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Y3-English Skills Hecc
Y3-English Skills Hecc
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Practice and Confidence will help you master English.
1. Module code EBS 107 FACULTY: ALL
2. Module Title:. ENGLISH SKILLS
3.Level: 1 Semester: 2 Credits:_ 12 __
4. First year of presentation: Administering Faculty:..... ALL
5. Pre-requisite or co-requisite modules.
Year 1 semester 1 Communication Skills in English module
The general objective of this module is to help students sharpen their minds in English so as to
be able to compete locally, regionally and on a global scale using English as a medium of
communication.
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6.2. Learning Outcomes
1. Knowledge and Understanding
Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to demonstrate knowledge
and understanding of:
Grammatical structures pertaining to English language,
Reading well anything written in English
Writing in different contexts as a way that leads to becoming creative writers
Debating for conviction and providing constructive ideas
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5. Indicative Contents:
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7. Learning and Teaching Strategy
At the beginning, the teaching strategy is expositive but the main part of the course that follows
is essentially in active method. The lecturer will explain the contents of the course to the students
in order to acquaint them with enough skills and sensitize them to become real cadres of change
for better life at individual, family, community, national and international levels. Then at the end
of every chapter, students will make groups work, they will collectively discuss and answer the
questions prepared and written at the end of each chapter. Every group will present its
assignment and the lecturer will help them understand better. Face to face lectures, including
discussions based on examples that are intended to help students well understand will be
encouraged.
8. Assessment Strategy
Learning outcomes will be evaluated gradually after each unit. An examination of duration of 2
hours will be prepared, and everyone is expected to sit for it. Their assignments and
presentations in groups will be marked too.
9. Assessment Pattern
The final test or examinations, presentations on structural exercises and assignments will be
marked. Students’ marks will be registered and made available on the web site of ULK.
Students’ marks will be copied on the transcripts that will be available to students.
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11. Indicative Resources/ BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
KADEGHE, M. (2005). Communication Skills, theory and practice. Afroplus Industries ltd: Dar
es Salaam.
MURPHY, R.(2000). English Grammar in Use. OUP: London.
WEBB, B and GRANT, N(2010). English in Use. Pearson Education Limited: Edinburgh.
WREN, P. C. (2000). High School English Grammar Composition. Schand Company: New
Delhi.
Online sources
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Contents
Contents...........................................................................................................................................7
UNIT ONE: ADVERB CLAUSES.................................................................................................9
TYPES OF ADVERB CLAUSES...................................................................................................9
Adverb clauses can be of different types. Let us look at the most important of them................9
1. ADVERB CLAUSES OF TIME.................................................................................................9
2. ADVERB CLAUSE OF PLACE...............................................................................................10
3 ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONCESSION/OPPOSITION...........................................................10
4. ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONDITION.....................................................................................10
5. ADVERB CLAUSE OF MANNER..........................................................................................11
6. ADVERB CLAUSE OF PURPOSE..........................................................................................11
7. ADVERB CLAUSE OF REASON...........................................................................................11
8. ADVERB CLAUSE OF RESULT/ CONSEQUENCE.............................................................12
9. ADVERB CLAUSE OF COMPARISON.................................................................................12
10. ADVERB CLAUSE OF EXTENT/ DEGREE........................................................................12
UNIT TWO: REVISION OF THE USES OF ENGLISH TENSES.............................................15
2.1 PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE...................................................................................................15
2.2 PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE........................................................................................16
2.3 PAST SIMPLE TENSE...........................................................................................................17
2.4 PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE...............................................................................................18
2.5 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE................................................................................................18
2.6 PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE.....................................................................19
2.7 PAST PERFECT TENSE........................................................................................................19
2.8 PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE.............................................................................20
2.9 SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE.....................................................................................................20
2.10 BE GOING TO......................................................................................................................21
2.11 FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE......................................................................................21
2.12 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE................................................................................................21
2.13 FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE.....................................................................21
UNIT THREE: WORD FORMATION.........................................................................................26
UNIT FOUR: PHRASAL VERBS................................................................................................35
UNIT FIVE: IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS, PROVERBS & SAYINGS....................................43
5.1. IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS................................................................................................43
5. 2. PROVERBS & SAYINGS..................................................................................................47
UNIT SIX: INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITION...............................................................58
6.1. WRITING SENTENCES.......................................................................................................58
6.2 WRITING A PARAGRAPH...................................................................................................64
6.3 ESSAY WRITING..................................................................................................................68
UNIT SEVEN: LETTER WRITING.............................................................................................77
7.4 Things to consider when writing a friendly letter:...................................................................79
7.2 FORMAL LETTER.................................................................................................................82
UNIT EIGHT: CONVERSATIONS AND GROUP DISCUSSIONS..........................................88
UNIT NINE: DEBATING.............................................................................................................92
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INTRODUCTION
This module is the third stage for students in all faculties. It will enable follow and understand
what is being taught in their respective courses according to their departments, but above all help
them effectively speak English which is the medium of instruction at Kigali Independent
University.
Module three is therefore the continuation of the English Language course and it covers a
number of topics related to the courses which, if well understood, will make the students to
understand more and appreciate the value of the English language.
By the end of this module, the students will have gained a firm foundation, a strong mastery of
the language notions and increased their command of the English Language.
