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CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO EV BATTERIES

Figure 1.1 Lithium-ion Battery in a EV

An electric vehicle battery (EVB) is a rechargeable battery used to power the electric
motors of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). EV batteries
differ from starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries, as they are typically lithium-ion
batteries that are capable of storing large amounts of energy to extend the range of the
vehicle.

Lithium-ion batteries consist of two electrodes — one positive and one negative —
sandwiched around an organic (carbon-containing) liquid. As the battery is charged and
discharged, electrically charged particles (or ions) of lithium pass from one electrode to the
other through the liquid electrolyte.

1.1 BATTERIES FOR EV

Lead-acid and Ni-based batteries were the two most commonly used batteries for EVs in
the last century .There are two types of batteries Conventional Batteries and Contemporary
Batteries.

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1.1.1 CONVENTIONAL BATTERIES

In the early 20th century, nearly 30% of the automobiles in the US were driven by lead-
acid and Ni based batteries. Lead-acid Although the upfront capital cost of the deep-cycle
lead-acid batteries could reach very low cost, its cycling performance is not satisfactory
due to its low specific energy and short cycle life. The toxicity of lead could contaminate
soil if its disposal was not handled properly. As a result, a lead-acid battery is no longer
suitable for the major onboard energy storage device for EVs nowadays. Nickel is lighter
than lead and has better electrochemical properties, but the cost of a Ni-based battery is up
to 10 times higher than that of the lead-acid on batteries are widely used as the starting,
lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries for ICE vehicles. It was adopted a lead-acid battery in
a mild hybrid powertrain system (usually no more than 48V) after improving its dynamic
charging and discharging performances in 2015. Moseley et al. summarized several
performance improvement methods for lead-acid batteries in a high-rate partial state of
charge (SoC) operations. Battery dominates the current EV battery market.

1.1.2 CONTEMPORARY BATTERIES

Its advantages including high specific energy density and power, no memory effect, low
self-discharge rate, long calendar life as well as cycle life are all perfect for large-scale
commercial productions. The electrochemical reaction inside a typical Li-ion battery cell
consisting of cathode, anode, and electrolyte. During discharge, lithium ions are released
from the anode, traveling through the electrolyte, and intercalated in the cathode. During
charging, charged lithium ions are gathered inside the anode after oxidation reactions
occurred in the cathode.

1.2 LITHIUM- ION BATTERY

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used as energy storage devices with Compared to
other types of batteries due to their various types of major advantages together with high
energy density, high columbic, and energy efficiency, zero memory effect, comparatively
long cycle life, and edibility in modification, which make LIBs desirable for a wide range
of products such as smartphones, laptop computers batteries and mobile power banks. The
energy and storage sector of today’s world is repeatedly facing provocation in terms of
performance, functionality of the fundamental materials To fulfill the demand for
electrochemical energy storage, especially for portable and the lightweight electronic
devices, secondary lithium-ion batteries were introduced into the global market for a long
period of time.

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Sony for the first time commercialized lithium-ion battery (LIB) in 1991. But sodium-ion
battery is opening the possibilities of beginning its commercial journey as a swap of LIB.

Figure 1.2 schematic diagram of battery

A secondary lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery (abbreviated as LIB) is mainly a

reversible battery, 1st outlined by chemist M Stanley Whittingham at Exxon within the
Seventies. Lithium- ion batteries are ordinarily used for moveable physics and electrical
vehicles and are growing in quality for military and regional applications. Lithium is the
lightest of metals and it can easily float on water. The electrochemical properties of lithium
are exceptional and it is also a highly reactive material. This characteristic gives Lithium
the potential to achieve very high energy and power densities in high-density battery
utilization such as automotive and standby power. A lithium cell can yield voltage from 1.5
V to 3 V depends on the types of materials used. Lithium-ion batteries are gain enormous
attention in terms of their marvel electrochemical properties. The lithium-ion battery is
rechargeable, lightweight, and comparatively low cost. However, researchers are always
finding a possible solution for reducing LIB cost and its weight and size.

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1.3 CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERY

The three initial structural components of a lithium-ion battery are the positive and negative
electrodes and electrolytes. Ordinarily, the negative electrode of a traditional lithium ion
cell is manufactured from natural carbon. The positive electrode is a metal oxide, and the
electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent. The battery consists of an anode of
Lithium, diffuse as ions, into a carbon. The cathode material is made up of Lithium
liberating compounds, typically the three electro-active oxide materials such as Lithium
Cobalt-oxide (LiCoO2),

Lithium Manganese-oxide (LiMn2O4), and Lithium Nickel-oxide (LiNiO2).

Li-ion cell has a four-layer structure.

● A positive electrode material is known as an anode.

● A Negative electrode material is known as Cathode.

● A separator is a fine porous polymer film.

● An electrolyte made with lithium salt in an organic solvent. The electrolytes are selected

in such a way that there should be an effective transport of Li-ion to the cathode during

discharge.

However, in this review, we will concentrate only on the anode materials, and in the last
section of this review, we will demonstrate that Graphene is a promising anode material for
secondary lithium-ion batteries due to its amazing superlative properties.

1.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE

Lithium-ion batteries are working on an interesting concept based on the electrochemical

potential associated with the metal. Electrochemical potential means the tendency to lose
electrons of a metal. Now a general electrochemical potential series is shown

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Figure 1.3 A Electrochemical Potential Series of Various Metals

According to these values, Li is the highest tendency to lose an electron. Li metal is
lightweight. Similarly, exposing a huge amount of charge storing capacity. Due to this
reason, Li-ion battery occupies a wide range of electronics sectors, power devices, electric
vehicles automobile parts engines, laptops, etc.

LIB batteries are two major working mechanisms one is the Discharging mechanism and
the last one is the charging mechanism which is illustrated by the following figure.

