather
Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah Aga Khan on July 11, 1957. The Aga Khan leads AKDN, which works in over 30 countries
(Kenya prominent among them) and employs about 80,000 people worldwide. AKDN works through several
independent entities, which include the Aga Khan Academies (AKA), Aga Khan Agency for Habitat (AKAH), Aga
Khan Agency for Microfinance (AKAM), Aga Khan Education Services (AKES), Aga Khan Foundation (AKF), Aga
Khan Health Services (AKHS), Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC), and Aga Khan University (AKU).b
AKDN emphasizes notions of pluralism, non-denominational engagement, and creating a shared concept of the
common good and of a common humanity. It does not lead with “a theological chin.” The starting point is respect for
the traditions of all and no tradition is meant to exclude another.
“It’s a bit like teaching children about the environment—the environment is rich because it is diverse. It is not
impoverished by the fact that not all plants look the same, not all birds tweet the same, not all animals look the same.
If there’s diversity in creation, the implication is that that applies for human beings also. By making that move to
acknowledge diversity, we can then build on those things where there’s a common ethical vision so that the fact that we
differ in what we do in our churches, or mosques, or temples doesn’t have an impact on what we do outside, to build
society together.”c
a Michael Adam, ed., Indian Africa: Minorities of Indian-Pakistani Origins in East Africa (Nairobi, Mkuki na Nyoto, 2015).
b “Organisation Information,” AKDN, accessed January 23, 2017, http://www.akdn.org/about-us/organisation-information.
c Azim Nanji (Special Advisor to the Provost at the Aga Khan University), interviewed by Katherine Marshall of WFDD, April 2015.
44 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
CIPK also works with several Kenyan government ministries
and international development actors (UNFPA, Pathfinder
International, and Chemonics) to broaden the reach and scope Box 3.9. African Council for Accreditation and
of their work.124 Accountability (AfCAA)a
46 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
and economic tones. During the British colonial era in the
twentieth century, Muslims lost their political power in the
Box 3.10. Members of IRCK region and eventually economic privileges they had enjoyed.
With support from colonial authorities, Christian missionaries
• Evangelical Alliance of Kenya (EAK) came to monopolize general education, which was infused
• Kenya Council of Catholic Bishops (KCCB) with Western culture and Christian values. Muslims began
to voice concern that colonial authorities were discriminating
• National Council of Churches of Kenya (NCCK)
against them and that Muslim values were being compromised.
• Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) In 1931, for example, African Muslims from the interior
• Organization of Africa Instituted Churches sent a memorandum expressing concerns to the Joint Select
(OAIC-Kenya) Committee on Closer Union. In February 1935, Indian
• Supreme Council for Kenya Muslims (SUPKEM) Muslims began raising funds to initiate a Muslim Missionary
• National Muslim Leaders (NAMLEF) Movement to counter Christian missionary activities.139
• Shia Inthna-Asheri Muslim Association (SHIA)
The colonial legacy and the preferences it allowed Christian
• Hindu Council of Kenya (HCK) missions are the foundation of many grievances cited by
Muslims today. Political and socioeconomic issues such as
land ownership often fall along ethnic and religious lines;
Muslims in the coastal region, for example, face obstacles when
INTERFAITH RELATIONS AND ACTION137 “up-country” businesspeople are given preference. Muslim-
majority areas such as the coast and northeast benefitted less
Interreligious Council of Kenya (IRCK) from economic development and have far too few schools in
relation to the needs of the population. Political leaders, since
The first major interreligious organization at the national level the time of President Moi, have touted their Christian identity
took form in anticipation of the fourth World Conference on in public,140 accentuating the perception that political power
Religion and Peace that was held in Nairobi in August 1984. supports Christian interests. Muslims face closer scrutiny
The World Conference on Religions for Peace Kenya (WCRP- in public spaces and in the media. They have also faced
Kenya) was formed in 1983, and from that point until 2001, discriminatory policies based on name when applying for
it engaged through ad hoc dialogue, action, and conference government posts, secondary school, identification cards, and
participation. In response to the AIDS crisis and the growing passports. When Somalis were required to carry a second form
number of orphans, WCRP-Kenya formalized a secretariat in of identification, some Muslims claimed that immigration
2002 to engage programmatically. During strategic planning for policies and practices favored Christians.
2003-2004, the focus shifted, as the organization saw a need to
act more deliberately on peace and conflict transformation.138 Contemporary tensions have long historical roots. As
WCRP-Kenya became an independent interreligious network minorities, Muslims generally were less forthright in criticizing
in 2004 with a new name, the Inter-Religious Council of Kenya the government than Christian leaders in the 1990s. Those who
(IRCK). This national-level interfaith mechanism is based on did voice grievances tended to modulate their criticism. This
institutional representation of all of Kenya’s major religious changed with agitation from Muslims for inclusion in democratic
institutions (see Box 3.10). Its role is to deepen interfaith spaces when in January 1992, following the announcement of
dialogue and collaboration among members and to address a multi-party system, the Islamic Party of Kenya (IPK) was
specific issues involving interreligious tensions. IRCK has links established. The government denied registration of the party
with the African Council of Religious Leaders and is affiliated on the grounds that it was discriminatory and required specific
with Religions for Peace (formerly WCRP), the international religious beliefs of its members. The party’s religious affiliation
interreligious body. was clear from its methods of mobilizing support and spreading
political views and the role of its main activist, Khalid Balala, a
Christian-Muslim Relations conspicuously charismatic Islamic preacher.141 Tensions boiled
over in May 1992 with the arrest of seven imams. Several IPK
Competition between Christians and Muslims has played roles activists incited mass demonstrations in Mombasa that evolved
in East Africa since Christians first arrived (Islam established into violent attacks. Those arrested were accused of incitement
a strong presence first, in the twelfth century). Both world against the government.
religions were ambitious as they propagated themselves—at the
expense of traditional African religions—and eventually came An IPK goal was to focus on the needs of Muslims in Kenya.
to compete against one another. Disputes took on political IPK’s leaders claimed that all political parties in Kenya were
48 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
On September 23, 2003, a motion was brought before claims that this fed into the narrative that Islam is a global
the NCC to delete sections concerning the Kadhi courts. threat. Muslim leaders and SUPKEM united in defending
Opponents insisted on Kenya’s secular nature—the draft the NGOs for their valuable charitable work and planned for
clearly stated that there is no state religion—and saw public a mass demonstration in October 1998. Muslim leadership
funding for the Kadhi courts and their entrenchment in the split, however, when the chairman of CIPK, Shaikh Ali Shee,
constitution as preferential treatment of Islam by the state. offered anti-government and anti-American resolutions in
Some religious leaders decried the unbalanced representation, Mombasa before a crowd of 10,000. SUPKEM met with
citing 60 references to Islam, one to Hinduism, and none to Moi to discuss Muslim grievances.154 The government used
Christians, Buddhists, Jews, or Sikhs. The constitutional draft this tactic again following the attacks on Garissa University
eventually approved by the NCC, known as the Bomas Draft, in 2014, and bank accounts of three Muslim NGOs were
failed to pass the referendum, though not only for this reason. frozen.155 Muslims also united against the Anti-Terrorism Bill
It was followed by the Wako Draft (named for the attorney (2003), which Muslim leaders, lawyers, and human rights
general who drafted it). This version retained the Kadhi courts activists saw as draconian. Muslims feared that the police
but sought to address the concerns of other religious traditions would arbitrarily arrest them based on attire. A CIPK leader
by adding Christian courts, Hindu courts, and room for other spoke out against targeting and detaining over 30 Muslims on
religious courts. This was seen as a largely empty gesture. The allegations of terrorism.156 The Kadhi court issue splintered
Wako Draft was rejected in a referendum on November 22, the interreligious Ufungamano Initiative. Distrust linked
2005. The issue of the Kadhi courts was renewed in May to this debate lingers and has wide repercussions for how
2010 when the Kenya High Court announced its decision Christians, as the majority, view Muslims as Kenyan citizens.
on a suit, filed by 24 clergy in 2004, declaring the courts
unconstitutional.151 The attorney general responded by arguing The conflict in Somalia and Al-Shabaab’s activity across
that the case was inadmissible as the court lacked jurisdiction. borders exacerbate Muslim-Christian tensions and stoke
The timing of the decision, just two weeks after the 2010 draft ethnic tension. In reaction to attacks and threats, Kenyan
had been publicly released for popular review, was significant security tactics have targeted Somali Muslims—both Kenyan
but did not prevent approval of the constitution with 67 percent citizens and non-citizens. Profiling and security checks
of the vote on August 4, 2010. The Kadhi courts continue to for Somali Kenyans and Somali refugees have resulted in
operate in Kenya today. frustration and resentment. State threats to shut down the
Dadaab refugee camp are another source of suspicion and
The Ufungamano Initiative illustrated the potential of religious anger from all sides.