However, using this module in class without practicing what is taught and learnt will not help
anyone because Practice makes perfect; so goes the saying.
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UNIT ONE: ADVERB CLAUSES
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. It forms part of a sentence. If
a clause makes complete sense in itself, it is called the main clause or the principle clause of that
sentence. If it is dependent on another clause to complete its meaning, it is called the subordinate
clause.
Remember that the word or words that join a subordinate clause with the principal clause are
called subordinating conjunction.
There are three types of subordinate clauses: Noun clauses, adjective clauses and adverb clauses.
Let us learn in details about adverb clauses.
An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that does the work of an adverb in a sentence.
Example:
Adverb clauses can be of different types. Let us look at the most important of them.
An adverb clause of time indicates the time of an event and is introduced by a conjunction such
as after, as, as soon as, before, once, since, the minute, the moment, till, until, when,
whenever, while, whilst, no sooner…than, etc.
Examples:
Virginia left after the meal was over.
Conso arrived as I was leaving.
Once I recognized him, I spoke to him.
I recognized him the minute I saw him.
We won’t know until he comes back from London.
The thief ran away when he saw the police.
Wait here until/till I come back.
Strike while the iron is hot.
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2. ADVERB CLAUSE OF PLACE
An adverb clause of place indicates the location of an event and is introduced by a conjunction
such as where, wherever or everywhere, etc.
Examples:
An adverb clause of concession contains a fact that contrasts in some way with the main clause
and is introduced by a conjunction such as although, even though, even if, though, whereas,
while, whilst, however, whatever, etc.
Examples:
Examples:
If you had kept quiet they would not have known about the event.
We cannot go unless we get permission.
Unless you study hard, you will fail.
They can leave only if they have finished their work.
Provided he is feeling better he can leave hospital.
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Note that inversion can be used in such clauses instead of a conjunction, as in:
Have you been present you would have been most amused.
Had he any sense he would leave now.
An adverb clause of manner describes the way that someone behaves or the way in which
something is done, and is introduced by a conjunction such as, as, as if, as though, like, in the
way that, etc.
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
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8. ADVERB CLAUSE OF RESULT/ CONSEQUENCE
An adverb clause of result indicates the result or consequence of an event or situation and is
introduced by the conjunctions so, that, so that, so…that, such…that, etc.
Examples:
Examples:
An adverb clause of extent or degree indicates the degree to which an action is done. It is
introduced by the subordinate conjunctions as or the…..the.
Examples:
They tried as much as they could.
The more you have, the more you want
PRACTICE
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( h) ……. some people say that industry should be developed, others insist on the importance
of agriculture.
(i) He was interested in learning English only ….. it would be useful.
(j) They earned ….. low wages in town …. they preferred to return to
their village.
II. Combine the following pairs of statements with the appropriate subordinators.
(a) He was very sick. He could not take the exam.
(b) I was studying my history lesson. At the same time my friend was making a noise
outside.
(c) It was very disturbing. I asked them to stop.
(d) They heard me. They did not stop making a noise.
(e) I could say something. They laughed at me.
(f) They saw the headmaster coming with me. They stopped making a noise immediately.
III. Rewrite the sentences below using the words given between brackets. Do not change the
meaning.
1) You won’t meet the company boss if John doesn’t help you. (Unless)
2) They had to work harder because the company was to reward the best workers. ( As)
3) Oliver Khan was a fantastic goalkeeper. He could stop any striker.(Such…that)
4) The bus in question is very small. It cannot transport 5tonnes.(Because)
5) You are very intelligent. You should also prepare for your exam. (Whatever)
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Reading Text: Fight for orphans’ rights
Lucy was an orphan. She did have a father and a mother. They had died two years back. Lucy
lived with her aunt in Ngoma. Lucy was a beautiful and a hardworking girl. She was obedient
and polite too. She did everything she was told to do. She did it as well as she could.
Sadly, Lucy’s aunt was very cruel to the small girl. She beat Lucy and shouted at her. “Lucy,
sweep the floor! Lucy, fetch water! Lucy, wash the dishes!” As Lucy worked, her aunt’s children
played outside. They skipped and jumped happily. Lucy did not go to school. Her aunt said that
she had to stay at home and do all the house work. “May I go to school, auntie?” she begged.
“Go to school?” her aunt screamed. “That is a foolish thing to say! Who will do the work in the
house?” Lucy said nothing. She started crying. Her aunt picked a leather belt and beat her hard.
Lucy screamed in pain. Her aunt continued to beat her. “Please don’t beat me!” Lucy begged her
aunt. She continued beating and shouting at her.
Finally, the neighbours who had heard Lucy crying everyday came. With them was a
government officer. “I have been told that you are always beating this girl,” the chief said. “You
make her do all the work in the house. She doesn’t even go to school. It is your responsibility to
take care of her. You should be kind to her.” The officer took away Lucy’s aunt in a vehicle.
Lucy was taken to a good school. It was also a home with many children like her. They played
together and learnt many things. They ate and slept in the school.
At last, Lucy was a happy girl. She always got very high marks in school work. All the teachers
were happy with her.
I. Comprehension questions/10marks
1. Where did Lucy live?
2. According to you, why do you think Lucy is mistreated?
3. Write down three jobs that Lucy did in the house.
4. What did Lucy’s aunt beat Lucy with?
5. If you were Lucy’s aunt, how would you help her?
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UNIT TWO: REVISION OF THE USES OF ENGLISH TENSES
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2.2 PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
This is used:
For an action going on at the moment of speaking as:
Peter is teaching (now).