Figure 1.3 B Lithium-ion battery charging and discharging mechanism

While discharging Li-ions are detached from the anode and migrate across the electrolyte
and are inserted into the crystal structure of the host compound of the cathode. Again during
charging, lithium in positive electrode material is ionized and travels from layer to layer,

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and added into the negative electrode. Ordinary lithium-ion batteries used graphite as an
anode and lithium metal oxide compound as a cathode

The overall cell reaction is mainly divided into two categories as charging reaction and
discharging reaction. The reaction is described below

During discharging

At anode: LixC→ xLi+ + xe- + C

At cathode: Li1-x MO2 + xLi+ + xe-→ LiMO2

During charging

At anode: xLi+ + xe- + C→ LixC

At cathode: LiMO2→ Li1-xMO2 + xLi+ + xe-

1.5 DEVELOPMENT OF ANODE, CATHODE, AND

ELECTROLYTE MATERIALS

1.5.1 ANODE MATERIALS

Currently, the two most commonly used anode materials are those based on carbon
(graphite) and lithium alloyed metals. One of the commercialized lithium alloyed metal is
the oxide spinel Li4Ti5O12 the structure of which is shown in Figure To avoid issues in the
cycling and safety which are associated with dendrite formation on lithium anodes, it is
advisable to use the minimal potential intercalation electrode. The element found in the
graphite intercalation alloy protects the inserted lithium, making it less reactive towards
electrolytes. This will make the amount of Lithium in the lithiated material less, which
comes with both advantage and disadvantage. The advantage is that it accounts for any
safety concerns regarding the flammability of the electrochemical reactions. The
disadvantage is manifested in the form of loss in performance owing to a reduction in the
cell voltage, which further reduces the energy density and power.

Carbonaceous

(carbon-based) anodes As discussed earlier in this paper, one of the primary carbon
materials used as anode is graphite. They consist of sheets packed in hexagonal (AB) or
rhombohedral (ABC) arrangements as referenced in Figure When lithium ion is inserted,
these graphene sheets rearrange themselves on top of each other in AA arrangement and
“staging” occurs. Its minimal cost, accessibility and favorable electrochemical properties

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form the pros; carbon is the key anode material in Li-ion batteries. However, compared to
Li-ion alloys, graphite carbon has poor lithium intercalation capacity. Graphitic carbons are
used an anode material in the frontier of commercial Li-ion cells, mainly portable devices.

Figure 1.4 Basic Chemical Structure of LIB

Crystalline carbon has also been claiming prominence due to its higher acceptance of Li,
flexibility to temperature control as result of its organic structure, and optimal cycling
ability . Through structural and surface modifications, carbonaceous anodes have shown
consistent improvements in their charge-discharge efficiency and discharge capacity. There
have been new developments where artificial graphite has been designed by Hitachi by
altering pore and particle structures.

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Figure 1.5 Structures of Common Electrode Material

Novel graphite and non-graphitic anodes

A lot of advances are being made using altered natural graphite and other graphitic carbons
such as “kish” graphite . Recent studies have shown that the electrochemical characteristics
are better improved on modified graphite as a result of the oxidation of natural graphite in
air. Aritifcal development to graphitic anodes requires heat treatment at temperatures
starting 3000 C, which requires higher energy and might lead to the production of gaseous
materials. Kish graphite shows Li intercalation capacities well above the set theoretical
value equal to 372mAh/g . In addition, the production of Kish graphite is cheap and can be
done at a lower temperature of 1500 C. Non-graphitic carbons are those having graphene
domains but do not possess the structural order exhibited by graphene. They are also known
as disordered carbons. Although their irreversible capacity does not compare with natural
grapheme, these materials are less vulnerable in solid electrolyte interface disruption . This
makes them the perfect materials to be paired with Li-Manganese Oxide where the
dissolution of metal is challenging.

Lithium alloy anodes

Among the top studied Li-alloy anodes, Li-Al (lithium aluminum) is the first to be
developed as the anode for Li-ion batteries. Challenges related to cycling can be improved
by introducing substances such as Di-Lithium Phthalocyanine which changes the anode
surface film. One other challenge for this material is the volumetric change during lithiation
and dilithiation processes. However, this problem can be solved by the use of
“dimensionally stable” anodes.

This can be done by the utilizing a submicron particle alloy which is surrounded by a
stabilizing matrix and “intermetallic” host where one metal alloys with Li but the others do
not . Group of metals that alloy with Li are Al, Bi, Cd, Mg, Sn, and Sb, whereas those Fig.4.
The basic chemical structure of Li-ion batteries that do not are Co, Cu, Fe, and Ni. Some

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of these intermetallic elements that have shown promising result as anode materials are
Al3Ni, Fe-Sn, Sn-Sb and Sn-Cu . Lithium titanium oxide is another material that has been
branded as an alternative to carbon anodes. This material cycle well since it does not exhibit
any volumetric changes during Li insertion and extraction process unlike most other
intercalation electrodes . Its usage is limited to applications that do not require a high energy
density as a result of its high operating voltage. Due to its low conductivity, this material is
recommended to be nanostructured.

1.5.2 CATHODE MATERIALS

The cathode material in Li-ion battery chemistry is the major and active source of all the
Li-ions . The preference of positive electrode materials depends on rechargeable Limetal
or Li-ion batteries. The Li-metal, when used in rechargeable Li batteries, the metal acts as
a negative electrode, therefore the positive electrode does not need to be lithiated. In the
case of Li-ion, because carbon electrode which acting as the negative doesn’t have Li, the
positive terminal must act as source of Li; therefore intercalation compound is required for
the cell assembly . The most common cathode materials are LiCoO2, Li-Mn-O, LiFePO4
and lithium layered metal oxides.

Lithium Manganese spinels (Li-Mn-O)

Figure 1.6 Cubic spinel LiMn2O4 structures

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Li-Mn-O is one of the oldest compounds researched that dates back to centuries ago; it is
still widely used. Its first use was depolarizer. It is easily accessible, has low cost and
possesses desirable electrochemical properties. When compared to the high cost and toxic
lithium cobalt based (LiCo-O), and difficult to produce lithium-nickel based (Li-Ni-O),
lithium manganese (Li-Mn) is the most widely used battery material. Its different forms
make it ideal for the intercalation of small helium and lithium ions. The lambda form with
its spinel (Mn2O4) allows for the intercalation of Li-ion. Some of the advantages of Li-Mn
spinels are high thermal threshold, great rate capability, and minimal health and
environmental impacts. The diffusion rate for Li+ ion in this compound is 10-6 -10-10 sq.
cm/s . Challenges arise in reduced capacity upon frequent cycling. This is due to the
instability of the electrochemically active Mn3+ ion above 55o C temperatures. For such
cases, improvements can be made by doping selected metal ions (Al, Co, Cr, Fe, Mg, Ni,
Mg, etc.) and coating acid resistant materials on LiMn2O4 to obtain different structural
stability.