leaders to create a movement for social change, but various
factors led to its decline by 2005; among them were ethnic The suspicions arising from Al-Shabaab actions have tended
tensions, leadership failures, disagreement over draft contents, to spread to encompass all Muslims in Kenya, no matter what
mistrust among different actors, and dearth of financial ethnic group they belong to. Muslims are associated in some
resources.152 The process itself pinpointed areas of sensitivity popular perceptions with extremism and violence, whether
and exposed latent suspicions among religious leaders and imported from abroad or Kenyan in origin. Suspicions are
traditions. Division among Christians turned largely on the commonly voiced in religious terms and can be directed at
willingness of some to work with Muslims on issues of national specific religious groups and leaders, with associated risks of
concern, whereas other Christians view interfaith collaboration harm (for example violent attacks on mosques—and churches
as a betrayal of their evangelism. in a retaliatory pattern or personal attacks). While such
attacks have been quite sporadic, a Muslim cleric, Sheikh
Ibrahim Omar, and three others suspected of supporting
Violent Extremism Threatening Interreligious Harmony Al-Shabaab, were shot dead on the outskirts of Mombasa
following the Westgate mall attack in 2013. In retaliation
Despite many sources of tension over Kenya’s history, until for the extrajudicial killing, rioters burned a Salvation Army
quite recently the general perception was that interreligious church in the Majengo district in October 2013.157 Growing
relationships—especially Christian-Muslim relations—in insecurity has caused most places of worship to require
Kenya were mostly harmonious. However, this situation has security checks at all entrances.
changed, and tensions are now a central concern. Several
events have brought latent Muslim-Christian suspicions to Attacks by Al-Shabaab where Christians were deliberately
the fore. Following the bombing of the U.S. Embassy in 1998, separated from Muslims have caused further suspicion and
the government shut down five Muslim NGOs for suspected protectionist rhetoric along sectarian lines. Following the
links with terrorist networks.153 The Muslim community Garissa University attack in April 2015, church leaders issued
reacted strongly against targeting only Muslim NGOs, making a statement: “The systematic profiling, isolation and massacre
50 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
CHAPTER 4: FAITH-INSPIRED
ENGAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
Kenya’s diverse civil society is said to include over 300,000 3. They are generally considered an integral part of Kenya’s
organizations,168 many of which are directly involved civil society, though some would contend that they represent
in development work. Organizations are national and a distinct, rather separate category. FIOs vary widely in
international, some with deep roots in history, while others are size, activities, and character, ranging from large and highly
part of a newer and fast-growing grassroots sector. A wide variety regarded international organizations, such as Catholic Relief
of organizations whose work is inspired in significant part by Services (CRS), World Vision, the Aga Khan Foundation
religious faith—and that are affiliated in various ways with (AKF), and Islamic Relief Worldwide (IRW), to very small
religious organizations—are an important part of this broad local grassroots groups. Most are well-established actors in
picture, though exactly how many have faith or development Kenya’s institutional landscape, though many benefit from
as their primary driver is nigh impossible to measure. One international links and support, and some arouse controversy
estimate suggests that faith-inspired civil society organizations because of their stance and relationships. FIOs often work in
in Kenya number around 30,000.169 This chapter explores the partnership with government bodies and various development
work of these organizations, including their objectives, major partners including, increasingly, private sector entities.
programs, impact, and emerging issues. It includes accounts of
the work of a sampling of organizations, focusing on priority Definitions as to what qualifies an organization as faith inspired
development sectors where FIOs are most actively engaged. vary (and the terminology is not used specifically to define any
such grouping in Kenya). Berkley Center/WFDD uses this
terminology as an inclusive approach for any organization
FAITH-INSPIRED ORGANIZATIONS – engaged in development work, broadly defined, whose
FRAMING THEIR WORK AND ROLES mission and vision are inspired or guided by the teachings
of a religious tradition or whose history is deeply rooted in
Faith-inspired organizations (FIOs) working on issues related such traditions. The role that religious links and beliefs play
to development (Chapter 2) are part of the wide-ranging in organizational missions and operations can vary starkly. For
religious organizations and communities described in Chapter some organizations, specific religious motivations—including
52 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
CIPK, Bilal Muslim Mission of Kenya, Muslims for Human
Rights, Islamic Foundation, and National Muslim Leaders
Box 4.1. Harambee Forum (NAMLEF). Two international Jewish organizations,
American Jewish World Service (AJWS) and Hebrew Immigrant
Kenya has a rich history of grassroots community Aid Society (HIAS), are active in Kenya and focus on protecting
fundraising, a system known as harambee, that is an vulnerable minorities. Hindu, Sikh, and non-denominational
important driver of local development. The word FIOs are predominantly local, engaging in development and
harambee is Kiswahili for “all pull together” and it is capacity building within their own communities, as well as on
on Kenya’s national coat of arms. By tradition, local interfaith peace and dialogue efforts. A notable example is the
communities pool their resources to fund a community Hindu Council of Kenya.
project like building a new school, water system,
church, or day-care center. In the post-independence There is debate as to whether there is merit in seeking to
period, harambee played a special roles as Jomo discern and identify any distinctive, even unique contributions
Kenyatta, Kenya’s first prime minister and later first of FIOs. This report does not engage in such debates, seeing
president, adopted harambee as a concept to help build both wide diversity and ill-defined boundaries between what
a new nation, together. He encouraged communities is seen as secular versus faith-inspired work and approaches.
to work together to raise funds for all sorts of local There are some readily defined issues, for example in the very
projects, pledging that the government would provide different but religiously explained approaches of different
their startup costs. The system is alive especially in entities and individuals to issues linked to human sexuality and,
rural communities of Kenya and many faith actors use thus, family planning and family health issues. Faith-inspired
it to help establish new development projects.a AIC, actors may either be well placed to address related behaviors,
for example, helps communities build new schools or may eschew involvement to avoid controversy. The role of
through the harambee system, and then guides them “mission” when it links evangelizing to development work
through the public school registration process.b is also contested. While forthright proselytizing was clearly
part of early faith endeavors, most FIOs today see wisdom in
a Barbara Thomas, “Development through Harambee: Who separating explicit religious conversion from engagement in
wins, who loses?” World Development 15, no. 4, (April 1987): development programs. The focus of the majority of FIOs has
463–481.
b African Inland Church, intereview by Katherine Marshall of moved away from missionary-oriented approaches.
WFDD, Nairobi, Kenya, April 2014.
The great diversity of FIOs operating in Kenya makes it
challenging—and of limited utility—to craft a single narrative
covering all their histories, activities, and social influence. This
discussion highlights specific faith-inspired efforts to address
homes, and other services. The rapidly growing charismatic Kenya’s key development challenges through an approach
and evangelical churches are less likely to be organized on that illustrates the breadth of development work undertaken
a national or county level, making information on their and its rich texture. It is far from comprehensive, with
development projects available only in a piecemeal fashion. organizations selected more to highlight the types of work
Data on the work of missionary societies are similarly difficult they do and their impact than to present a complete catalogue.
to find, especially as new waves of mostly American evangelical The core hypotheses are that this work has vital importance,
groups launch projects and partnerships in Kenya. Muslim is deeply integrated in Kenyan society, is too rarely examined
organizations may fall under national umbrella organizations, systematically and objectively, and has much to teach for any
but many operate independently, complicating a national involved in development and humanitarian work.
analysis of their activities. The small Hindu community is
rather well connected through the Hindu Council of Kenya,
making it feasible to track and report grassroots programs. CIVIL SOCIETY CONTEXT
Christian organizations dominate Kenya’s FIO landscape Kenya’s vibrant civil society is both a feature of the nation and
because of the missionary history and predominantly Christian a source of continual debate.171 One recent account describes
population, but FIOs linked to Muslim, Jewish, Hindu, Sikh, Kenya’s civil society sector as “one of Africa’s bravest and most
and non-denominational faiths are also active in development vocal.”172 Modern Kenyan civil society can be traced to the pre-
projects. International Muslim FIOs include IRW and the colonial era when various organizations emerged with a focus on
AKDN, both with extensive education, health, and refugee welfare, agriculture, credit, and many other topics.173 Legacies
programs. Kenyan Muslim organizations include SUPKEM, include both enduring patterns of social service provision
Number of NGOs
society organizations—settler and missionary—were part of 6,000
5,000
the colonial enterprise. Many of these came to play significant
4,000
roles in Kenya’s independence movement and, later, in political
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Box 4.2. Government NGO Oversight Arrangements 1974 1980 1990 2000 2003 2006 2008 2012
and Issues
Source: Various sources including NGO Co-ordination Board,
http://www.ngobureau.or.ke/
The Government of Kenya’s NGO Co-ordination
Board, under the Ministry of Devolution and
Planning, is responsible for registration, regulation, opposition while others have had near symbiotic relationships
and coordination of non-governmental organizations with public authorities.174 In a society well known for its active
in Kenya. Created in 1991 as a part of the NGO Act civil society, these are enduring issues.