The weather is getting colder.
We are learning English.
For an action in progress but not necessarily at the moment of speaking, as:
I am writing a book. (but I am not writing at this moment).
John is building a house in Kigali city.
Town is writing a dissertation.
For an action (especially fixed personal arrangements) that has already been
arranged to take place in the near future, as:
H.E Paul Kagame is visiting Gisenyi town tomorrow.
Uncle Bernand is leaving for Kenya next week.
Marry and Peter are wedding on Friday.
With always, continually, constantly, regularly,……to express a repeated action that
is irritating to the speaker, as:
UMWALI is always crying.
My grandmother is always complaining.
These kids are constantly quarrelling.
Note :
A number of verbs are not normally used in the progressive form (i.e. pres. Const. tense…)
1. Verbs of perception: see, hear, smell, recognize, taste, notice,…
2. Verbs expressing feelings or states of mind: want, desire, refuse, wish, forgive, care, hate,
like, love, admire, feel, hope, prefer,…
3. Verbs of thinking: think, suppose, believe, agree, consider, trust, remember, forget, know,
under stand, imagine, mean, mind, …
4. Verbs denoting possession : have, own, owe, belong, possess,…
5. Verbs such as : contain, consist, keep, cost, seem, …
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Note, however, that some of the verbs listed above can be used in the progressive form,
but with a change of meaning.
So, you can say, for example:
1. I am having lunch ( I am eating lunch).
Here, the verb ‘have’ does not mean ‘possess own’, as in : I have a car.
2. I am thinking about it ( My mind is working at that moment).
Here, the verb ‘think’ does not mean ‘It is my opinion’ as in:
I think John is right.
To indicate an action in the past (which occurred during a period of time) which is
now ended, as:
I taught English at Rwankeri Secondary school for one year.
Peter worked for this company for 10 years.
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2.4 PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
This is used:
For actions is progress at a certain time in the past, as in:
Speaker 1: What were you doing at 4 p.m. yesterday?
Speaker 2: I was walking home/I was watching television/ I was reading a very
interesting
novel.
For an action in progress when another past action began, as in:
- We were having lunch when the telephone rang.
- The thief was looking in the cupboard when the door suddenly opened.
- While I was crossing the road I noticed a crowd in the distance.
- The engine failed when we were approaching the airport.
For two actions in progress at the same time in the past, as in:
- While I was preparing for my exam, John was playing cards.
- Tom was just watching television when we were driving back home.
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To denote a state or situation that began at some time in the past and continues up
to the present moment (often used with since-and for-phrases), as:
I have known Peter for 4 years.
He has been ill for a long time.
I have not seen him since last year.
To indicate an action that was in progress in the past and has just finished.
e.g. 1 A: Why are your hands so dirty?
B: I’ve been working in the garden.
2 A: Why are you out of breath?
B: Eeeh, I’ve been jogging.
3 A: But your clothes are all wet!
B: I’ve been watering the garden.
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2.8 PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
This tense is mainly used to say how long something had been happening before
something else happened, as in:
- When you paid me a visit in 2002, I had been studying at the NUR for 2 years.
- We had been watching the football match for 20 minutes when it began to rain.
Note also another use through these example sentences:
- Paul was out of breath. He had been running.
- The sun was shining, but the ground was very wet. It had been raining.
-
To talk about things that we cannot control. It expresses the future as a fact, as in:
I shall be 35 in November.
Summer will start next month.
Ali will be 24 next birthday
To talk about what we think will happen in the future (predicting future
happening), as in:
I think Rayon-sport will win the match
I expect/hope/suppose Peter will join us.
He will probably assist us.
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2.10 BE GOING TO
Be going to form is used:
(a) For an action in the future that has already been planned by the speaker, as in:
I’m going to call Dan after lunch.
(b) For something that is certain to happen in the future, as in:
I know he is going to invite me.
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PRACTICE EXERCISES
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form as required by the context:
1. Listen to those people. What language………………………(they/speak)?
2. Mary………………..(probably/help) us.
3. I needed money. So we………….(sell) our car.
4. How many languages…………………….(your father/speak)?
5. How long……………………(you/be) a university student?
6. We missed the bus yesterday! When we arrived at the station, it………(just/leave).
7. The sky is dark and cloudy. It………………………(rain).
8. She…………………(write) that novel before she became ill.
9. You look tired! …………………(you/work) hard?
10. Peter lives nearby, but he seldom…………….(visit) us.
11. Where………………………..(you/go) when you had an accident?
12. She………………………..(play) tennis since she was six.
13. The house was very quiet when I got home. Everybody ………..(go) to bed.
14. We……………………….(play) tennis for half an hour when there was a terrible storm.
15. A: The match begins at 7.30 and ends at 9.15.
B: That is, at 8.30 we……………………..(watch) it.
16. We………………………(wait) for no reason if our lecturer does not come.
17. Jim was leaning against the wall, out of breath. He………………(run).
18. It’s been decided. I……………………(wed) next week.
19. By the time you come back to work, I ………………….(type) the letter.
20. I ……………(visit) many African cities.
21.You already (cover) your studies?
