PRIMARY DATA: Data that has been generated by the researcher himself/herself, EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

surveys, interviews, experiments, specially designed for understanding and solving the Experimental research is a kind of study that rigidly follows a scientific research design. It
research problem at hand. involves testing or attempting to prove a hypothesis by way of experimentation. As such, it
Source uses one or more independent variables, manipulating them and then using them on one
Surveys, observations, experiments, questionnaire, personal interview, etc. or more dependent variables.
SECONDARY DATA: Using existing data generated by large government Institutions, In this process, the researchers can measure the effect of the independent variable(s) on
healthcare facilities etc. as part of organizational record keeping. The data is then the dependent variable(s). This kind of study is performed over some time, so that
extracted from more varied datafiles. researchers can form a corroborated conclusion about the two variables.
Source SIGNIFICANCE
Government publications, websites, books, journal articles, internal records etc. 1. Researchers have a full level of control in an experiment.
2. It can be used in a wide variety of fields and verticals.
MEANING OF REGRESSION: The dictionary meaning of the word Regression is 3. The results are specific and conclusive.
„Stepping back‟ or „Going back‟. Regression is the measures of the average relationship 4. The results allow researchers to apply their findings to similar phenomena or
between two or more variables in terms of the original units of the data. And it is also contexts.
attempts to establish the nature of the relationship between variables that is to study the 5. It can determine the validity of a hypothesis, or disprove one.
functional relationship between the variables and thereby provide a mechanism for 6. Researchers can manipulate variables and use them in as many variations as
prediction, or forecasting. they desire without tarnishing the validity of the research.
REGRESSION ANALYSIS: The statistical technique of estimating the unknown value of 7. It discovers the cause and effect among variables.
one variable (i.e., dependent variable) from the known value of other variable (i.e., 8. Researchers can further analyze relationships through testing.
independent variable) is called regression analysis. How the typical value of the dependent 9. It helps researchers understand a specific environment fully.
variable changes when any one of the independent variables is varied, while the other 10. The studies can be replicated so that the researchers can repeat their
independent variables are held fixed. experiments to test other variables or confirm the results again.
IMPORTANCE OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS Regression analysis helps in three
important ways :- 1. It provides estimate of values of dependent variables from values of TARGET POPULATION
independent variables. 2. It can be extended to 2or more variables, which is known as Definition: A target population is a certain group of the population that share similar
multiple regression. 3. It shows the nature of relationship between two or more variable. characteristics and is identified as the intended audience for a product, advertising or
research. It is a portion of the whole universe of people selected as the objective audience.
Procedure in Data Collection Target population is an informal term used mostly in epidemiology. It‟s general defined to
1. Step 1: Identify issues and/or opportunities for collecting data. ... mean a group or set of elements that you want to know more information about.
2. Step 2: Select issue(s) and/or opportunity(ies) and set goals. ... Most of the time, “target population” and “population” are synonymous. However, adding
3. Step 3: Plan an approach and methods. ... the word target emphasizes that sometimes we miss the mark in sampling, and don‟t
4. Step 4: Collect data. ... always hit the mark: samples can be unrepresentative of the population that you
5. Step 5: Analyze and interpret data. ... originally intended to sample.
6. Step 6: Act on results. For example, you might want to survey all the hospitalized adults in the United States
(the target population), but budget constraints limit your survey to hospital patients just
SCIENTIFIC METHODS four cities in the U.S. The sampled population and targeted population in this scenario are
DEFINITION likely to be quite different.
Scientific methods are defined as controlled, systematic investigations that are rooted in TARGET POPULATION UNITS
objective reality & that aim to develop general knowledge about natural phenomena. In some areas like regression analysis in epidemiology, it‟s especially important to identify
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS the target population. While data analysis in the sciences always includes the correct units,
They are orderly & systematic processes. specific information about the population is left out.
Scientists attempt to control external factors that are not under direct investigation. For example, let‟s say you‟re target population is people living in the United States: are
Their findings are based on the empirical evidences. you including just citizens? Resident aliens? Refugees?
Findings of scientific methods can be generalized, which means that they can be used in
situations other than the one under study.