of 1990, its function is to act as a liaison between the
government and the private sector. The board keeps Growth and maturity of Kenya’s civil society has caused the
the government apprised of NGOs’ contributions to government to enact regulations, which at times produces
development and advises on policy affecting the NGO complex and debated relationships. Before the 1990 NGO
sector. The board counsels NGOs about national Act, no single government legislation set standards and
development policies and how best to integrate Vision registration procedures applicable to NGOs in Kenya. They
2030 into their program planning. came to varying degrees under the authority of different laws
and government bodies. These included the Companies Act,
To register, NGOs must submit details of location, Societies Act, Trustees Act, and the Ministry of Culture and
proposed projects, budget, board members, and Social Services.175 The 1990 legislation was, in part, a response
organizational affiliations to the board as well as its to the rapid expansion of institutions and to Nairobi’s status
organizational constitution. Once all requirements as a regional hub and the subject of considerable debate. As of
are met and the application is approved, the NGO is 2012, over 6,500 NGOs were registered with the government
provided with a certificate of registration. Failure to of Kenya’s NGO Coordination Board. Historical growth rates
adhere to financial reporting schedules and operational (see box 4.2 and figure 4.1176), anecdotal information, and
standards is grounds for an organization’s registration field research suggests that the number has risen substantially
to be revoked. since.177 The issues involved have multiplied with the devolution
to county governments. There is considerable debate today
As the number of civil society organizations has grown about registration requirements and implementation as they
rapidly, the NGO board has confronted significant apply to the wide range of civil society organizations operating
capacity constraints and there is a large backlog, in Kenya; such debates are taking place in a growing number
resulting in what that some describe as a “broken” of countries.
system. Responses have included deregistration of
NGOs (some because of suspected terrorist links), with COORDINATION CHALLENGES: FAITH
attendant controversy (Chapter 2).a
NETWORKS, INTERRELIGIOUS AND
a See also Cecelia Lynch, “Local and Global Influences on ECUMENICAL ORGANIZATIONS
Islamic NGOs in Kenya.” Journal of Peacebuilding and
Development 6. no. 1 (2011); “15 NGOs deregistered over
terrorism funding claims,” Daily Nation, December 16, 2014,
In a landscape of widely diverse organizations with very
http://www.nation.co.ke/news/15-NGOs-deregistered-terror- different faith affiliations, several interreligious and ecumenical
funding/-/1056/2558570/-/c11x3z/-/index.html; and Megan bodies and networks aim to foster collaboration and serve
Hershey, “Explaining the non-governmental organization various information functions. These consist of locally founded
(NGO) boom: the case of HIV/AIDS NGOs in Kenya,” networks that work at a national or regional level, as well as
Journal of Eastern African Studies, vol. 7, no. 4, 2013.
regional, pan-African, and international networks. Examples
54 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
of transnational bodies include Religions for Peace (RfP) Established in 2009 as the result of the merging of two other
and the Geneva/World Council of Churches (WCC) based large church-based aid organizations, ACT Alliance focuses on
ACT Alliance. OAIC is Africa wide, while EAK and KCCC three areas: humanitarian aid, development, and advocacy. In
are Kenyan organizations. Box 4.3 describes a sector-specific Kenya, it engages political leaders and policymakers alongside
coordinating body that includes, among others, faith-linked community leaders to promote long-term, systemic change,
organizations. The umbrella bodies differ widely in membership in addition to supporting its member organizations in their
and scope. A few attempt to be representative and all-inclusive activities. ACT has established support networks for victims of
of traditions found in Kenya, though most have a more specific conflict, providing such services as food, psychosocial support,
and limited membership and focus. These organizations can and trauma healing programs. ACT Alliance initiatives in
support communication between religious leaders and their Kenya address topics ranging from refugee support, to health
communities with government authorities and partners services for midwife practices in Maasai communities,179 to a
and facilitate specifically religious engagement in national long-distance bicycle caravan to raise awareness of the need for
development policy debates. The following profiles provide action against climate change.180
examples of some such organizations engaged in development
and humanitarian work. Other notable organizations are
discussed elsewhere in the report in greater detail. Inter-Religious Council of Kenya (IRCK)181
EAK, founded in 1975, serves as the coordinating body for the RELIGION AND DEVELOPMENT:
evangelical churches of Kenya. It organizes training, workshops,
and church unity meetings with the objective of providing
SECTOR PROFILES
a forum for the evangelical community to partner, engage
Religious actors play especially significant roles in several
in dialogue, build community capacity, and facilitate active
sectors, most prominently education and health. They also
participation in improving Kenya’s spiritual, social, and physical
aspire to exercise their considerable moral authority in Kenyan
welfare.184 EAK’s mission is to “empower the evangelicals to
society in wide-ranging areas, for example promoting good
bring God’s transforming grace to the people of Kenya through
governance (including fighting corruption) and addressing
a united prophetic voice and holistic ministries,” which they
inequality. The following section explores several sectors,
aim to accomplish through active partnership and coordination
highlighting some distinctive and innovative FIO approaches
with various ministries in the Kenyan government, para-
through illustrations of specific organizations and programs.
church organizations like Fellowship of Christian Unions and
The organizations highlighted in these sections are not
Compassion International, and development agencies such as
presented as a representative sample because the wide diversity
the UN, NGOs, and CBOs.
of groups involved makes that too difficult to do in a meaningful
way. In several instances, the largest players are the focus, but
National Council of Churches of Kenya (NCCK) descriptions of some smaller groups help to reflect the broader
picture of engagement. An effort was made to include groups
NCCK, with 27 member churches and 17 Christian linked to the major categories of religious communities active
organizations, works collaboratively to further the holistic in Kenya.
56 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Women and children collect water together at Kenya’s Dadaab Refugee Camp in August 2011; Photo courtesy of Flickr user
IHH Humanitarian Relief Foundation
Refugees and Migration188 directly support Kenya’s refugee camps and work with refugees
and other vulnerable and displaced groups in urban settings.
Kenya confronts one of the world’s largest, most protracted, They provide a wide range of services such as education, health,
and complex refugee situations with over 600,000 “people and support; for example programs for children and women
of concern” (asylum seekers, refugees, and stateless persons) subjected to violence. They also serve advocacy roles, nationally
in 2015.189 These challenges are intricately related to security and internationally, in efforts to navigate the many complexities
problems facing Kenyan citizens and the overall challenge of of the humanitarian crises facing Kenya.
poverty. Large refugee camps are located in some of Kenya’s
most challenging regions: the remote and arid northeast and Lutheran World Federation (LWF)
northwest regions, where resources and services are limited LWF, established in the aftermath of World War II, focuses
and difficult to provide, and where erratic weather patterns sharply on the global refugee challenge, reaching an estimated
exacerbate problems of food and water insecurity. Refugees and 1.3 million refugees and 2 million people worldwide through
populations living in those regions confront similar challenges its programs.191 Its Kenya office has long focused on providing
with resulting tensions. Refugees and other vulnerable services to refugee populations and to host communities
populations living in cities present a parallel but generally surrounding the Kakuma and Dadaab refugee camps. LWF
different set of problems. The refugee challenges involve helps manage the Kakuma camp in northwestern Turkana
both Somalia and South Sudan, but the role of Somali-based County and Dadaab in Garissa. LWF services include education,
Al-Shabaab is key because of its responsibility for terrorist child protection, shelter, and sustainable livelihood services.
attacks in Kenya (600 fatalities caused by over 90 attacks in LWF operates a reception center responsible for receiving and
2014 alone).190 The fact that most Somali refugees share Al- registering the refugees and helps maintain water and sanitation
Shabaab’s nationality and religion tends to exacerbate fears services for the camps. It engages local populations in water
and introduces new tensions in Christian/Muslim relations. projects and resource risk-reduction programs. Training and
The Kenyan government’s announced intention to close the employing refugee staff are central to the approach, and LWF
Dadaab refugee camp reflects these security challenges and has employed over 2,500 refugee staff in Kenya, as well as 400
leaves large populations in limbo. local Kenyan staff.192 Refugees cannot legally earn income in
Kenya but can be employed as incentive workers in the refugee
In some respects, refugee challenges are distinct from Kenya’s camps (paid a small salary or with incentives like extra supplies
national development strategies; for example, in management and food). They hold positions like security officers, teachers,
by different agencies. However, the challenges are linked, and and program managers. LWF programs support life skills
they involve a number of significant religious dimensions. training, and it has a specific responsibility for child protection
FIOs are especially prominent among the many actors that services in the Kakuma camp.193
58 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
An example of the reputational issue is journalist and author 2009, Kenya’s Catholic bishops, led by Cardinal John Njue of
Michaela Wrong’s comment in a 2014 article that Kenya Nairobi, called on President Mwai Kibaki and Prime Minister
is the “continent’s newest lootocracy.” In Kenya, she argues, Raila Odinga to end the impunity that has seen prominent
corruption undermines not only service delivery but also people go unpunished.201 The Catholic Bishops Conference
counter-terrorism efforts.197 Religious actors, with high levels spoke out in June 2014, linking ethnic tensions to “inherent
of trust and an expected moral authority, could play significant corruption.”202 The Anglican Church and NCCK have both
roles in addressing what is plainly a complex and vital issue. exercised leadership roles on the issue at various points. Several
Muslim leaders have been outspoken; in 2009, the Kenya anti-
Entrenched patronage systems, a history as a de facto one-party Corruption Commission joined the Kenyan Council of Imams
state, and lack of accountability and transparency within the and Ulamaa in the effort.203 IRCK launched a campaign called
political system have all fueled public sector corruption. Political “Moving the Masses” and made a presentation to the National
openings from the early 1990s raised hopes among Kenyans Committee to End Corruption Steering Committee.204
and development partners that corruption would be reined in;
successive anti-corruption initiatives and the 2010 constitution Health
have focused strategically on the issue. But progress has been
slow. Suspected senior officials have yet to be successfully Kenya can show important gains in the area of health, but
prosecuted, and Kenya ranked 145 out of 176 countries in the significant challenges remain. Current priorities include
2016 Transparency International (TI) Corruption Perceptions preventive medicine and health promotion, decentralizing
Index.198 Religious institutions and leaders are by no means health institutions, and establishing a national health insurance
immune from allegations of corrupt behavior, and the many scheme.205 Health is one of the most significant areas of partner
stories about corrupt behavior—combined with the failure support, with external aid supporting about 15 percent of health
of religious leaders to engage neutrally during the 2007-2008 expenditures.206 In June 2013, the government announced
election and violence that followed—have undermined their its commitment to providing free maternal and primary
credibility. Nevertheless, expectations of religious leadership healthcare.207 It has engaged both governors and religious
are reflected in the December 2016 appointment of former leaders to focus sharply on reducing high maternal deaths in
retired Anglican Archbishop Eliud Wabukhala as chairman of critical regions. Specific disease-based health interventions
Kenya’s EACC chairman (he had chaired the National Anti- show significant gains,208 with notable progress in reducing
Corruption Campaign Steering Committee in 2014).199 malaria deaths and addressing the HIV/AIDS epidemic.209
Progress in reducing high fertility rates is noteworthy, though
Several initiatives highlight roles that religious leaders can play. they are still high at 4.5 births per woman.