Lithium metal oxides

Figure 1.7 Layered lithium metal oxides structure

Lithiated nickel and cobalt oxides are the most in-depth studied cathode material for Li-ion
batteries. Both are characterized by high structural stability. Limited resources can be a
challenge for manufacturing making them costly and hard to synthesis. A resolution for this
has been in the development of solid solutions of these layered compounds. Li
Ni0.5Mn0.5O2 and Li1.2Cr0.4Mn0.4O2 are the most common solid solution compounds.

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A research performed shows that a combination of low-valent transition metal ions and low
strain in the activated state is key to high rate capability cathodes . Layered metal oxides
are perfect for applications requiring fast charging and discharging. These materials appear
to be doing well on capacity when subjected to temperatures above 300o C .

1.5.3 ELECTROLYTE MATERIALS

For a rechargeable Li-ion battery, there are two types of electrolyte technologies: polymer
base and liquid electrolyte [18]. A sustainable battery technology relies on good electrolyte
comprising the salt and solvent combination. Polymer-based electrolytes add further
selection criteria linked to the electrochemical stability of polymer. These become a
challenge since there are only a few Li-based salts or polymers to achieve high ion
conduction, Polyethylene Oxide (PEO) being the common one. For liquid electrolytes,
there are different solvents with specific dielectric and viscosity constants that can be
selected to achieve higher ionic conduction. However, there are challenges in both
technologies. In liquid electrolyte, the ion conduction of the electrolyte is “field-trial”
process, guided by the concepts of dielectric and viscosity constants [3]. In case of the
polymer electrolyte, achieving high ionic conduction in Li-based polymer entails an in-
depth understanding of ionic dissociation and transport.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
Graphene And Lithium-Based Battery Electrodes: A Review Of Recent Literature

By: Department of Applied Science and Technology, C. so Duca degli

Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy

Graphene is a new generation material, which finds potential and practical applications in
a vast range of research areas. It has unrivalled characteristics, chiefly in terms of electronic
conductivity, mechanical robustness and large surface area, which allow the attainment of
outstanding performances in the material science field. Some unneglectable issues, such as
the high cost of production at high quality and corresponding scarce availability in large
amounts necessary for mass scale distribution, slow down graphene widespread utilization;
however, in the last decade both basic academic and applied industrial materials research
have achieved remarkable breakthroughs thanks to the implementation of graphene and
related 1D derivatives. In this work, after briefly recalling the main characteristics of
graphene, we present an extensive overview of the most recent advances in the
development of the Li-ion battery anodes granted by the use of neat and engineered
graphene and related 1D materials. Being far from totally exhaustive, due to the immense
scientific production in the field yearly, we chiefly focus here on the role of graphene in
materials modification for performance enhancement in both half and full lithium-based
cells and give some insights on related promising perspectives.

A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric

vehicles
By: State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua
University, Beijing 100084, PR China
This paper briefly reviews key technology of ba ery management system in EV. The
composi on of ba ery management system is analyzed. The ba ery state es ma on
methods are summarized and compared. The ba ery uniformity theory and equaliza on
methods are reviewed. The ba ery fault diagnosis methods are discussed.
Compared with other commonly used ba eries, lithium-ion ba eries are featured by high
energy density, high power density, long service life and environmental friendliness and

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thus have found wide applica on in the area of consumer electronics. However, lithium-
ion ba eries for vehicles have high capacity and large serial-parallel numbers, which,
coupled with such problems as safety, durability, uniformity and cost, imposes limita ons
on the wide applica on of lithium-ion ba eries in the vehicle. The narrow area in which
lithium-ion batteries operate with safety and reliability necessitates the effective control
and management of battery management system. This present paper, through the analysis
of literature and in combination with our practical experience, gives a brief introduction to
the composition of the battery management system (BMS) and its key issues such as battery
cell voltage measurement, battery states estimation, battery uniformity and equalization,
battery fault diagnosis and so on, in the hope of providing some inspirations to the design
and research of the battery management system.

Advanced Lithium-Ion Batteries for Practical Applications: Technology,

Development, and Future Perspectives
By : SINHO CHOI AND GUOXIU WANG
Lithium-ion ba eries have been used to operate various electric devices over the last
decade. Electronic devices have been developed rapidly to achieve a high level of
performance and enter into new markets. However, lithium-ion ba eries face limita ons
as a result of the low theore cal energy density of exis ng materials. Thus, many
researchers have sought to inves gate different ways to enhance the performance of
ba eries when used for prac cal applica ons. This review revisits the literature related to
the development of high performance lithium-ion ba eries, which have been shown to
have achieved outstanding results in a full cell test. In par cular, the full cell test is cri cally
important when seeking to develop materials that are appropriate for use in prac cal
applica ons, and it also helps meet the increasing demands of new lithium-ion ba eries
that are a result of emerging technology. This review ar cle aims to provide informa on
about the development of lithium-ion ba eries and the latest developments in new
materials and nanotechnology. Furthermore, it will outline the challenges faced by the
research community in developing advanced ba eries and the outlook for the next
genera on of lithium-ion ba eries.

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CHAPTER 3

THERMAL CHARACTERISTIC OF LITHIUM-ION

BATTERY

Figure 3.1 Thermal Gradient Of Cell

3.1 THERMAL HEAT GENERATION is an inherent characteristic of

lithium-ion batteries during their normal operation, especially during charge and discharge
cycles. Heat is produced due to several factors within the battery system:

Internal Resistance: When a lithium-ion battery is charged or discharged, it experiences

internal resistance, which is the resistance to the flow of current within the battery. This
resistance leads to power losses and results in heat generation. The resistance occurs at
various interfaces within the battery, including the electrodes, electrolyte, and current
collectors.