22. Daddy (leave) for the city many years ago.
23. Our lecturer told us that blood (be) red.
24. There is no doubt, the Prime Minister (visit) our campus tomorrow.
25. This time next week, we (decide) on the future of our oil plant.
II. Fill in these sentences with the correct past forms of the verbs in brackets
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1. My father....................when the thieves ................ (leave, attack)
2. The shopkeeper....................his shop early yesterday. (close)
3. The leather jacket he................ at Aunt Teta’s shop......................him fifteen thousand
francs.(buy, cost)
4. I…………..from KIU in 2006 and later in 2000 I……….for the UK postgraduate studies
(graduate, leave)
5.I………………my assignment while my room-mate…………..TV. (do, watch)
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Reading text: People in America
Every week at this time we tell you about people, all sorts of people of the past or living today:
writers, artists, scientists or leaders in governments or industry. Today, we bring you the fifth
and last part of the story of Thomas Arthur Edison, scientist and inventor who gave the world the
electric light and many other useful things. Last week, we told you about Edison’s success in
developing electric light; we’ll now tell you about the last years of his life. Here are Henry
Monroe and George Michener with our program.
Electric power brought great changes to the United States in the 1900. Because of this power, the
nation began to look different. Electricity began to turn the great motors of American factories.
Electric cars carried people up and down buildings that were being built higher and higher.
American cities began to build fast moving electric street cars and underground railways and at
night Thomas Edison’s electric lamps made the cities beautifully bright. Everywhere people felt
that Edison was the leader in bringing this power to the United States. He was honoured and
loved by the American people. Men were interested in Edison’s ideas on everything and Edison
was glad to tell people what he thought about all things. In 1914 after the start of the first world
war, the United States government feared that it might later be pushed into the war. President
Wilson decided to organize a group of scientists and inventors to advise the America’s military
forces. He named Thomas Edison to lead the group. Edison made many important scientific
proposals: one was later used in successfully fighting German submarines, but his most
important proposal was to start a naval science laboratory. And the time came when such a study
laboratory was organized. This laboratory proved valuable in getting the United States ready for
the world war two. In 1918, when the WW1 ended, Edison was 71 years old. He was still
working 16 hours a day, mostly in the development of batteries and in the making of
phonographs and other machines. But time was passing, new ideas and new uses of electric
power were making some of Edison’s inventions old and less useful. The electric phonograph
was developed and the radio receiver. In 1926, Edison decided to stop manufacturing any more
things. He was 80 years old at this time and he went to Florida to spend his last days in the
garden of his home. But he was a man who could not rest. He started a botanical laboratory and
began to work with plants. He hoped that he might create something that could be used in place
of rubber. This is how Edison’s wife remembered these days: ‘everything turned to rubber in the
family. We talked rubber, thought rubber, dreamed rubber. Mr Edison would not let us do
anything else. After 1929, life began to change for Thomas Edison. He was now 82 years old and
he began to feel the weight of his years. He started getting sick and his hearing even got worse so
that now he could hear nothing. He was weak and could do little work but the nation continued
to honor him. In 1928, Congress gave him the nation’s highest prize, the medal of honor. The
nation, in 1929, celebrated the 50th birthday of Edison’s first electric lamp. The ceremony was
called the golden jubilee of the light. Political leaders and industrialists lead the celebration.
Among them was President Herbert Hoover and scientists from all parts of the world, including
Mme Eva Curie, the discoverer of radium, came to the United States to join in honoring Thomas
Edison. President Hoover spoke the feelings of all Americans. His words of praise for Thomas
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Edison were simple ones. He said that he thought his only right for the president for the United
Nations to join in honoring the great American. He said Mr Edison had brought light where
before there was darkness, that he brought great honor to the United States in all parts of the
world, that he brought great good to all men. The excitement was too much for Thomas Edison.
Comprehension questions
1. Write the names of the presenters of this programme?
2. What is the programme about?
3. Do you think electric power brought difference in the United States? If yes, give reasons.
4. Who invented the first electric light?
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UNIT THREE: WORD FORMATION
This lesson deals with some of the common processes of word formation in English. Many
words are formed from combinations of words and prefixes or suffixes. It is often easy to see
a connection between the meanings of its parts. So if you find a new word, you may be able
to guess what it means.
Prefixes are additions made at the beginning of words.
e.g. Un- (‘not’) + clear = unclear (‘not clear’).
Suffixes are additions made at the end of words.
e.g. green + -ish ( ‘slightly’ or ‘ rather’) = greenish
(‘Slightly green’).
Now let us look at some common types of prefixes and suffixes.
1. Prefixes
The following prefixes can be used in front of many words to produce an opposite meaning.
Un-
Happy - unhappy block – unblock expected – unexpected
Fortunate – unfortunate lock – unlock fair – unfair
Kind – unkind selfish – unselfish friendly – unfriendly
Wind – unwind faithful - unfaithful satisfied – unsatisfied
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e.g. I don’t agree with everything you said. I disagree with the last point.
De –
Centralize - decentralize Ascend – descend
Increase – decrease Inflate – deflate
Non -
Sense - nonsense Resident - non-resident
Payment - non-payment Conformist - non-conformist
e.g. This hotel serves meals to residents (= people who are staying in the hotel) only.
Non – residents are not allowed in.