Scientific methods are based on assumptions or hypothesis. I. Thesis structure
They are basically conduced to develop or test hypothesis. Title Page
PURPOSES OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS Abstract
The basic purposes of scientific methods are description, exploration, explanation,
Table of Contents
prediction, control, prescription, & identification of relationship of the facts
STEPS OF SCIENTIFC METHODS
List of Figures
Selecting the topic & identifying the research problem List of Tables
Defining the objectives of the study. Introduction
Reviewing the literature from theory & other related studies. Methods
Defining concepts & variables to be studied. Results
Stating hypothesis about expected observations or phenomenon to be studied. Discussion
Determining the ethical implication of the proposed study.
Conclusions
Describing the research design & methods for data collection.
Defining study population & sample.
Recommendations
Planning the data analysis & discussion. Acknowledgments
Collecting data from subjects. References
Analyzing &interpreting data. Appendices
Communicating finding of the study.
•VALIDITY
CORRELATION  DEFINITION:  “Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to
DEFINITION measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied
Boddington states that “ whenever some definite connection exists between the two or and interpreted.”
more groups, classes or series or data there is said to be correlation” •TYPES OF VALIDITY
“Correlation analysis” the purpose of which is the determination of degree of relationship There are the following types of validity;
between the variables  The method of correlation is developed by FRANCIS GALTON Face Validity: It is the extent to which the measurement method appears “on its face” to
in 1885. measure the construct of interest.
TYPES OF CORRELATION •Content Validity: It is the extent to which the measurement method covers the entire
The different types of correlation are range of relevant behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that define the construct being
o Positive and Negative correlation measured.
o Linear and Non-linear correlation
• Criterion Validity:  It is the extent to which people‟s scores are correlated with other
o Simple, Multiple and Partial correlation.
variables or criteria that reflect the same construct.
METHODS FOR STUDYING CORRELATION
• Discriminant Validity:  It is the extent to which people‟s scores are not correlated with
Correlation between two variables can be measured by both graphic and algebraic
other variables that reflect distinct constructs.
method. Scatter diagram and correlation graph are the two important graphic methods
while coefficient of correlation is an algebraic method used for measuring correlation.
RESEARCH PROBLEM
IMPORTANCE OF CORRELATION
DEFINITION
 Correlation helps to study the association between two variables.
A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a
 Coefficient of correlation is vital for all kinds of research work. difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in
 It helps in establishing Validity or Reliability of an evaluation tool. theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
 It helps to ascertain the traits and capacities of pupils while giving guidance or investigation.
counselling. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD THESIS RESEARCH PROBLEM
 Correlation analysis helps to estimate the future values. 1 The problem can be stated clearly and concisely.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE 2 The problem generates research questions.
Following are the qualities of a good questionnaire. 3 It is grounded in theory.
1. The length of questionnaire should be proper one. 4 It relates to one or more academic fields of study.
2. The language used should be easy and simple. 5 It has a base in the research literature.
3. The term used are explained properly. 6 It has potential significance/importance.
4. The questions should be arranged in a proper way.
5. The questions should be in logical manner.
6. The questions should be in analytical form.
7. Complex questions should be broken into filter questions.
8. The questions should be described precisely and correctly.
9. The questionnaire should be constructed for a specific period of time.
10. The questions should be moving around the theme of the investigator.
11. The answers should be short and simple.
12. These answers should be accurate.
13. The answers should be direct one.
14. The answers should be relevant to the problem.
15. The answers should be understand able to everyone of respondents.
SAMPLING: EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to Educational research is a type of systematic investigation that applies empirical methods
make statistical inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole to solving challenges in education. It adopts rigorous and well-defined scientific processes
population. Different sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market in order to gather and analyze data for problem-solving and knowledge advancement.
research so that they do not need to research the entire population to collect actionable PURPOSE
insights. The primary purpose of educational research is to expand the existing body of knowledge
TYPES OF SAMPLING: SAMPLING METHODS by providing solutions to different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching and
Sampling in market research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability learning practices. Educational researchers also seek answers to questions bothering on
sampling. Let‟s take a closer look at these two methods of sampling. learner motivation, development, and classroom management.
Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
sets a selection of a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the The scope of a subject can usually be discussed under two heads:
members have an equal opportunity to be a part of the sample with this selection 1. The branches, topics and the subject matter it deals with
parameter. 2. The limits of it‟s operations and applications
Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members The fields of educational research can be classified in terms of following content areas.
for research at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection 1. Educational Psychology
process. This makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities 2. Philosophy of Education
to be included in a sample. 3. Sociology of Education
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING 4. Economics of Education
Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in 5. Educational Administration
saving time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method 6. Comparative Education
of obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, 7. Curriculum construction and Textbooks
merely by chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of 8. Educational Measurement and Test development
a sample. 9. Teacher education and teaching behavior
Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire 10. Guidance and counselling
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified 11. Educational Technology
and included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
This makes it very simple for a survey creator to derive effective inference from the >>Educational research plays a crucial role in knowledge advancement across different
feedback. fields of study.
Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the >>It provides answers to practical educational challenges using scientific methods.
sample members of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting >>Findings from educational research; especially applied research, are instrumental in
point for the sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of policy reformulation.
sampling method has a predefined range, and hence this sampling technique is the least >>For the researcher and other parties involved in this research approach, educational
time-consuming. research improves learning, knowledge, skills, and understanding.
Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the >>Educational research improves teaching and learning methods by empowering you
researcher divides the population into smaller groups that don‟t overlap but represent the with data to help you teach and lead more strategically and effectively.
entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample >>Educational research helps students apply their knowledge to practical situations.
from each group separately.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING GUIDELINES FOR REPORT WRITING
Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as 1. Know your purpose
surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. This is the major aim: the reason you're writing the report in the first place. Because it
Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgemental or purposive samples are formed by the determines the kind of report you write, it's a critical (and often neglected) first step.
discretion of the researcher. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along Give it a think. Are you writing a factual, instructional or leading report? Remember:
with the understanding of the target audience. Factual reports aim to inform…..Instructional reports aim to explain.
Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when 2. Know your readers
the subjects are difficult to trace. Before you start writing your report, consider its audience. Why? Because you can't hit
Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique the nail on the head if you can't see the bleedin' nail. In short, to be successful, a report
happens based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific must ensure that its target readers can read it without delay;
attributes, the created sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It 3. Know your objective
is a rapid method of collecting samples. By matching the purpose to the reader, you are ready to set your objective. In other
words, what do you want the reader to think and do after reading your report? (People
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH are not brainiacs - often, you have to make it explicit. 'Do this...!')
Descriptive research is the most widely-used research design as indicated by the theses, Here's an example of an objective:
dissertations and research reports of institutions. Its common means of obtaining To persuade my MD to authorise a proposed system of flexible working hours
information include the use of the questionnaire, personal interviews with the aid of study 4. Choose an approach
guide or interview schedule, and observation, either participatory or not. I recommend a top-down approach to writing a report. This starts with the thesis
Descriptive research includes studies that purport to present facts concerning the nature statement (pretentiously also called the "terms of reference"), follows with the
and status of anything. This means that descriptive research gives meaning to the quality information-gathering and continues into three stages of ongoing refinement.
and standing of facts that are going on. 5. Decide on structure
NATURE OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Here are 11 basic elements of a standard report. I'm not a masochist, so this structure
Descriptive research is designed for the investigator to gather information about present does not need to be rigidly adhered to. Instead, bring your own circumstances, needs and
existing conditions. creativity to the mix, and use whatever's appropriate.
>Descriptive research involves collection of data in order to test the hypothesis or to 1. Title page
answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of the study. 2. Index (or Contents)
>Descriptive study determines and reports the way things are. It has no control over what 3. Thesis (or Terms of Reference or Abstract)
is, and it can only measure what already exist. 4. Introduction (or Executive Summary)
>Descriptive research has been criticized for its inability to control variables, for being a 5. Background
post-hoc study and for more frequently yielding only descriptive rather than predictive, 6. Procedure
findings. 7. Implications (or Issues)
AIM OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 8. Solutions (or Recommendations)
>The principal aims in employing descriptive research are to describe the nature of a 9. Conclusion
situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the causes of particular 10. Appendices
phenomena. 11. Bibliography
>contribute in the formation of principles and generalization in behavioural sciences 6. Use the right style
/>contribute in the establishment of standard norms of conduct, behaviour, or Use hard facts and figures, evidence and justification. Use efficient language - big reports
performance. with too many words are awful. The best reports are simple and quick to read because the
>reveal problems or abnormal conditions ; writer has interpreted the data and developed viable recommendations.
>make possible prediction of future on the basis of findings on prevailing conditions, 7. Consider layout
corrections, and on the basis of reactions of people toward certain issues; Fonts
/>give better and deeper understanding of phenomenon on the basis of an in-depth study Remember that reports are conservative and often formal documents, so your font choices
of the phenomenon. should not be cutesy, clever or sexy.