Electrochemical Reactions: The electrochemical reactions occurring at the positive and

negative electrodes during charge and discharge cycles contribute to heat generation. These
reactions involve the movement of lithium ions between the electrodes through the
electrolyte. The transport of ions and the associated charge transfer processes involve
energy dissipation, leading to heat generation.

Irreversible Side Reactions: In addition to the desired electrochemical reactions, lithium-

ion batteries may also undergo undesirable side reactions. These side reactions, such as

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electrolyte decomposition or reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interface, are often

accompanied by heat generation. Side reactions can occur due to factors such as
overcharging, high temperatures, or the presence of impurities.

3.2 THERMAL RUNAWAY is a critical and potentially dangerous condition

that can occur in lithium-ion batteries. It refers to an uncontrolled and self-sustaining
increase in temperature within the battery, often resulting in rapid and excessive heat
generation. This condition can lead to severe safety hazards, including fire, explosion, and
the release of toxic gases. Thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries can be triggered by
various factors, including:

Overheating: High temperatures, either external or internal, can initiate thermal runaway
in lithium-ion batteries. External factors may include exposure to high ambient
temperatures or direct heat sources, while internal factors may include excessive heat
generation during charge or discharge cycles.

Internal Short Circuit: A short circuit within the battery, which can occur due to physical
damage, manufacturing defects, or electrode degradation, can cause a rapid and
uncontrolled flow of current. This increased current flow leads to excessive heat generation
and can initiate thermal runaway

Overcharging or Overdischarging: Operating the battery beyond its recommended voltage

limits can cause chemical reactions within the battery to become unstable. This instability
can result in increased heat generation and potential thermal runaway.

Contamination or Impurities: Presence of impurities, such as metallic particles or moisture,

within the battery can cause localized heating, leading to thermal runaway. Contamination
can occur during the manufacturing process or as a result of external factors.

When thermal runaway occurs, several concurrent processes contribute to the self-
sustaining temperature increases.

Positive Feedback Loop: The heat generated due to internal resistance, electrochemical
reactions, or short circuits increases the temperature within the battery. As the temperature
rises, the rate of heat generation further increases, creating a positive feedback loop that
sustains the thermal runaway condition.

Gas Generation:As the temperature rises, the decomposition of electrolyte components can
occur, leading to the generation of gases such as oxygen and volatile organic compounds.
These gases can contribute to the pressure buildup within the battery, potentially causing

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the battery to rupture or explode. The temperature range and temperature sensitivity of
lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are important factors to consider for their optimal
performance and safety. Here's some information on these aspects.

Figure 3.2 Thermal Runaway Of A Battery

Temperature Range: Li-ion batteries typically operate within a recommended temperature

range of 0°C to 45°C (32°F to 113°F). At low temperatures, the battery's capacity and
power output may decrease, resulting in reduced performance. High temperatures can
cause accelerated degradation of the battery, reducing its overall lifespan and potentially
causing safety risks.

Temperature Sensitivity: Li-ion batteries are sensitive to temperature variations, and their
performance can be significantly affected. As the temperature decreases, the internal
resistance of the battery increases, leading to reduced discharge capability and capacity.At
high temperatures, the battery can experience increased self-discharge, accelerated aging,
and, in extreme cases, thermal runaway or combustion.

3.3 FAST CHARGING is a charging technique used with lithium-ion (Li-ion)

batteries to rapidly replenish their energy levels in a shorter amount of time compared to
traditional charging methods.

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Here's some information about fast charging in Li-ion batteries:

Charging Time Reduction: Fast charging aims to significantly reduce the time required to
charge a Li-ion battery, enabling users to quickly replenish their devices and continue using
them.

Traditional charging methods typically involve slower charging rates to ensure battery
safety and longevity, while fast charging techniques optimize the charging process to speed
up the overall time. The actual time saved depends on various factors, including the
battery capacity, charging technology, charger specifications, and device compatibility.

Charging Technologies: Fast charging is achieved through the use of specialized charging
technologies that allow higher charging currents to be delivered to the Li-ion battery. Some
popular fast charging technologies include Qualcomm Quick Charge, USB Power Delivery
(USB PD), MediaTek Pump Express, and proprietary technologies developed by device
manufacturers (e.g., OnePlus Dash Charge, Huawei Super Charge, etc.). These
technologies employ various methods to increase charging speeds, such as higher voltage
levels, increased charging currents, or a combination of both.

3.4 CONSIDERATIONS AND LIMITATIONS

Fast charging can generate more heat due to the higher charging currents, which may affect
the battery's overall lifespan and long-term performance.

To mitigate excessive heat buildup and prevent potential safety risks, fast charging
implementations often include advanced thermal management systems, such as
temperature sensors, charging current regulation, and built-in safety mechanisms.

Continuous and frequent use of fast charging may contribute to accelerated battery
degradation over time. Therefore, it's recommended to balance fast charging with regular
charging cycles to maintain battery health.

Different Li-ion battery chemistries and designs may have different levels of compatibility
with fast charging technologies. It's important to use chargers and cables specifically
designed and recommended by the device manufacturer to ensure compatibility and safety.
Overall, fast charging has become increasingly prevalent and convenient for Li-ion battery-
powered devices. However, it's crucial to strike a balance between fast charging
convenience and maintaining the long-term health and safety of the battery. Following the
manufacturer's guidelines and using certified charging equipment are essential for optimal
performance and safety.

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3.5 AGING AND HEALTH OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES

Predicting the aging and health of lithium-ion batteries is a complex task that involves
considering several factors. Specific battery models, usage patterns, and environmental
conditions can greatly affect battery performance and aging.

A. Cycle Life: Lithium-ion batteries have a limited number of charge-discharge cycles

before their capacity begins to degrade. Manufacturers typically specify the expected cycle
life for a battery, but it can vary depending on usage conditions.

B. Depth of Discharge (DoD): Keeping the depth of discharge within a recommended range
can impact battery longevity. Shallower discharges (e.g., keeping the battery between 20-
80% capacity) are generally less stressful for the battery compared to deep discharges.