Apart from ensuring transparent and honest management of
religious organizations themselves,200 high visibility advocacy, Kenya’s health system was established by missionaries, and
termed “speaking truth to power,” can make a difference. In religious organizations are still major health providers today
Faith-run health facilities (primarily Christian) currently represent an estimated 35 to 40 percent of Kenya’s health care
system. Historically, Christian mission facilities were the backbone of emerging health services, many financed by the
largess of churches in Europe and the United States. The balance shifted with independence and the steady expansion
both of the public health system and private profit and not-for-profit healthcare. However, especially in poorer and
remote areas, religiously run facilities are vitally important today. The major umbrella organizations for faith-run systems
are central players in both management and support of national health policies and programs. Faith actors engage actively
in ongoing debates about the implications of Kenya’s devolution for the health sector. They are important partners
in global public health initiatives including for HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and child and maternal health. The
overall partnership is governed by a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the Kenya Ministry of Health signed
in 2009 that inter alia defines the terms of public financing of faith-run facilities and the participation of the latter in
national sector policy discussions.a The standing entity responsible for coordination is the Faith-Based Health Services
Coordinating Committee (FBHSCC), chaired by Dr. Samuel Mwenda, Secretary General of the Christian Health
Association of Kenya (CHAK).
Historical factors shaping the contemporary faith healthcare system include the missionary history, nationalist tendencies
in independent Kenya that reacted against that missionary legacy, rising costs of healthcare, Kenya’s massive population
explosion, and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. From the 1980s on, the faith-based system has struggled to make ends meet, but
at the same time it was obvious that their often high-quality facilities were needed and appreciated by the population.b
Progressive negotiations led to the MOU, with its arrangements that integrated most faith-run systems and facilities in
national policy, provided for substantial public financing of faith-run facilities, and assured an active faith voice in sector
policies. For reasons embedded in both past and present, Protestant and Catholic umbrella organizations work together
but operate separately (a central issue being differences over condom and contraceptive use). The widely respected Mission
for Essential Drugs & Supplies (MEDS) is a key partner. Apart from direct financing, faith health facilities are reimbursed
for services through the government-established National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF).
CHAK, a long-standing Kenyan umbrella organization, provides leadership to the active network of health facilities
run by a wide range of Protestant organizations. CHAK was formally established in 1946 and has operated without
interruption ever since. Its mandate has broadened over the years, from an initial role in distributing grants to Christian-
run facilities to its present function as a powerful advocate for quality healthcare nationwide. One of the most established
and respected such organizations in Africa, CHAK is an integral part of Kenya’s health system and of its strategic vision
for health for all. CHAK member health facilities and programs are in all parts of Kenya with higher concentrations
in rural areas with relatively high population density. CHAK engages church leaders, community health volunteers in
congregations, and church groups across Kenya. Members are drawn from 45 church denominations. The 576 CHAK
members include 24 hospitals, 57 health centers, and 387 dispensaries, as well as teaching institutions that train a large
number of Kenya’s health workforce. CHAK activities include training and other capacity-building activities. CHAK is a
sub-recipient of the various Global Fund grants in Kenya that support activities in TB, Malaria, and HIV interventions.
CHAK’s six-year strategic plans are aligned to national sector health plans and policies. CHAK is a leader in areas that
include child and maternal health, HIV/AIDS, family planning, vaccination, and preparedness for pandemics. A leading
current issue is how CHAK members and facilities will adapt to the ongoing devolution to counties.c
The Catholic Health Commission of Kenya, which reports to the Kenya Conference of Catholic Bishops (KCCB or
KEC),d was established in 1957. It has undergone several name changes reflecting changing demands and functions in
Kenya’s health sector. Known as the Medical Department to the 1990s, the Family Life Department and the Medical
Department were brought together to form the Commission for Health and Family Life. In 2006 KCCB annexed the
Family Life Department to allow the Commission to concentrate fully on the increasingly complex health sector. Its
current mandate is to facilitate national coordination of the management of Catholic health facilities: 453 health facilities,
18 medical training colleges (nursing, pharmacy, and clinical medicine), and more than 46 community-based health and
OVC programs. The commission facilitates collaboration, representation, lobbying, and advocacy of government agencies
for equitable resource mobilization and distribution, and it represents the KCCB and its health service delivery network
in national forums (consultations and policy development).
SUPKEM runs few health facilities directly but is part of the MOU partnership.
a Samuel Mwenda, “Acceptance Speech” (speech, 2016 Christian Connections for International Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Maryland, USA, June 19, 2016), http://www.ccih.org/samuel-mwenda-acceptance-speech.
b Analysis thanks to Fawzia Rasheed who conducted a study in 2010 for WHO.
c Mwenda, Devolution of Health Services in Kenya.
d “Catholic Health Commission of Kenya,” Kenya Conference of Catholic Bishops, accessed January 27,2017,
http://www.kccb.or.ke/home/commission/12-catholic-health-commission-of-kenya/.
60 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
different levels of the health system to improve community
health and to increase public health awareness. CRS is an
implementing partner for the USAID AIDS, Population, and
Health Integrated Assistance (APHIAPlus) program in the
Rift Valley and the CDC-funded SAIDA project. Through
scholarship programs and cash transfers, APHIAPlus ensures
that vulnerable children have access to healthcare, education,
and household economic strengthening.214 CRS’ THRIVE
project focuses on early childhood development from before
birth to age eight to level the playing field for children affected
by HIV. THRIVE works to provide children with proper
health and nutrition, responsive relationships, and a safe
physical environment. Home visits teach mothers skills in
interacting with their children and families, and the mothers
are encouraged to participate in income-generating activities.
A sign pointing to the Anglican hospital in Maseno lists all Integrating its faith perspective, a CRS HIV/AIDS awareness
its services program called The Faithful House, a program developed with
participation from the Kenya Catholic Church, encourages
Christian spouses to remain faithful to each other.
(see Box 4.4). Religiously linked groups provide as much
as 40 percent of all health services in Kenya and run some The Supreme Council of Kenya Muslims (SUPKEM)
792 of 5,129 health facilities210 at all levels. These religious In 2007, the government called upon SUPKEM to develop
organizations support programs ranging from HIV/AIDS, an official Muslim HIV/AIDS policy that would better
to nutrition, to water and sanitation. Cooperation among engage Kenya’s Muslim community in education, prevention,
public and private sector actors in Kenya is well established and treatment programs. This policy, launched at both the
and defined. There are, however, significant gaps and special national and provincial levels, aimed to empower Muslim
sensitivities, which tend to focus on religious communities. institutions to mainstream HIV/AIDS intervention strategies
Family planning—and especially abortion—has long been and thereby reduce the stigma against those living with HIV/
a contentious issue for some religious communities. The AIDS in Muslim communities. This was notably the first
Catholic Church’s opposition to tetanus and polio vaccination document to address challenges of HIV/AIDS specific to
in 2015 (on the grounds that vaccines were insufficiently tested Muslim communities, and it emphasized the role that leaders
and might have abortifacient or contraceptive effects) was a such as imams and madrasa teachers can play in advocacy
major setback.211 TV ads produced by the Ministry of Health, and behavior change within the community, particularly
USAID, and DfID in 2014 promoting condom use among targeting youth. SUPKEM implements the policy, focusing
married couples were pulled from the airwaves after Christian on capacity building for Muslim leaders and institutions
and Muslim leaders protested.212 Christian opposition to the so they can scale up involvement in prevention, care, and
new Constitution’s definition of abortion and the continuing support programs. SUPKEM has been an advocate for
controversy around vaccinations213 highlight significant policy prevention where it faces cultural challenges. In 2003, for
issues involving religious actors. The “bottom line” is a large example, SUPKEM officials publically stated that the cultural
and integral role of religiously linked communities—both practice of wife inheritance contributed to the spread of
directly through churches and other religious bodies and HIV/AIDS. They urged communities to extend support to
through a range of FIOs—in the management of Kenya’s widows without imposing the traditional rules of inheritance
healthcare system and in shaping policies on many dimensions and sought to engage religious leaders and community elders
of public health. in discussions about the harm that some traditional practices
cause.215 SUPKEM launched a health secretariat in 2008 as
Catholic Relief Services (CRS) a national body to coordinate Muslim-specific health sector
CRS, the humanitarian agency founded in 1943 by the policy and strategies. The secretariat gives advice and oversees
Catholic Bishops of the United States, has had active programs programs supervised by the Kenya Association of Muslim
in Kenya since 1965, many in the health sector focusing on Medical Professionals (KAMMP).216 SUPKEM is part of the
HIV/AIDS prevention, treatment, and awareness, as well as 2009 Ministry of Health MOU (see Box 4.4).
strengthening health systems. Specific objectives are to connect
Religious institutions have played critical and complex roles in Kenya’s response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic from the time
the first case was diagnosed there in 1984. The interplay between religious beliefs, cultural and traditional practices, and
scientific fact has made the task of addressing HIV in Kenya (as throughout Africa) a difficult one. Religious groups have
responded differently, but the overall picture is one of evolving positions based on experience gained at the community
62 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Box 4.5. HIV/AIDS and Religion: Kenya’s Experience (cont.)
level and through active dialogue, creative partnerships, strong leadership—from some religious leaders, government, and
partners—and better knowledge and understanding.