>provide basis for decision-making. Visuals
METHOD Spend time thinking about the pictures. Wherever necessary, explain all aspects of a
>Six steps in conducting descriptive research visual and don't leave the reader wondering about the connection between the figure and
>Identify problem the text.
>Review literature 8. Leave time to refine
>Select participants and instruments No report is perfect, and definitely not when it's still Draft 1. Unfortunately, well-written
>Collect valid and reliable data reports are those that have gone through the mill a couple of times, either with your
>Analyze data gimlet eye or under the skeptical gaze of someone else. Leave as much time as you can
>Report conclusions afford to check, check and double-check, and then ask yourself:
IMPORTANCEOF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
 Overall, does the report fulfill its purpose?
/>For scientific basis of judgement. This means that descriptive research provides
information which could be used as basis for important decisions that are to be made.  Does it do what I was asked to do?
/>For a closer look into happenings, behaviour, practice, methods and procedures.
Descriptive researchprovides essential facts and understanding about the nature of
anything.
/>For the formation of construction of test analysis of these standardization of tools
instruments used in research.
OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
Observational research is a research technique where you observe participants and
phenomena in their most natural settings. This enables researchers to see their subjects
make choices and react to situations in their natural setting, as opposed to structured
settings like research labs or focus groups.
KINDS OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
Naturalistic observation
With naturalistic observation, observation occurs directly in the environment where the
phenomenon occurs. The observations are made as unobtrusively as possible with the
researcher not directly interacting with the participants in any way.
Participant observation
With participant observation, researchers actively participate in the study itself. In
addition to observing behaviors, a researcher might conduct interviews, take notes, look at
documents, and take photographs.
Structured observation
With structured observation, researchers do not observe in the natural setting, but instead
in a lab or a simulated environment. A structured observation is meant to observe a
specific, limited set of behaviors. This method is less natural, but enables less variables to
be at play.
METHODS:
Observation methods in research are utilized in many qualitative research methodologies
such as thematic analysis and grounded theory. Both methods can involve stages of
collecting data through observational methods in natural settings.
STEPS OF OBSERVATION?
Determine your research objective.
Understand the objective and goals of your research. Figure out what questions you‟re
trying to answer, and determine who you‟re trying to observe and why. See our article on
how to come up with a research objective.
Determine questions and create a research guide
From your research questions, create a research guide that outlines how you‟ll approach
gathering answers to your questions.
Establish your method of gathering data
Determine whether you will be taking a naturalistic observation or an active participant
approach. Decide if you‟ll be recording audio or video, taking pictures, and/or taking
notes.
Observe
Go into the field and do your observations! Make sure you obtain all necessary
permissions ahead of time.
Prepare your data
After the observation, prepare your data for analysis. Get your audio and video
recordings transcribed, and start to organize your notes and papers. See our article on
how to get audio transcribed.
Analyze behaviors in your data
Dive into the data and make sense of it. Systematically code and organize your data to find
themes and patterns. See our articles on qualitative coding to learn more about this step.
IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATION METHOD
1. Provides direct access to research phenomena.
2. By observing firsthand, the researcher can collect, check and record accurate
data.
3. Greater flexibility in terms of application.
4. Generate a permanent record of phenomena and the researcher or others can
refer with it later.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the problem
addressed by a study. The statement of the problem briefly addresses the question: What
is the problem that the research will address?
GOALS
The ultimate goal of a statement of the problem is to transform a generalized problem
(something that bothers you; a perceived lack) into a targeted, well-defined problem; one
that can be resolved through focused research and careful decision-making.
Writing a statement of the problem should help you clearly identify the purpose of the
research project you will propose.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM?
A good research problem should have the following characteristics:
1. It should address a gap in knowledge.
2. It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
3. It should lead to further research
4. The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of data
5. It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and
resources
6. The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical
FORMAT FOR WRITING A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
A persuasive statement of problem is usually written in three parts:
Part A (The ideal): Describes a desired goal or ideal situation; explains how things should
be.
Part B (The reality): Describes a condition that prevents the goal, state, or value in Part A
from being achieved or realized at this time; explains how the current situation falls short
of the goal or ideal.
Part C (The consequences): Identifies the way you propose to improve the current
situation and move it closer to the goal or ideal.