C. Temperature: High temperatures accelerate the aging process of lithium-ion batteries.

Operating the battery at elevated temperatures can result in capacity loss and reduced
overall lifespan. Conversely, storing the battery at extremely low temperatures can also
affect its performance

D. State of Charge (SoC) Maintenance: Both extremely high and low states of charge can
contribute to battery aging. Avoiding overcharging or fully discharging the battery can help
extend its lifespan.

E. Calendar Aging: Even when not in use, lithium-ion batteries experience calendar aging.
Over time, the battery's capacity naturally degrades, irrespective of the charge-discharge
cycles.

3.6 PREVENTION OF HEAT GENERATION AND

THERMAL RUNAWAY
Preventing heat generation and thermal runaway in lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries is crucial
for ensuring their safety and avoiding catastrophic failures. Here are some preventive
measures:

Proper Charging: Follow the manufacturer's guidelines for charging the Li-ion battery. Use
the recommended charger and avoid overcharging, as it can lead to excessive heat
generation. Overcharging occurs when the battery remains connected to the charger after
reaching full capacity.

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Avoid High Temperatures: Heat is a major factor that contributes to thermal runaway. Keep
Li-ion batteries away from direct sunlight, hot environments, and sources of heat. High
temperatures increase the risk of thermal runaway and accelerate battery aging.

Battery Management System (BMS): Utilize a reliable battery management system that
monitors and controls the charging and discharging processes. A BMS can regulate voltage,
current, and temperature to prevent overcharging, over-discharging, and excessive heat
buildup.

Proper Ventilation: Ensure that Li-ion batteries have adequate ventilation during operation
and storage. Good airflow helps dissipate heat and keeps the battery temperature within
safe limits.

Avoid Physical Damage: Li-ion batteries can be sensitive to physical stress. Avoid
dropping, puncturing, or mishandling them, as it can damage the internal structure and
increase the risk of thermal runaway.

Quality Assurance: Purchase Li-ion batteries from reputable manufacturers and distributors
to ensure the highest quality and safety standards. Inferior or counterfeit batteries may have
poor thermal stability and can be more prone to overheating.

Storage Conditions: When storing Li-ion batteries, keep them in a cool and dry
environment, ideally at room temperature. Avoid storing them at high temperatures, as it
can accelerate the battery's self-discharge rate and increase the risk of thermal events.

Early Detection Systems: Implement thermal monitoring and early detection systems in
devices or applications using Li-ion batteries. These systems can provide real-time
temperature monitoring and trigger appropriate actions, such as reducing charging rates or
activating safety mechanisms when the temperature exceeds safe limits.

3.7 THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

A thermal management system is a set of techniques, components, and controls
implemented to regulate and manage the temperature of a device or system. In the context
of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, a thermal management system is employed to ensure safe
operating temperatures, prevent overheating, and enhance the overall performance and
longevity of the battery. Here are some common components and techniques used in a Li-
ion battery thermal management system:

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Thermal Interface Materials (TIMs):TIMs are materials that enhance heat transfer between
components. They are used to improve thermal conductivity and ensure efficient heat
dissipation between the battery cells and other components, such as heat sinks or cooling
plates.

3.7.1 HEAT DISSIPATION:

Heat Sinks: These are metal or composite structures that provide a large surface area to
dissipate heat. They absorb heat from the battery cells and transfer it to the surrounding
environment through conduction and convection.

Cooling Plates: These are flat plates or tubes with a coolant flowing through them, allowing
heat to be absorbed and carried away from the battery cells.

Heat Pipes: These are sealed copper or aluminium pipes filled with a working fluid that
transfers heat through evaporation and condensation. They can efficiently transfer heat over
longer distances.

3.7.2 ACTIVE COOLING:

Fans: Fans or blowers are used to create airflow over the battery cells or heat sinks,
enhancing heat dissipation through forced convection.

Liquid Cooling: In this method, a coolant, such as a mixture of water and glycol, circulates
through a network of tubes or channels to absorb and dissipate heat from the battery cells.

3.7.3 PASSIVE COOLING:

Heat Shields: These are insulating materials placed around the battery cells to reduce heat
transfer from the environment or nearby heat sources.

Phase Change Materials (PCMs): PCMs absorb heat during charging or high-temperature
conditions and release it when the temperature decreases, providing passive cooling.

Temperature Sensors and Controls: Temperature sensors are integrated within the battery
pack to monitor the temperature of the cells. This information is used by the control system
to adjust cooling mechanisms or charging parameters accordingly.

Control Algorithms: Advanced control algorithms are employed to regulate the thermal
management system, adjusting cooling rates, fan speeds, or charging currents based on real-
time

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CAPTER 4

INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHENE-BASED ANODE

IN LIB

Figure 4.1 Structure of graphene sheet

Carbon-based materials including carbon fibre, carbon nanotube (CNT), carbon

nanoribbons, graphite, graphene, etc. as battery electrode materials have advanced in this
research field toward the studious stage. By comparing with all the carbonaceous electrode
materials, graphene acquires the most potential to face the challenges of the power and
storage sectors.

The marvel material graphene is literally one atom thick sheet of carbon organized in an
SP2 bonded hexagonal framework. Further Graphene is a two-dimensional one-atom-thick
planar sheet of sp-2 bonded carbon atoms, which is shown in Figure. In extension to its
planar state graphene can be categorized into 0D/1D/2D dimensional Graphene.

Consequently, graphene can be expressed as the mother of all carbon forms. Nobel laureates
Geim and Novoselov discover this marvel materials graphene and they show numerous
applications of graphene depending on its wide range of properties. Graphene exposes
many charming characteristics including mechanical, optical, electrical, thermal, and

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sensing properties. Graphene has extraordinary electron (e-) mobility (2.5×105 cm2 V-1 s-
1) and a large surface area (2630 m2g-1) and these interesting properties make it a suitable
material for energy storage devices. The service and performance of graphene have been
checked by researchers around the world for versatile application along with its usages as
an electrode (anode/cathode) and electrolyte for secondary rechargeable batteries. Despite
having such interesting potential, the future of commercial-scale synthesis of graphene is
now in a challenging stage. Production of a large number of high-quality graphene
productions is hope or challenge for the future. In this review, our purpose is to inspect the
growth of graphene-based electrode materials used in LIB.