Until the mid 1990s, many religious groups in Kenya ignored HIV/AIDS or explained it as the result of aberrant or
immoral behavior. Religious leaders were deeply divided about the epidemic and how to deal with it, as were religious
communities. One study found that religious people considered AIDS to be a disease that affected those who transgressed
against God; those who were religious therefore perceived their risk of HIV infection to be low. The Kenyan government’s
early response was to deny the presence of HIV. As the scale of the epidemic mounted, President Moi finally declared
HIV/AIDS a national emergency in 1999, though flaws in the approach were reflected in Moi’s suggestion in 2000 that
Kenyans abstain from sex for two years. By then most religious organizations had joined the fight against HIV/AIDS, but
mixed messages about condom use and sex education colored national debates, government policies, and relationships
with international partners.
Starting in about 2002, the government shifted its approach. That year, President Kibaki declared war on HIV/AIDS and
it became a national priority. This shift came in the face of the ravages of the epidemic. HIV prevalence in the general
population had reached a peak of 10.5 percent in 1996, and the effects permeated every corner of Kenyan society. Since
then, determined efforts, large financial and organizational efforts, and the scientific advances that have brought life-
saving drugs and ways to prevent mother-child transmission have made Kenya a success story in the global anti-AIDS
effort. Even with the decline to the estimated current prevalence level of around 6 percent, some 1,500,000 Kenyans are
still living with HIV or AIDS, and it accounts for an estimated 36,000 deaths a year.
The government’s leadership body, the National AIDS Control Council (NACC), officially recognizes faith leaders and
FIOs as an integral part of its coordination efforts. The national strategy document states: “It must...be realized that FBOs
were some of the earliest institutions to respond to HIV in terms of care support, including psycho-social support to HIV.
Documentation of the FBOs contribution has been missing in the HIV and AIDS reporting but NACC is determined to
change that and ensure that the very important role played by the Faith Sector in the HIV response is duly recognized.”
A faith National AIDS Action Plan defines how faith organizations fit into the national strategy, both at national and
county levels.a Faith champions from each county have recognized roles and are to work with the Ministry of Health,
universities, the private sector, and other groups and receive capacity building support.b This emphasis means that faith
groups (CHAK and CRS, for example) are financial partners in national and international AIDS programs.
Religious responses to HIV/AIDS vary. Addressing the vital problem of stigma was and remains a priority. As the Faith
Action Plan observes, “Because religious leaders generally perceived and approached HIV and AIDS as a sexual and moral
issue, they contributed to stigma, shame, denial, discrimination, inaction, and mis-action (SSDDIM).” Efforts have
focused on promoting and scaling up HIV testing, counseling, prevention, and treatment. An example of an individual
church problem cited by physician and activist Peter Okalet is a ROPES (Rites Of Passage Experiences) curriculum that
Christianizes rites of passage from child to adulthood, to make rites and rituals safe, involve parents, and teach about
what it means to be a woman or a man.c Education of pastors has been an important priority, with efforts to develop a
curriculum targeting theological institutions and Bible schools. “Choosing Hope,” a form of “refresher course,” includes
eight modules, and addresses people who already graduated and are working in their churches. HIV/AIDS education in
theological education was developed by MAP International with St. Paul’s University in Limuru and includes programs
at the undergraduate and master’s degree levels.
a Faith Sector Response to HIV and AIDS in Kenya: Action Plan 2015/2016-2019/2020 (National Aids Control Center: 2016), http://nacc.or.ke/
wp-content/uploads/2016/11/FAITH-ACTION-PLAN-2.pdf
b Ibid.
c Ibid.
64 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
with special needs, 159 early childhood development centers
(ECDs), and six vocational schools.240 Their Kenya West
territory operates roughly the same number of schools. As
with many other faith-linked schools, the Salvation Army gave
management of their schools over to the government following
independence, but it remains committed to ensuring the quality
of teachers, administration, and school facilities through its
role on the school boards and as official sponsor. Some schools
established since independence come under the Salvation
Army’s full management. A key role of the school sponsor is
ensuring the spiritual health of the school, its teachers, and
students; the Salvation Army appoints a chaplain to each of its
schools to act as a guidance counselor, spiritual advisor, and all
around monitor. Chaplains’ roles are multifaceted and often
involve acting as a bridge between the students, administration,
Sister Ephigenia points out the history of schools started by the parents, and church.
Loreto Sisters in Kenya
The Salvation Army has established special needs schools.
Thika Primary School for the Blind, the first school for the
blind in East Africa, was founded in 1946. The front gate
Many FIOs work in the field of education. Leading institutions reads “Disability is not Inability,” capturing the principle
are linked to the Catholic Church, including the Bishops that governs the Salvation Army’s approach. In 1967, Thika
Conference and many religious orders. Likewise, the Anglican Secondary School for the Blind was established because many
Church has a long and deep record of involvement. Various students wished to continue their education. Other primary
bodies support specific project interventions. ADRA’s Child and secondary schools cater to children with mental disabilities
Education Support and Development Project supports the and various physical disabilities, for instance the Joytown
education of orphans in the Nyanza Province. World Vision schools. The Salvation Army directly operates vocational
offers children instruction in reading, writing, and math. schools like Variety Village in Thika for children and young
Tearfund (the large U.K.-based Christian FIO) projects work adults with disabilities who cannot continue to the secondary
to improve literacy, numeracy, and vocational training. NCCK level. A residential school for men and women ages 15 to 25
advocates for better national standards, student scholarships, years old, Variety Village, offers two-year programs in trades
and a pastoralist education program. The Aga Khan network like carpentry, cosmetology, metalworking, leatherworking,
runs a high caliber system of schools, including a university and sign writing, tailoring, and machine knitting.
early childhood education. Several other Islamic organizations
such as the Bilal Muslim Mission of Kenya and SUPKEM Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN)
provide scholarship opportunities for disadvantaged youth and Education is a core activity of the several AKDN institutions,
orphans. including the Aga Khan Foundation (AKF) and the Aga
Khan Education Services (AKES). The Ismaili community,
Salvation Army International as precursor to AKDN, has actively founded and run schools
The Salvation Army arrived in Kenya in 1896 to work on and education programs in Kenya since the early 1900s. Aga
the construction of the Kenya-Uganda Railway. Salvationists Khan schools were the first in Kenya to enroll students from
preached to their fellow railway men, and a movement began. all cultures and religions.241 Many of the original schools
In 1921, the international Salvation Army office recognized were nationalized upon independence, and AKF and AKES
the need for official organizational leadership in Kenya and have since worked to supplement the public system and offer
sent representatives to establish a command center. The next opportunities to those who cannot access national schools.
10 years saw rapid expansion that included projects in Uganda AKES now operates 13 schools in Kenya at levels ranging
and Tanzania, though they were later separated from the Kenya from nursery through secondary education. The Aga Khan
office. Academies in Mombasa and Nairobi offer the International
Baccalaureate (IB) curriculum and teach nursery through
Education is one of the Salvation Army’s foundational sectors. secondary grade levels. Through the School Improvement
In their Kenya East territory, the Salvation Army operates 215 Programme, AKF works closely with the government, offering
primary and secondary schools, seven schools for children workshops and training as well as resource centers for public
66 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Urban crime and violence are also significant, exacerbated by Clerics (CICC) and IRCK, promote dialogue among religious
weak law enforcement and judicial systems, especially for poor and community leaders. Diverse grassroots efforts tend to be
citizens. Today, 70 percent of Nairobi’s population lives in slum highly targeted on specific communities; for example, the
communities;250 poor infrastructure, lack of property rights, Vision Sisters Working Sisters (VSWS) project is an interfaith
rising and visible income inequality, and lack of economic women’s group in Kibera.