2. Suffixes
a. English suffixes of nouns
Denoting agent or doer
- er ( -ar, -or)
Teach – Teacher Visit – visitor Sail – sailor
Beg – beggar Act – actor Preach – preacher
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e.g. She lived in London during her girlhood.
- ness
Good – goodness Sweet – sweetness Sad – sadness
Happy – happiness Kind – kindness Shy – shyness
- th
Grow – growth Strong – strength
Long – length Wide – width
e.g. Be fruitful and multiply, god said to Adam and Eve (Gen.1: 28).
He made fruitful efforts.
- less (= without, free from)
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Care – careless Fruit – fruitless Meaning – meaningless
fear – fearless Hope – hopeless Father – Fatherless
e.g. All diplomatic attempts at a peaceful solution to the crisis have been fruitless.
In my opinion, the homeless should be assisted.
- ize
Modern – modernize Legal – legalize American – Americanize
Central – centralize Popular – popularize Final – finalize
e.g. Payment of bills are now centralized (= organized at one place instead of several)..
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-fy
pure – purify beauty – beautify
glory – glorify simple – simplify
e.g. I’m going to beautify myself- it should only take a few hours.
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Points to remember
A number of words are formed by making some change in the of the simple words.
Verbs Nouns Nouns Verbs
Advise Advice Bath Bathe
Choose Choice Belief Believe
Grieve Grief Blood Bleed
Live Life Breath Breathe
Lose Loss Cloth Clothe
Prove Prof Food Feed
Sing Song Grass Graze
Practise Practice Glass Glaze
Tale Tell Half Halve
A number of verbs are formed by using the prefix en-in front of words.
e.g. able - enable
title - entitle
courage - encourage
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PRACTICE EXERCISES
2. Add suffixes to the words in brackets and use them to fill in the gaps.
i) They have had a very ……………..winter this year. (snow)
ii) My boy-friend always provides me with………..advice. (value)
iii) This product is known to be……………..to people with asthma. (harm)
iv) She was depressed and felt………..about the future. (hope)
v) Do not rush him! Let him do it…………..(slow).
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Reading Text: The magic calabash: Part 1
Once upon the time, an old widow lived in the forest with her two children. Her own daughter
known by the name of Tunde and her step-daughter whose name was Ayo. She loved Tunde very
much, but she did not love Ayo at all. So Ayo did the housework while Tunde went out dancing
every night.
One day the widow filled a calabash full of clothes and told Ayo to take them to the stream and
wash them. While she was there a bright bird flew out of the trees. Ayo stared at it and did not
notice that the river had carried her calabash away. She ran along the river asking people if they
had seen her calabash. But nobody had seen it so far.
Late that night poor Ayo went to sleep under a tree. In a dream, she saw the same bright bird
who said: ‘At the end of this path lives a witch. If you do what she tells you, she’ll give you a
new calabash.’ The following morning Ayo found the witch sitting outside her hut. ‘Go away.’
She said. I don’t want to see anybody. My legs hurts.’
Ayo asked her if she could help her. ‘Yes, said the witch, ‘pound what you see in my mortar.’
Ayo started pounding, but it was soon full of stones! ‘I’m wasting my time.’ She thought. But
soon the stones turned into soft white rice. ‘Now’, said the witch, ‘I want you to get some water
in that sieve.’ ‘ Water in a sieve!’ thought Ayo. But although she thought it was impossible, she
poured some water into the sieve and it did not run out.
‘Good’, said the old woman. ‘Now, I want you to change the bandages on my leg.’ Ayo looked
at the dirty smelly bandages on the old woman’s leg. She was nearly sick when she carefully
unwrapped them, she found there was nothing wrong with the witch’s leg.
You’re a kind girl, ‘said the witch. ‘Go down the stream and take a calabash. But be careful!
Don’t take a big one.’ Ayo went down to the stream and found the calabashes. The large ones
shouted: ‘Take me, take me!’ The little ones ran away crying: ‘don’t take me! Don’t take me!’
She picked the smallest calabash she could find and ran home with it.
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Find the answer from the text above to each of questions below
1. Whom did the old witch live with?
2. How did she consider both children?
3. Why was Tunde freer than Ayo?
4. Why did Tunde have enough time to go dancing?
5. Where did Ayo take the clothes to, and for which reason?
6. What did Ayo see at the river?
7. What happened to Ayo’s calabash?
8. Which word in the text that means:
a. A woman whose husband has passed away?
b. A child of your partner, wife or husband?
c. A woman who is a sorcerer?
9. Which difference is there between housework and homework?
10. Was Ayo wise to pound what she was given in the mortar? Explain your answer.
11. Do you think Ayo was given a basic good education? Say why.
12. Why were the calabashes at the river speaking?
13. Which title can you give to this text?
14. Do you think there is something good or bad in the calabash that Ayo has picked? Give
your view.
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UNIT FOUR: PHRASAL VERBS
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5. To bring up: raise in family
e.g. My grandfather brought me up after my parents had died.
Note that ‘ to bring up’ can also mean ‘to start talking about something’, as in: My mother
walks out the room when my father brings up sports.
6. To call back: phone again
e.g. Could you call back tomorrow, please?
7. To call off: cancel
e.g. They have called off the strive.
8. To call up: phone
e.g. Let’s call daddy up and ask him for advice.