Graphene-based materials for Li-ion batteries (LIBs).

Graphene based Capacity performance

Cycling stability materials (After the number of
cycles)

Ni7Sügraphene Reversible capacity of 95% capacity

nanosheet 1010 mAh g-l at a
current density of
0.12 A g-1
3D graphene/CuO Reversible capacity of
409 mAh g-l at a
current density of 100
mA g—1
MoS2/SnSz-graphene Reversible capacity of
1244 mAh g-l at a
current density of 150
—1 mA g
3D MnFe204/CN. Reversible capacity of
NG(O.4) 1032 mAh g-l at a
current density of 0.1
Ag
BDT/3D graphene Reversible capacity of
210 mAh g-1 at 0.1C retention at 0.5C (200 cycles)
LTO/N, S.PG Rate capability of 130
mAh g-1 at 80 C retention at 20 C (4000 cycles)
Sn02/graphene Reversible capacity of
material
1420 mAh g-l at a
current density of 0.1
-1
Sn02@reduced Reversible capacity of
graphene
oxide 1149 mAh g-1 at a
retention at a current
density of 120 mA
(2000 cycles)
99% capacity
retention at a current
density of 1600 mA
g-l (50 cycles)
722 mAh g-l at a
current density of
0.75 A g-l (200
cycles)
73% capacity
retention at a high
current density of
1.0 A g-l (800 cycles)
80% capacity
83.1% capacity
97% capacity
retention at a high
current density of
1.0 A (230 cycles)
67% capacity
retention at a high

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current density of 0.2 current density of

Ag 0.2 A g-l (130 cycles)
few-layered Reversible capacity of 76% capacity
NbSe2@graphene 1142 mAh g-1 at a retention at a high
current density of 0.1 current density of 10
—1 A g (1000 cycles)
P—Sn02@graphene Reversible capacity of 94% capacity

860 mAh g-l at a retention at a high

current density of 0.5
Graphene Reversible capacity of
encapsulated
nanosheet•assembled 1094 mAh g-1 at a
ZnO-Mn-C current density of 100
mA g—1
PM reduced graphene Reversible capacity of
oxide 1075 mAh g-l at a
current density of 50
mA g—1 2000 mA g-l (400 cycles)
Ti02 nanorods/rGO Rate capacity of 205.1
composite mAh g-1 at a current
density of 2 A g—1
3D graphene/Fe203 Rate capacity of 1129
mAh g-l at a current
Aøncitv O A
current density of
0.5 A (50 cycles)
843 mAh g-l at a
current density of
2000 rnA g-l (1000
cycles)
100% capacity
retention at a high
current density of
353.6 mAh at a
current density of
0.1 A g-l (100 cycles)
98% capacity
retention at 5 A
'19M

4.2 GRAPHENE SYNTHESIS ROUTE

Most of the Graphene is synthesized from Natural Graphite but this method is
unconventional and very difficult as well as costly. Many researchers and investigators
produced graphene by using many routes and some of them produce Graphene on large
scale and industrially. Now all the possible routes for the synthesis of Graphene are
represented by the following Hierarchy chart Natural graphite is the main raw material for
the extraction of graphene. For this reason, we do not need to create graphene architecture,
rather need to exfoliate it from graphite. Novoselov and Geim are the first to exfoliate
graphene back in 2004. They used the scotch tape method to peel a layer of graphene from
a highly ordered pyrolytic graphite sample. Still, this mechanical means of graphene
production yield a product of the highest quality but cannot be used commercially because
of the constraint of large-scale production . However, in this review, we will describe a few
specific processes for Graphene synthesis because these methods are very consistent and

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most available. Many researchers choose these routes for the production of a large amount
of Graphene.

Figure 4.2 A Routes for graphene synthesis

Graphenes are mainly conventional natural graphite. Researchers choose Graphite as a raw
material for the production of industrial graphene. The top-down and bottom-up approach
is the main synthesis methods which are subdivided into many categories.

4.2.1 TOP-DOWN METHOD

Figure 4.2.1 Top-down method for Graphene Synthesi

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The top-down approach involves the exfoliation of graphene from a precursor material
mostly graphite. The mechanical method, chemical method, electrochemical method, etc.
are various top-down methods. Among them, the chemical method gained huge attention
due to its advantages of moderate quality and quantity production at low cost and ease in
synthesis procedures. Usually in this method, graphite is oxidized to produce graphene
oxide (GO) by chemical means and then subsequently reduced into graphene. This
reduction can be done by various techniques, i.e. thermal, chemical, solvothermal,
photocatalytic, etc. In recent years, several modifications have been done in other top-down
approaches.

4.2.2 BOTTOM-UP METHOD

Figure 4.2.2 Bottom-up method for Graphene Synthesis

Bottom-up approaches involve the growth of graphene on a precursor substrate. Chemical

vapor deposition (CVD), epitaxial growth on SiC, pyrolysis, etc. are the various bottom-
up approaches of graphene synthesis. Very high-quality graphene layers can be found by
the Chemical vapor deposition and epitaxial growth methods, and therefore, these two
methods are widely used in the laboratory for graphene research purposes.

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4.2.3 SUMMARIZATIONS OF FEW TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP

SYNTHESIS METHODS

Bottom-Up method
Name of method Dimensions Essential Advantages Disadvantages
Thickness Lateral Chemicals
Chemical vapour Slight layers Very large High quality The larger Small scale
Deposition(CVD) in cm graphite, size and high production,
Transition quality Not used
metal graphene commercially
including produced
Ni, Cu. Pd
Epitaxial growth Slight layers Up to cm Silicon Yields Very small
on Silicon size carbide graphene scale
Carbide (SiC) (SiC) show a large production.
surface surface area
Unzipping Of Multiple or Less than Carbon Easily size Expensive
carbon nanotubes double µm nanotube controlled by process
layers (CNN) selection Of
CNT