opportunity for youth all contribute to fragility. Nairobi’s slums
have high gang activity; a recent National Crime Research Inter-religious Council of Kenya (IRCK)
Centre study reported that 76.1 percent of respondents did IRCK, Kenya’s leading interfaith body, has a central mission
not feel secure because of organized criminal gangs.251 Police to foster peace and interfaith dialogue, aiming to “promote
officers are often distrusted; two-thirds of Kenyans report that tolerance and understanding among faith communities in
they trust the police a little or not at all, and 68 percent see Kenya through mobilizing joint actions for socioeconomic
most or all police officers as corrupt.252 Al-Shabaab and related development.”257 A prominent example of IRCK’s approach
violence and rhetoric play on religious and ethnic fault lines and activities was a two-day conference it organized in
and exacerbate doubts about the government’s security capacity November 2014 on Youth for Peaceful Coexistence in Kenya.
and strategies. The event brought together students from institutions of higher
education across Kenya to encourage interfaith conversation on
Many actors engage in a wide variety of responses to drivers countering violent extremism and radicalization among youth.
of conflict and underlying grievances. Some seek to address Invited religious leaders from all faiths and peace practitioners
specific religiously linked tensions, notably involving interacted with the students through presentations and active
Christians and Muslims. NGOs, international organizations, dialogue. Participants sought answers as to how to engage youth
and community- based organizations have a strong presence in proactively and effectively on radicalization issues without
Kenya’s violence prevention and peacebuilding programs. Some causing tension or distrust. IRCK also works to involve women
focus on reforming the police system to improve security and in peace activities through the Kenya Women of Faith Network
ensure peaceful elections (the International Justice Mission, (KWFN), founded in 2003. KWFN members come from
IJM, is one example). Others look to strengthen the culture women’s groups of eight different Kenyan faith organizations,
of accountable governance and peace dialogue at a local, sub- representing Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, and Hindus.
national, and national level.253 Many programs concentrate on KWFN members were trained as conflict mediators in June
reaching and supporting youth, while others recognize that 2008. In the Isiolo chapter of KWFN, 30 members have been
women play critical, yet often unappreciated roles and work trained in alternative dispute resolution techniques, including
to build their capacity.254 Several grassroots violence prevention mediation. In April 2014, these female leaders took on a key
programs build on sports, the arts, community rallies, and role in preventing violence after a Muslim prayer structure
community policing.255 at Ewaso Secondary School was allegedly demolished by the
chairman of the school board. Muslim youth took to the streets
Faith leaders, communities, and FIOs are among these many and social media. KWFN mediators worked with county
actors working to prevent violence and build peace. Faith actors government officials and local religious leaders and successfully
have played both positive and negative roles, however, during diffused the tension. Leaders in Isiolo thus become more aware
the post-election violence. The partisanship of some FIOs that women need to be included in mediation processes.
during electoral campaigns and the ensuing violence has come
in for substantial criticism as some have taken clear sides along Hekima Institute of Peace Studies and International Relations
ethnic lines.256 FIOs, in contrast, provided considerable support (HIPSIR)
to those suffering trauma. Some Christian, Muslim, and Hindu Established in 2004, HIPSIR, part of Hekima College and
leaders came together to speak out against the violence. NCCK the Catholic University of Eastern Africa, educates and trains
and SUPKEM denounced the post-election violence and have students in conflict transformation and peacebuilding. It offers
worked to build bridges with a focus on religious divides. The a master’s program in peace studies and international relations,
Quaker-based organization Change for Peace International enrolling over 100 students from 24 countries across Africa, Asia,
(CAPI) and an organization with Catholic roots, Chemchemi Europe, and Latin America.258 It offers a variety of accredited
Ya Ukweli, have been particularly active in bringing together certificate courses in conflict resolution, peacebuilding and
different ethnic groups and religious communities to discuss reconciliation, human rights and governance, and leadership
personal experiences of past violence. Tearfund is among and management. These short courses were developed to
transnational FIOs that have focused increasing attention on provide peace practitioners, government employees, and people
peace and reconciliation, working directly with local churches. working in civil society organizations the chance to learn
Two interfaith organizations, the Coast Inter-Faith Council of conflict resolution and peacebuilding techniques. HIPSIR
68 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
parents/caregivers morbidity, mortality, household poverty, or
other socioeconomic problems that render a child unable to
Box 4.6. BRAVE (Building Resilience Against receive basic needs.”
Violent Extremism)
There are strongly held views among faith actors as to the
The Muslim-led intra-faith movement BRAVE best approach to caring for vulnerable children, and many
demonstrates both a practical youth-focused approach approaches are put into practice through wide-ranging
and a courageous and broad-based approach to issues programs. Kenya’s OVC country plan focuses on capacity at
of extremism and interreligious tensions. Formed in the family level, in line with an international preference for
2015 by a group of Kenyan Muslims, BRAVE addresses de-institutionalization. A major issue is the effectiveness and
the pull factors to extremism: ideology, narratives, and impact of interventions.265 Parliament passed the Children Act
counter-narratives.a Activities focus on recruitment, in 2001, and two government bodies focus on care for children:
legitimation of extremist ideologies, and intimidation the National Council for Children’s Services (NCCS) and the
by extremist groups. BRAVE addresses the misuse Department of Children’s Services (DCS). Regulations issued
of religion for violent extremist ends and focuses on in 2005 apply to children’s charitable institutions and are
returnees from extremist movements as well as young consistent with the UN Convention on the Rights and Welfare
persons (including children and youth) and adults in of the Child.266 In 2011, Kenya expanded its OVC protection
areas considered hotspots (Nairobi, Upper Eastern, policy with a set of service standards that aim to improve care
North Eastern, Coast, and West Kenya). A BRAVE administered by NGOs. A Vision 2030 flagship program
manual and resource guideb provides guidance on aims to increase school enrollment for girls and children from
early warning signs of possible radicalization so that nomadic, poor, rural, or slum communities.267
parents, teachers, religious leaders, and communities
can identify youth that may be vulnerable. It offers Various development organizations give priority to OVC
narratives to counter messages used by extremists, care and child protection. International partners, including
describing misinterpretations of the Qur’an and Hadith UNICEF and the World Bank, support a cash-transfer
by extremist groups. It thus aims to address information program, begun in 2006, that provides a monthly stipend
asymmetries. BRAVE is active on both traditional and to families that house OVC.268 UNICEF highlights the
social media. Its plans look to working with Christian importance of basic education in arid and semi-arid areas and
religious leaders and opinion shapers to this end. informal settlements of Nairobi, Mombasa, and Kimusu to
keep the most vulnerable children with their families or place
a “Our Approach,” Building Resilience Against Violent them in family-based care.269 DfID supports schools in hard-to-
Extremism, last modified 2017, http://www.braveprogram.org/ reach slums and arid lands and adolescent girls through wealth
home/.
b Mustafa Yusuf Ali and Othman Mujahid Bwana, creation, health, education, and security interventions.270 The
Training Manual and Resource Guide, Building Resilience European Community addresses high school dropout rates
Against Violent Extremism: October 2015), http://www. and child labor in rural areas through health and education
braveprogram.org/wpcontent/uploads/2016/02/Brave_ interventions and community-based initiatives.271 UN Women
manual.pdf.
supports gender-responsive programming, emphasizing
vulnerable women and girls in insecure environments.
material support, HIV prevention, and home-based care. rates have been high.277 World Vision supports local savings
The OVC Secretariat, under the Department of Children’s groups that allow members to expand businesses without
Services, advises Kenya on OVC policy. It includes World incurring bank loans and financial risk. Various education
Vision, CRS, and Hope Worldwide. World Vision reports that initiatives aim to improve school effectiveness and student
it has reached 400,000 Kenyan children directly and over one success in about 3,000 schools across Kenya. A pilot program
million indirectly.273 Compassion International (a U.S.-based focuses on integrating ICT capabilities into schools and training
FIO) runs child sponsorship, leadership development, and teachers in new technology. The Spark, a Digital Future Project,
child survival programs, reaching more than 95,400 children raised children’s reading ability from 44.4 percent in 2012 to
through its child development centers.274 63.3 percent in 2014;278 World Vision hopes to expand the
program. World Vision works with local governments in the
World Vision Kenya Baringo, Busia, Isiolo, Kajiado, Lamu, Mombasa, Nairobi,
World Vision began work in Kenya in 1974, and it is currently Narok, Nyamira, and Turkana counties to improve education
active in 35 of Kenya’s 47 counties275 through about 56 projects. access for vulnerable children through new class construction,
Sponsorship programs support about 125,000 children in hiring additional teachers, and supporting school fees.
Kenya, and over 356,000 children receive food aid monthly.
World Vision’s core approach is to tackle the root causes of child Helping Hand Relief and Development
vulnerability by supporting the child directly alongside programs Helping Hand Relief and Development, a Detroit-based,
to build family resilience, establish sustainable livelihoods for Islam-inspired organization, sponsors more than 700 orphans
parents, protect children from harmful cultural practices and in Kenya. It offers assistance to all people regardless of faith,
abuse, and ensure access to safe water, health, and education race, or tradition. Sponsorships involve direct contributions
services. The microfinance subsidiary Vision Fund is the main from individual donors for one dollar a day or $365 per year.
vehicle for building family resilience. Livelihood building This supports a monthly ration for each sponsored child plus
includes a focus on nutrition-rich diets and opportunities in clothes, hygiene kits, and money to pay for school fees, books,
health and education.276 Caregivers receive small loans for farms, school bags, uniforms, notebooks, and writing tools. Helping
with training support on sustainable technology, like rainwater Hand fairs gather the children to play games, plan for their
harvesting, green houses, drip irrigation, and drought tolerant future, and build confidence. Medical screenings include
and high-value crops. Collective market groups strengthen local immunizations and preventive health. Helping Hand works
sustainable economies. Loans help with school fees. Repayment with Islamic Foundation Kenya.