9. To calm down: relax after being angry
e.g. You are still mad. You need to calm down before you drive a car.
10. To carry on: To continue.
e.g. Are you going to carry on studying German?
11. To cheer up: Become happier.
e.g. She cheered up when she heard the good news.
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e.g. The picture that you hung up last night fell down this morning.
27. To fall out: Separate from an interior.
e.g. The money must have fallen out of my pocket.
28. To figure out: understand, find the answer, imagine.
e.g. I need to figure out how to fit the piano and the bookshelf in this room.
29. To fill in/ out: to complete/to write information in blanks.
e.g. The form must be filled in/out in capital letter.
30. To find out: Discover
e.g. We tried to keep the time of the party a secret, but Samantha found it out.
31. To get along/on: Like each other.
e.g. I was surprised how well my new girlfriend and my sister got along/on.
32. To get away: to go on a vacation.
e.g. We worked so hard this year that we had to get away for a week.
33. To get back: to return.
e.g. We got back from our vacation last week.
34. To get something back: receive something you had before.
e.g. Liz finally got her science notes back from my room-mate.
35. To get off: To leave the bus.
e.g. You get off at the end of Gass Street.
36. To get on with someone: To agree, work well together.
e.g. I get on well with my boss.
37. To get over: to recover.
e.g. I had an operation, but I am getting over it now.
38. To get through: to make a successful telephone call.
e.g. Did you get through.
39. To get together: to meet (usually for social reasons)
e.g. Let us get together to discuss the issue this weekend.
40. To get up: to rise from bed
e.g. I always get up at six o’clock.
To get up is also used to mean “ to stand”
41. To give back: to return a borrowed item
e.g. I have to give this book back to Frank by Friday.
42. To give something up: to quit a habit
e.g. I am trying to give up smoking.
43. To give up: to stop trying, to abandon
e.g. I know it is difficult affording school fees, but I can’t give up.
44. To go ahead: to start, proceed
e.g. Please go ahead and eat your food before it gets cold.
45. To go back: to return to a place
e.g. I have to go back home and get my lunch.
46. To go on: to continue
e.g. Please go on with what you are doing.
47. To hand in: to submit
e.g. I have to hand in my assignment by Monday.
48. To hand something out: to distribute to a group of people.
e.g. You have to hand out these invitations now.
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49. To hang on: to wait a short time
e.g. Hang on while I grab my coat and shoes.
50. To hang up: to end a phone call
e.g. He didn’t say goodbye before he hung up.
51. To hold on: wait a short time
e.g. Please hold on while I transfer you to the Sales Department.
52. To keep on: to continue
e.g. Keep on begging him.
53. To keep up with: to stay at the same level with
e.g. You walk so fast that I cannot keep up with you.
54. To let someone down: to disappoint someone
e.g. Study hard so as not to let your parents down.
55. To look after: to take care of
e.g. I have to look after my sick mother.
56. To look down on: to consider inferior
e.g. Do not look down on illiterate people.
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e.g. We decided to put our trip off until December because of the rain.
72. To put up with: to tolerate
e.g. I don’t think I can put up with three small kids in my car.
73. To put something on: to wear sth
e.g. It’s raining out there. Put on your raincoat.
74. To put through: to connect on the telephone
e.g. Could you put me through to the Branch Manager?
75. To put up: to accommodate
e.g. Can I put you up for the weekend?
76. To ring back: to phone again
e.g. Please, ring back later.
77. To ring up: to phone
e.g. I’ll ring you up as soon as I get there.
78. To run over something/someone: to drive a vehicle over sth/s.o
e.g. He accidently run over an old woman.
79. To run out: to have none left
e.g. I’ m running out money. So I have to borrow some.
80. To save up: to put money aside
e.g. I’m trying to save up for my vacation.
81. To show off: to act extra special for people watching (especially boastfully)
e.g. He always shows off.
82. To show somebody around: to show someone a place he has never visited before
e.g. When you come over to Rwanda, I’ll show you around.
83. To set off (for): to leave for, to start a journey
e.g. When are you setting off for Kigali?
84. To sort something out: to resolve a problem
e.g. We need to sort this problem out before our Boss gets back.
85. To sleep in: to wake up late
e.g. Sorry I’m late. I slept in.
86. To switch on: to start the energy flow, to turn on
e.g. Switch on the car radio.
87. To switch off: to stop the energy flow, to turn off
e.g. Could you switch the light on? It’s too bright.
88. To take off: to start to fly
e.g. My plane takes off in five minutes.
89. To take sth off: to remove sth (usually clothing)
e.g. Take off your shoes and socks and come in the lake.
90. To throw away: to dispose of
e.g. He threw his old shoes away when he bought the new ones.
91. To tear up: to rip into pieces
e.g. Tear this letter up after you have read it.
92. To think back (on): to remember
e.g. When I think back on my youth, I wish I had studied harder.
93. To think over: to consider
e.g. Let me think this job over before I make my final decision.
94. To turn something down: to refuse/reject
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e.g. My application letter has been turned down.
95. To turn something up: to increase the volume or strength
e.g. Can you turn the music up? This is my favorite song.
96. To turn something on: to switch on
e.g. It’s dark in here. Let’s turn some lights on.
97. To turn something off: to switch off
e.g. Your mother wants you to turn the TV off while the guests are here.