Top-Down method
Name of method Dimensions Essential Advantages Disadvantages
Thickness Lateral Chemicals
Micro chemical Slight µm to cm Highly ordered Broad size low yields,
exfoliation layers pyrolytic and High Costly
graphite unmodified process-
(HOPG), unique graphene
crystal sheets,
2%
absorption
rate
Direct sonication Single and µm to sub Graphite unmodified A low quantity
Of graphite Double µm graphene, Of graphene
layers low costly yields.
process
Electrochemical Single and 500— Polymer Single step High ionic
exfoliation slight 700 nm composites production liquid cost.
layers Graphene and
oxide exfoliation
(GO), yields high
KMnO4, and Electrical
NaNO3 in conductive
H2SO4/H3PO4 graphene
as oxidizing
agents

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4.3 GRAPHENE AS ANODE IN LIB

Investigator says that Graphene acts as promising electrode material in LIB as a result of
its some awesome appealing properties like high surface to volume ratio, ultra-thin
thickness, electrical conductivity, structural flexibility, etc. Similarly, these materials are
very much needed for use as an electrode in LIB. Liu et al. work on graphene and they
demonstrate how to expand the capacity of graphene. They successfully integrated two Li
atoms on the twin sides of graphene single layer maintaining stoichiometry of Li2C6 having
a specific capacity of 540 mAHg-1better than Li-intercalated graphite. showed that the
capacity increments of graphene in the year 2010. By using carbon nanoribbons they
successfully expand the Li-ion storage capacity. They extracted GNRs by unzipping
pristine multi-walled carbon nanotubes. The authors showed oxidized GNSs outperformed
in terms of energy density than all other materials tested (GNSs and MWCNTs). Oxidized
GNRs had the first charge capacity of ~1400 mAhg-1 with low columbic efficiency for the
first cycle (~53%) and reversible capacity in the range of 800 mAhg-1. Now lithium-ion
insertions and De-insertions of properties of various Graphene families are shown

Figure 4.3 A Charge and Discharge properties of (a) Graphite (b) Graphene nano sheet
(c)GNS incorporated with carbon nanotube and (d) GNS incorporated with C-60

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Figure 4.3 B Comparison of Capacity of Various Carbon based electrode material

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CHAPTER 5

WASTE MANAGEMENT
The electric-vehicle revolution, driven by the imperatives to decarbonize personal
transportation in order to meet global targets for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions
and improve air quality in urban centres, is set to change the automotive industry radically.

The waste management hierarchy is a concept that was developed on waste by the Dutch
politician Ad Lansink, in 1979, who presented to the Dutch parliament a simple schematic
representation that has been termed ‘Lansink’s Ladder’, ranking waste management options
from the most to least environmentally desirable options.
Here, that hierarchy is expanded to consider the range of battery recycling technologies.

‘Prevention’ means that LIBs are designed to use less-critical

materials (high economic importance, but at risk of short supply) and that electric vehicles
should be lighter and have smaller batteries.

‘Re-use’ means
that electric-vehicle batteries should have a second use.

‘Recycling’ means that

batteries should be recycled, recovering as much material as possible and preserving any
structural value and quality (for example, preventing contamination).

‘Recovery’ means using some battery materials as energy for

processes such as fuel for pyrometallurgy.

Finally, ‘disposal’ means that no value is recovered and the waste goes to landfill.These
days, many types of equipment we use run on either battery or gas. The common thing
about these two elements is that you can use them until they get exhausted. When they do,
it is the usual practice to refill gas or throw old batteries away and get a new one. However,
disposing of batteries could create a large portion of waste in the environment. Besides,
batteries are widely-used and come with lots of harmful material. So, disposing of them
may not be a great idea. A substitute for throwing your battery away is recycling them.
Battery recycling is the reuse and reprocessing practice of batteries aimed at reducing the
number of batteries being disposed of as material waste. Batteries contain several poisonous
chemicals and heavy metals and their dumping has attracted environmental concerns due

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to contamination of water and soil. As such, batteries need recycling to comply with
environmental and health benefits.

5.1 RECYCLING

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are rechargeable batteries used in cars and electronics. Here
is a detailed step by step process for recycling lithium

Collection;

This is the process where recyclers collect used lithium and nickel batteries from collection
points or other locations.
Sorting;

In this step, recyclers separate plastic materials in a battery from metal components. Both
materials are perfect for making new products.
Smelting;
The components of lithium-ion and the nickel-based batteries undergo what is known as
High-Temperature Metal Reclamation here. Metals in the batteries also undergo extraction
processes. Metals like nickel, manganese, chromium, and iron are gotten in this process
and are used to make new products.

Figure 5.1 Process Of Recycling

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CONCLUSION
In conclusion, graphene-based lithium-ion batteries have shown great potential for electric
vehicle (EV) applications. The unique properties of graphene, such as its high electrical
conductivity, large surface area, and mechanical strength, make it an attractive material for
battery technology.

Graphene-based anodes have demonstrated improved charge storage capacity and faster
charging rates compared to traditional graphite-based anodes. The high conductivity of
graphene facilitates efficient electron transfer, leading to enhanced battery performance and
longer cycle life. These advancements address some of the key limitations of lithium-ion
batteries in EVs, such as limited energy density and longer charging times.

Moreover, graphene can also be incorporated into the electrolyte or cathode materials to
further enhance battery performance. Graphene-modified electrolytes have shown
improved ion mobility, leading to higher power densities and better overall battery
efficiency. Additionally, graphene-based cathodes have exhibited higher energy density and
improved stability, enabling longer driving ranges for EVs.

Despite these promising results, there are still some challenges that need to be addressed
before graphene-based lithium-ion batteries can be widely adopted in EVs. One of the main
challenges is the scalability of graphene production and integration into battery
manufacturing processes. Large-scale production of high-quality graphene at a reasonable
cost is crucial for commercial viability.

Furthermore, there is a need for extensive research to optimize the structural design and
electrode configurations of graphene-based batteries. This includes exploring different
graphene composites, electrode architectures, and binder materials to achieve optimal
performance and durability.

Overall, graphene-based lithium-ion batteries have the potential to significantly improve

the performance and range of EVs. However, further research and development efforts are
required to overcome the remaining challenges and ensure the commercial viability of these
batteries in the automotive industry. With continued advancements and investments in
graphene battery technology, we can anticipate a future where EVs are more efficient, have
longer driving ranges, and contribute to a more sustainable transportation sector.