70 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Bethlehem Community Centre (BCC)
BCC—a women’s prayer group in a living room—has grown
into a network of children’s homes, schools, and churches in
Nairobi’s Soweto slum, reaching some 400 orphans.279 The
center describes its approach as deeply grounded in Christian
values and community. BCC operates a community school
founded in 1994 that provides free education to local orphans
and vulnerable children. With the help of the community
and international donors, BCC has expanded and now
serves 370 vulnerable children. At BCC’s second location in
Mwea, 70 orphaned and vulnerable children work on a farm
to give BCC greater independence and provide employment
for the local community. BCC scholarships allow children to
attend secondary schools and vocational schools or university.
Women’s prayer and savings groups help widows and single
Lutheran church hosts FIKISHA, an FIO working with mothers. BCC sees success in the small businesses these women
street children have started together.
Climate Change
FIKISHA
Located in Kawangware, one of Nairobi’s slums, FIKISHA is Kenya is affected by climate change and long-standing
an example of a small, local response that gives street children environmental challenges that include deforestation, land
a chance at a better life. A local Lutheran church founded degradation, and threats to its biodiversity. Projections
FIKISHA in 2009. It began when a group of university indicate that climate variability is likely to increase with
students visiting the church met 11-year-old Isaac, who was rising temperatures, droughts, and flooding. Climate change
living on the street after his alcoholic stepmother kicked him could have important social and economic consequences. For
out of the house. After living on the street for two years he example, the coastal city of Mombasa, an important tourist
was addicted to drugs and had little hope for the future. The destination, sits at a low altitude, and an estimated 17 percent
students befriended him and decided to sponsor him through could be submerged with a sea level rise of 0.3 meters.280 The
the church and get him back in school. Gradually, the church 2011 drought in the Horn of Africa affected much of Kenya,
invited more street children for a hot cup of tea and to participate disrupting education for an estimated 508,000 children.281
in Bible study. Fundraising began for a school scholarship Over 290,000 Somalis fled their country as a result of the
fund. Today, FIKISHA sponsors dozens of street children, drought and ensuing famine, and many settled in refugee
mostly boys, through its Street Scholar Fund. The children camps in Kenya and Ethiopia.282
range from 6 to 25 years old. FIKISHA staff and volunteers
from the local Lutheran church give boys temporary housing The Kenyan government and its partners (including religious
at the church, helping them detox, and then place them with bodies of many kinds) are paying increasing attention to climate
foster families. The children are sponsored to return to school, change. The term “sustainable development” highlighted in A
paired with individual FIKISHA mentors who check on them Common Future, published by the United Nations Commission
often. They come to the church for Bible study, which serves on Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987, frames
as spiritual counseling. Older children can be sponsored to go contemporary discussions. The 2010 National Climate Change
to secondary boarding schools, and when it can, FIKISHA Response Strategy (NCCRS) describes a climate change-
works with families to repair relationships and reunite them, resilient Kenya that can stay on track to attain its Vision 2030.283
though this can be counterproductive if the family is abusive Both political will284 and international support285 are essential.
or involved in drugs or prostitution. Family reconnection is Climate change is a strategic focal point for USAID, DFID,
treated case by case. The FIKISHA model focuses on a child’s UNDP, UNEP, and the World Bank. USAID climate change
morals and responsibility through spiritual development and activities include an emphasis on private investment in climate
community service. One of its programs teaches children to resilient growth and on inclusive, transparent, and responsive
create paper from recycled materials. Custom invitations and climate change planning.286 DfID aims to build resilience
cards for weddings or other events are a product. Children and support low-carbon growth.287 UNDP addresses climate
help maintain the church compound and participate in service change through several programs, including land management
opportunities to instill hope and a work ethic. in agro-pastoral production systems and removing market
72 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Gender Equality and Addressing development, talent promotion, provision of safe spaces, and
Gender-based Violence298 advocacy.”299 Keeping to YWCA’s original purposes, its offices
provide safe accommodation for students and traveling women
Despite Kenyan women’s significant progress toward equal who need a safe space.
rights, discrimination and widespread gender-based violence
are serious and persistent problems. Religious dimensions are In Kenya, the organization focuses on six main areas: young
significant, both in shaping norms and in active engagement women’s leadership development, education, health, social and
of religious actors to address underlying issues that include economic empowerment, advocacy for the rights of women
systemic violence against women and girls (VAWG), sexual and girls, and service provision. The YWCA seeks to develop
violence during conflict, FGC/M, early marriage, and girls into successful young women through mentorship,
transactional sex. Religious beliefs, for example, play major roles education, and exposing them to other cultures and countries
both in perpetuating FGC and in efforts to end it. Religious through exchange programs. Professional women or university
leaders and communities, however, have largely remained silent students act as mentors or “big sisters” to younger girls as they
on VAWG, and the few existing efforts lack momentum or go through school and exams, offering career advice and general
urgency. Moving the needle to change attitudes and behavior mentorship on how to navigate society. The YWCA also teaches
requires a serious critique of unequal gender norms that are the harms of FGM, early marriage, and teenage pregnancy.
often shaped and reinforced by religious teachings, followed by Through age-targeted curriculum, the YWCA offers sexual
concrete actions and dedicated resources. Faith-inspired efforts and reproductive health education and approaches to avoid
are primarily found at the community level with only a few drug and substance abuse. In cases of accidental pregnancy, the
national leaders or FIOs taking a clear stance on gender issues. YWCA provides young mothers with prenatal care and, once
the baby is born, assistance in returning to school.
Young Women Christian Association (YWCA)
The YWCA was founded in New York City in 1858 to Women’s leadership is an important value for YWCA,
provide support to women who had moved into the city to cultivated both within the organization and in society through
be factory workers. In 1912, the YWCA was established in its programs. Organizational leadership must consist of at
Kenya, making it the country’s oldest women’s organization. least 30 percent young women, defined as under 30 years old.
The organization operates seven branches across Kenya in YWCA teaches girls and women how to lead successfully and
Mombasa, Kisumu, Meru, Kisii, Nairobi, Tana River, and authoritatively in a traditionally male-dominated society and
Siaya. YWCA’s mission shapes their programs: “To empower encourages women to run for local offices. Leadership training
girls and young women to attain holistic growth through skills and coaching help develop a campaign strategy, build public
speaking skills, and offer advice for professional dress.
Termination of Female Genital Mutilation (TFGM) Initiation for Girls, Right of Passage for Christian Boys, Female
Sister Ephigenia Gachiri, a Loreto sister in the Marang’a Circumcision, and My Journey to Womanhood. TGFM hosts
Catholic Diocese, founded the TFGM project in 1998. Her community workshops to raise awareness about the issues. The
focus was to create an alternative Christian rite of passage that workshops are Christian-based but are open to people of all
girls can undergo in place of undergoing FGM, promoted faiths.301
through a week-long workshop. The alternative rite has met
some success in a number of Kenyan villages. TFGM carries Church World Service (CWS)
out one-week seminars for FGM survivors and two-day FGM CWS (a U.S.-based organization in 20 countries), established
awareness seminars that are Christian-based, using Bible verses a Kenya office in 1978. It manages development and
to support arguments against FGM. Facilitators connect with humanitarian response projects, primarily in East Africa, and
survivors, as many have experienced FGM themselves. The administers the Resettlement Support Center, which serves
seminar includes a healing service and prayer, and participants all of Africa. CWS’s expertise in refugees and connections to
attend Mass where priests often discuss FGM. The program local communities has allowed them to help protect vulnerable
has also been introduced in schools; public primary school populations, including LGBTQ communities. Their status as
students are given a day off to attend the seminars. Seminars an FIO and humanitarian organization have allowed CWS to
for private and boarding schools are held on Saturdays. work with religious communities on LGBTQ issues and be
public in their programs. CWS’s LGBTQ program focuses
Sister Ephigenia has published a variety of materials and engages on engaging religious leaders in discussions about the links
directly through dialogue with religious and community between sexual orientation and gender identity or expression
leaders about the practice. Despite the stigma associated (SOGIE), persecution, and forced migration. CWS encourages
with openly discussing FGM, Sister Ephigenia has engaged more informed and inclusive approaches by faith communities
Catholic bishops in order to break the silence and elicit their and faith-based service providers in working with LGBTQ
help in ending FGM in Kenya. Her books include Christian forced migrants and the broader LGBTI community.