98. To try something on: to sample clothing
e.g. Let me try these jeans on, but I don’t think they will fit me.
99. To try something out: to test
e.g. Could try this machine out, please?
100. To use up: to finish the supply
e.g. The kids have used all the toothpaste up, so we need to buy some more.
97. To turn something off: to switch off
e.g. Your mother wants you to turn the TV off while the guests are here.
98. To try something on: to sample clothing
e.g. Let me try these jeans on, but I don’t think they will fit me.
99. To try something out: to test
e.g. Could try this machine out, please?
100. To use up: to finish the supply
e.g. The kids have used all the toothpaste up, so we need to buy some more.
97. To turn something off: to switch off
e.g. Your mother wants you to turn the TV off while the guests are here.
98. To try something on: to sample clothing
e.g. Let me try these jeans on, but I don’t think they will fit me.
99. To try something out: to test
e.g. Could try this machine out, please?
100. To use up: to finish the supply
e.g. The kids have used all the toothpaste up, so we need to buy some more.
101. To wake up: to stop sleeping
e.g. We have to wake up early for work on Monday.
102. To wash up: to wash the dishes
e.g. Linda washes up every morning.
103. To wear out: to become old and unusable
e.g. These shoes have won out very quickly.
104. To see someone off: to accompany someone
e.g. Can you see me off at the airport?
105. To be over: to end
e.g. The war is over.
PRACTICE EXERCISES
I. Fill in the blanks with appropriate phrasal verbs from this list: take out, fill out,
hold on, pay back, print out
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1. If you lend me some money, I’ll……………………………..by Friday.
2. Dear customer, …………………………..a minute and I’ll give you the money.
3. Let me………………………….this cheque.
4. Go to the credits agent. He’ll…………………….your account’s statement for the month
of June.
5. How much money did you……………………..of your account yesterday.
II. Complete these sentences using a suitable phrasal verb from the box. Use the correct form
where applicable.
break down, clear up, come back, speak up,
take off, cut down on, try on, get on, fill in,
grow up
III. Fill in the blanks with the phrasal verbs listed below:
Cut down, give up, calm down, cheer up, catch up, let down, turn down, call off, hand in, carry
on
N.B: Make changes about the verb form where applicable.
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9. Don’t be so upset. Try and…………..
10. They’ve……………..the match because of a bad weather.
When Ayo got home, her mother was furious and beat her with a big stick. Then Ayo showed her
the calabash, and the widow cut it open. Gold and silver poured out. Tunde and the widow had
never been so happy. They bought a new house in town, had a lot of servants, drove around in a
big car and drank whisky every day. But Ayo still lived in the kitchen and drank water. Soon
there was no money left. The servants left because nobody had paid them. The widow did not
know what to do.
Suddenly she had a bright idea. ‘Tunde’, she said, ‘I want you to go to the forest and bring back
a calabash. But get a big one this time.’ Tunde asked Ayo where she had found the witch. Ayo
told her and warned her not to get a big calabash.
When Tunde found the witch she said, ‘Hey you, mammy, mammy! I’ve come to get one of your
magic calabashes. Where do you keep them? Hurry up I haven’t got much time.’
The old woman told her to pound the stones in the mortar, but Tunde said, ‘What! Do you think I
am a fool? I won’t waste my time pounding stones!’ ‘It’s up to you, ‘ said the witch, who was
fanning herself with a piece of grass. Tunde grumbled so much that the stones did not turn into
rice for a long time. When the witch told her to get water in a sieve, she was very angry, but she
remembered the calabash and got the water. Then the old woman told her to change her
bandages. Tunde tied a handkerchief over her nose and unwrapped the bandages so carelessly
that the witch yelled with pain. But there was nothing wrong with her leg. ‘I’ve had enough of
your stupid games, mammy,’ she said. 4tell me where my calabash is.’
The old woman told her and warned her not to take a big one. But Tunde was greedy, so she
grabbed the largest one she could find. Then she ran home to show her mother. When she got
home, Tunde cut open the calabash. Instead of gold out jumped snakes and toads, cockroaches
and scorpions. Tunde and the widow ran out of the house and never came back.
Questions
1. Was the mother happy with the calabash Ayo brought?
2. What did the mother do to Ayo?
3. What was in the calabash? Was this good to Ayo? Explain
4. Did the riches took long, why?
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5. Why did the widow send Tunde to see the witch?
6. Is the language of Tunde good? Explain.
7. What did the test consist of? Did Tunde pass it?
8. What did the old witch tell Tunde once at the river?
9. Did Tunde respect the witch’s advice? What happened?
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e.g. Many people in that country live from hand to mouth.
8. To throw cold water on sth = to show indifference to sth.
e.g. My parents threw cold water on my scheme
9. To sit on the fence = to halt between two opinions, hesitating which side to join.
e.g. In a debate, you shouldn’t sit on the fence.
10. To be at sixes and sevens = to be in disorder or confusion
e.g. When I entered the house everything was at sixes and sevens.
11. To get into hot water = to be in trouble
e.g. I am told the major has got into hot water.
12. To hit the nail on the head = to say or to do exactly the right thing
e.g. You have hit the nail on the head.
13. To be in high spirits = to be cheerful, joyful.
e.g. Today Peter is in high spirits.
Opp. To be out of spirit = to be gloomy, sad
e.g. You look /seen out of spirit. How is that?