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By implementing effective recycling processes and exploring alternative battery

chemistries, we can ensure the long-term sustainability of the EV industry and minimize
its environmental footprint.

Continued research, collaboration, and regulatory support are crucial to achieving a

comprehensive approach to waste management in the EV industry.

In conclusion, effective waste management of electric vehicle (EV) batteries is essential to

minimize environmental impact and maximize the sustainability of the EV industry. The
increasing adoption of EVs worldwide has led to a growing concern about the proper
handling and disposal of end-of-life EV batteries.

Several key points can be highlighted regarding the waste management of EV batteries:

Recycling: Battery recycling is a crucial component of waste management for EV batteries.

It allows for the recovery of valuable materials such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and
manganese, which can be reused in the production of new batteries. Implementing efficient
recycling processes helps reduce the demand for new raw materials and minimizes the
environmental footprint of battery production.

Resource Recovery: Beyond recycling, efforts should be made to maximize resource

recovery from end-of-life EV batteries. This includes exploring innovative techniques to
recover and reuse not only metals but also other valuable components such as electrolytes
and separators. By extracting and reusing these resources, the overall sustainability of the
battery industry can be improved.

Design for Recycling: Consideration of recyclability should be integrated into the design
phase of EV batteries. Battery manufacturers should strive to develop batteries with easily
separable components, standardized interfaces, and labeling systems that facilitate
disassembly and recycling processes. Designing for recyclability can enhance the
efficiency of battery recycling operations and reduce costs.

Safety and Regulatory Compliance: Proper handling and disposal of EV batteries are
essential to ensure worker safety and prevent environmental contamination. Compliance
with regulations and standards related to the transportation, storage, and treatment of
hazardous waste is crucial. Additionally, industry stakeholders should invest in developing
comprehensive guidelines and protocols for safe and efficient EV battery waste
management.

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SCOPE AND FUTURE

• Lithium-ion batteries with graphene as an anode hold great potential in the current day
scenario.

• Graphene's exceptional properties offer numerous advantages in terms of enhanced energy

density, power output, charge-discharge rates, and longevity.

• Graphene is the strongest material ever found; it is more than 40 times stronger than
diamond and more than 300 times stronger than A36 structural steel.

• While there are challenges to overcome, the ongoing research and development in this
area indicate a promising future for graphene-based anodes in advancing energy storage
technology.

• By implementing effective recycling processes and exploring alternative battery

chemistries, we can ensure the long-term sustainability of the EV industry and minimize
its environmental footprint.

• Continued research, collaboration, and regulatory support are crucial to achieving a

comprehensive approach to waste management in the EV industry.

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REFERENCES
1.2019 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference (ITEC-India): Review and
selection of advanced battery technologies for post 2020 era electric vehicles.

2.Connecting battery technologies for electric vehicles from battery materials to

management : Gang Zhao, Xiaolin Wang , and Michael Negnevitsky -Feb 18 2022

3.Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles : Gavin Harper, Roberto

Sommerville, Emma Kendrick, Laura Driscoll, Peter Slater, Rustam Stolkin, Allan
Walton, Paul Christensen, Oliver Heidrich, Simon Lambert, Andrew Abbott, Karl Ryder,
Linda Gaines & Paul Anderson:- 7 November 2019

4.Echelon Utilization of Retired Power Lithium-Ion Batteries: Challenges and Prospects:

Ningbo Wang , Akhil Garg , Shaosen Su , Jianhui Mou , Liang Gao and Wei Li.-2022

5.Graphene Batteries in Electric Vehicles: By Samudrapom Dam- Feb 17 2022

6.All-graphene-battery: bridging the gap between supercapacitors and lithium ion batteries:
Haegyeom Kim,Kyu-Young Park, Jihyun Hong & Kisuk Kang.-2014

7.The role of graphene in rechargeable lithium batteries: Synthesis, functionalisation, and

perspectives: Asad Ali, Fengxing Liang, Jinliang Zhu , Pei Kang Shen- June 2022

8.Overview of Graphene as Promising Electrode materials for Li-ion Battery :Md Sohanur
Rahman, Bapi Mondal, Md Masum Parvez, Md. Mehedi Hasan, Bushra Saba , Istiuqe
Ahmed, Aqib Adnan Shafin , Md. Mahmud

9.Stable high-capacity and high-rate silicon-based lithium battery anodes upon two-
dimensional covalent encapsulation: Xinghao Zhang, Denghui Wang, Xiongying Qiu,
Yingjie Ma,Debin Kong, Klaus Müllen, Xianglong Li 1& Linjie Zhi-2020

10.Electric Vehicle Battery Basics : Electric-car batteries are similar to, but far from the
same as, a basic AA or AAA battery. BY JOHNVOELCKER PUBLISHED: MAR 4, 2023

11. A Review of Cathode and Anode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries. BY Yemeserach
Mekonnen, Aditya Sundararajan, Arif I. Sarwat. IEEE Student Member, Department of
Electrical & Computer Engineering. Florida International University

12. Charging and discharging characteristics of Lead acid and Li-ion batteries. Neetu
Meena, Vishakha Baharwani Deepak Sharma, 2M.Tech students, MNIT, Jaipur, India .
Tech students, ITM, Bhilwara, India

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13. Recent progress in graphene-based electrodes for flexibleBatteries. Chunlong Dai,

Guoqiang Sun, Linyu Hu, Yukun Xiao, Zhipan Zhang ,Liangti Qu.

14. Review and selection of advanced battery technologies for post 2020 era electric
vehicles. By M. K. Loganathan Center for Reliability Sciences and Technologies. Chang
Gung University Taoyuan, Taiwan. Titus A. M. Msagati Nanotechnology and Water
Sustainability Research Unit, University of South Africa CSET Florida, South Africa . Cher
Ming Tan Center for Reliability Sciences & Technologies, Chang Gung University,
Taoyuan, Taiwan Department of Electronic Engineering, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan,
Taiwan Department of Urology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, Taiwan
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ming Chi University of Technology, New Taipei
City, Taiwan.

15. ChatGPT (openai.com)

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