74 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
CHAPTER 5: LOOKING AHEAD
Kenya’s dynamic and ubiquitous religious institutions play vital expectations of excellence and caring, often underpinning
roles in many facets of national development. They help shape hope, resilience, and joy.
national identity, public policy, and private behavior. They
are global in their links and visions at the same time that they The goal of this study is to provide a comprehensive yet
are deeply anchored in local communities. The contemporary accessible overview of Kenya’s religious landscape in relation
religious landscape exemplifies the stunning transformation of to major issues for development. The approach is grounded
African societies in the twentieth century. Religious institutions by interviews with people in Kenya working with religiously
have shifted and morphed over time, playing important inspired institutions. These interviews set out to understand
historical roles and engaging actively in today’s social issues. how various actors see their work within the Kenyan context,
They are involved in every complex challenge that will shape but they also point to the ways in which they fit within broader
Kenya’s future. strategic frameworks. The research framed these perspectives
within an exploration of national and international development
The religious landscape is certainly complex. Religious visions and approaches. The resulting map of religion and
demography, relationships among different traditions and development can, it is hoped, enhance efforts to strengthen
denominations, and their involvement in politics all bear the the complex multi-sectoral partnerships that are essential for
marks of various historical phases, with troubling legacies development success and sustainability. Contextual religious
of racial discrimination, tangled economic relationships, literacy may also offer insights that can enhance the quality of
counterproductive ethnic and religious competition, and the various programs.
enduring divides and bonds left behind by artificial lines drawn
on colonial maps. More positive legacies, though, include A paradox in exploring religious issues for Kenya is the
vibrant communities linked through religious expression, wealth of information set against striking gaps in knowledge
a strong network of health and education programs, and, in and understanding. Kenya’s missionary history has been
many institutions, underlying religious values reflected in extensively researched, and the roles of religious actors in
76 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
POTENTIAL AREAS FOR ACTION
Efforts to engage religious leaders on issues around family
health and family planning (long sensitive topics in Kenya)
are promising and should be carefully watched. Two aspects
have particular importance: first, religious support is essential
for reforms and efforts to shift traditional norms and behaviors
(FGC and domestic violence, for example); and second, the
deliberate effort to engage religious communities at various
levels can be beneficial (for example, in focusing programs
for maternal health on specific counties with the highest
mortality or ones that lag in family planning or child nutrition
indicators).
An appreciation of the overall financial contributions Religious actors play significant roles in service delivery for
of religious organizations, including FIOs, to national orphans and vulnerable children. With significant differences
development is a gap in this study and report—and it is in the way government and institutional policies toward OVC
largely an unknown. We cannot comment in a meaningful are understood and applied, safe-space discussions to assess
way about financial and economic questions associated with experience and theories of change could be beneficial.
religious institutions. These range widely, from inquiries as
78 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
APPENDIX A
The 2000-2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): How Did Kenya Fare?
Source: “Millennium Development Goals Indicators,” United Nations Statistics Division, 2015, http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx.
80 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
APPENDIX B
82 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
Endnotes
1. The term FIO is used in the report in preference to a commonly used 19. For a fascinating pre-2007 election analysis by the US government
term faith-based organizations or FBOs; FIOs may not have any formal of religious groups and politics see Embassy Kenya, “Kenya Election:
religious mission or affiliation and the term is therefore preferred by some Role of Religious Institutions,” Wikileaks Cable: 07NAIROBI4652_a,
organizations. dated December 5, 2007, https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/
2. This was the result of a government rebasing of the national accounts. cables/07NAIROBI4652_a.html.
3. World Bank estimate: as of 2015, the poverty rate (at the $1.90/day, 2011 20. “Our Programmes,” NCCK, accessed October 6, 2014, http://www.ncck.
PPP terms) in Kenya was estimated at 25.3 percent. Estimates of poverty org/newsite2/index.php/our-work/k2-categories/our-programmes.
vary widely with various sources giving a figure of over half the population 21. “Kenya’s Devolution,” World Bank, accessed October 6, 2014, http://
living in poverty. www.worldbank.org/en/country/kenya/brief/kenyas-devolution.
4. “Statistics,” UNICEF, last modified December 27, 2013, accessed 22. Among analyses, Devolution without disruption: pathways to a successful
February 27, 2017, https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/kenya_ new Kenya (World Bank: 2012) and A Guide for Understanding
statistics.html. Decentralization in Kenya (NCCK: 2011), http://www.ncck.org/largedocs/
5. Among sources and useful additional reading: Kenya Economic Update Decentralization%20Manual%20-%20Revised%20Feb%202011.pdf.
(KEU): Beyond Resilience – Increasing Public Investment Efficiency (The 23. “2016 Corruption Perceptions Index,” Transparency International, last
World Bank: October 2016); The Republic of Kenya: Joint IDA-IMF modified January 2017, http://www.transparency.org/news/feature/
Staff Advisory Note on the Vision 2030 Second Medium-Term Plan 2013- corruption_perceptions_index_2016#table.
2017 (The World Bank, Africa Region: February 2014); Economist 24. “Bribes you have to pay ‘to survive’ in Kenya,” Daily Nation, March 20,
Intelligence Unit, Country Report, Kenya (Economist: January 2017); 2016, http://www.nation.co.ke/news/Bribes-you-have-to-pay-to-survive-
Kenya, Country Partnership Strategy, FY2014-2018 (World Bank: 2014), in-Kenya/1056-3125294-db8l6bz/index.html.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/173431468284364640/ 25. The Fragile States Index is based on the twelve primary social, economic,
pdf/889400CAS0P1440Kenya0CPS000Volume02.pdf. and political indicators of the CAST methodology, developed by The
6. Kenya Vision 2030 (Government of the Republic of Kenya: 2007), http:// Fund for Peace.
www.ku.ac.ke/images/stories/docs/kenya_vision_2030_abridged_version. 26. “2016 Fragile State Index,” The Fund for Peace, last modified 2017,
pdf. http://fsi.fundforpeace.org/.
7. Annalisa Prizzon and Tom Hart, Age of choice: Kenya in the new 27. East Africa Regional Conflict and Instability Assessment (USAID:
development finance landscape (Overseas Development Institute: April March 2012), http://conflict.care2share.wikispaces.net/file/view/
2016). USAID+East+Africa+Conflict+Assessment+March2012.pdf.
8. Kenya, Country Partnership Strategy. 28. “Social Progress Index: Kenya,” The Social Progress Imperative, last
9. Ibid., 12. modified 2017, http://www.socialprogressimperative.org/countries/ken/.
10. Kenya Economic Report 2013 (Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research 29. “Kenya: Events of 2016,” Human Rights Watch, last modified 2017,
and Analysis: 2013), xxi. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/kenya.
11. Kenya Country Strategy Paper 2014-2018 (African Development Bank 30. A first household survey in over a decade is underway: 2015/16 Kenya
Group: February 2014), https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/ Integrated Household Budget Survey (KIHBS), http://www.knbs.or.ke/
Documents/Project-and-Operations/2014-2018_-_Kenya_Country_ index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=129:2015-
Strategy_Paper.pdf. 16-kenya-integrated-household-budget-survey-kihbs&Itemid=1214.
12. Ibid. 31. See for example “Kenya Fact Sheet,” World Bank, http://data.worldbank.
13. See interesting discussion on issues for philanthropic organizations in org/country/kenya and Kenya Economic Report 2013 (Kenya Institute for
Kenya: Investing in the Sustainable Development Goals in Kenya: A primer Public Policy Research and Analysis: 2013), xxi.
for Philanthropists and Other Social Investors (SDG Philanthropy Platform: 32. Kenya Economic Report 2013, xxi.
August 2009), http://sdgfunders.org/reports/investing-in-the-sustainable- 33. Emmanuel Mutisya, “Moving Towards Urban Sustainability in Kenya,”
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religious peacebuilding efforts in Kenya (WFDD: August 2016), https:// 36. Gayle H. Martin and Obert Pimhidzai, Education and Health Services in
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peace-exploring-inter-religious-peacebuilding-efforts-in-kenya. 37. “Millennium Development Goals Indicators,” UN Statistics Division, last
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explosion.” 40. Ibid.
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Election Violence (Kenya National Commission on Human Rights: August 42. National Nutrition Action Plan 2012-17 (Kenya Ministry of Public
2008), 124, http://fidakenya.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/khrc- Health and Sanitation, 2012). https://scalingupnutrition.org/wp-content/
report...on-the-blink.pdf.
84 BERKLEY CENTER FOR RELIGION, PEACE & WORLD AFFAIRS AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY
33;The Story of National Council of Churches of Kenya 1913-2013, 24-27 113. Gifford, Christianity, Politics, and Public Life in Kenya, 128.
for history of Protestants against FGM 114. Moywaywa Charles Kinanga and Stephen Akaranga Ifedha, “The Origins
86. For a brief introduction see Nthamburi, “The Beginning and and Settlement of Hindus in Nairobi, Kenya,” International Journal of Arts
Development of Christianity in Kenya.” and Commerce 4, no. 8 (2015):115-121, http://www.ijac.org.uk/images/
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Kenya (London: Hurst and Company, 2009). Hindu Community,” The Joint (blog), February 23, 2012, https://
89. J. Baur and H. Burgman, The Catholic Church in Kenya: A centenary nickthiongo.wordpress.com/2012/02/23/debunking-myths-on-the-hindu-
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91. Ibid., 63. index.php/about-ncck/who-we-are.
92. Ibid., 84. 117. “Our Journey,” NCCK, accessed June 14, 2015, www.ncck.org/newsite2/
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of its Gospel Missionary Society Origins (New York: Peter Lang, 2000); R. edu/interviews/a-discussion-with-john-padwick-organization-of-african-
Macpherson, The Presbyterian Church in Kenya: An account of the origins instituted-churches and Berkley Center interview with Nicta Lubaale.
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