14. To spread like wild fire = to spread rapidly
e.g. A bad news spreads like wild fire.
15. To take heart = to cheer oneself up
e.g. John was disappointed, but he took heart.
16. To give ear to = to listen to
e.g. Don’t give ear to a tale-bearer.
17. To smell a rat = to suspect sth, to be suspicions.
e.g. I smell a rat.
18. To be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth = to be born in wealth and luxury.
e.g. That young boy was born with a silver spoon in his mouth.
19. To pay somebody back his own coin = to treat him in the same way as he had treated you.
e.g. When the opportunity comes, I’ll pay him back his own coin.
20. To end in smoke = to come to nothing.
e.g. All his schemes ended in smoke.
21. To (be) ill at ease = to be anxious, uneasy.
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e.g. He seems ill at ease.
22. To feel like a fish out of water = to be in a strange situation, to feel uncomfortable.
e.g. While the members of committee were discussing questions of finance, I felt like a fish out
of water.
23. To take things easy = not to work seriously.
e.g. Paul has made his fortune and he now takes things easy.
24. To be in the bed you have made = to take the consequences of you own acts, to suffer from
your own misdeeds.
e.g. Alice had an abortion. So she must lie in the bed she has made.
25. To take into account = to consider
e.g. You must take into account his good services.
26. To blow one’s own trumpet = to praise oneself.
e.g. As usual, Peter is blowing his own trumpet.
27. To pass muster = to be accepted as satisfactory.
e.g. Your excuses will not pass master.
28. To be caught red-handed = to be caught in the very act of committing the theft, adultery,…
e.g. The thief was caught red-handed.
29. To be all ears = to be deeply attentive
e.g. We were all ears throughout the president’s speech.
30. To be all eyes = to be eagerly watching.
e.g. I was all eyes to see what he would do.
31. To cut sb short = to interrupt sb.
e.g. While he was speaking, his father cut him short.
32. To let the grass grow under one’s feet = to remain idle.
e.g. I’m not a kind of man to let the grass grow under my feet.
33. To move heaven and earth = to make every possible effort.
e.g. His adversaries moved heaven and earth to get him dismissed.
34. To be led by the nose = to follow submissively.
e.g. He refused to be led by the nose.
35. To be sb’s right-hand man = to be sb’s most efficient assistant.
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e.g. Mugabo is regarded as our boss’s right-hand man.
36. To wash one’s dirty linen in public = to discuss unpleasant private matters before strangers.
e.g. There is nothing so bad as washing one’s dirty linen in public.
38. To be at daggers drown ( - used when some people’s relations are strained).
e.g. They are at daggers drawn ever since the dissolution of the partnership between them.
39. To be a man of his words = a man to be depended on, a trustworthy man.
e.g. You can safely trust him; he is a man of his words.
40. To be a wolf in sheep’s clothing = to be hypocrite
e.g. Beware of Paul. He’s a wolf in sheep’s clothing.
41. To be a black sheep = to be a bad character e.g. There are black sheep
in every community
42. To lead a cat-and-dog life = to live a life full of quarrels.
44. To be hard up / short of money : not to have money
45. To flog a dead horse : to waste time or energy on sth useless, unchangeable,…
46 To sleep like a log : to sleep very deeply
47. To be easy like falling off a log : to be very easy.
48. To let the cat out of the bag = to reveal a secret.
49. To kill the time = to do sth in order to make time pass more quickly
50. To promise the moon = to make a promise that is impossible to keep.
51. To be in quandary = to be confused, to experience
52. To be between the devil and a deep blue sea = to be in a tight situation.
53. To give up the ghost: to die
54. To be born under a lucky star = to be continually lucky
55. To be a noboby/To be good-for-nothing: to be a person without importance
56. To be at death’s door = to be about to die.
57. To take a French leave = (1) to leave sth without saying bye.
(2) To remain absent without permission.
58. To have a memory like an elephant = to have a good memory, not forgetting things easily.
Opp. To have a memory like a sieve
59. To have as many faces as the moon = to be deceitful and insincere.
59. To start from scratch = to start completely from the beginning.
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60. To mend one’s way = to change or improve one’s behaviour.
61. To sugar the pill = to praise ironically, to make sth bad seem less unpleasant
62. To work like a Trojan = to work very hard.
63. To hold one’s tongue = not to say a word.
64. To have other fish to fly = to have other tasks to carry out
65. To be dressed up to the mines = to be very well dressed.
66. To build castles in the air = to boast
68. To have one’s finger in more than one pie = to grasp lots of different things at a time.
These are well-known and wise statements, which often have meanings that are different from
the simple meanings of the words they contain.
e.g
One finger does not kill a louse.
Used to emphasize the important of unity, or helping one another.
He who is not taught by his mother is taught (disciplined) by the world.
Used to tell parents pot to spoil their children by giving them too much love and failing to
discipline them.
Here is a list of some common English proverbs and sayings:
1. “Absence makes the heart grow fonder"
Sometimes it's good to be away from your partner, because it makes you want to see each other
again.
2. "Actions speak louder than words"
Just saying that you'll do something doesn't mean much. Actually doing it is harder and more
meaningful.
3.“A fool and his money are soon parted”
Stupid people spend their money carelessly and soon become poor.
4.“A good name is better than riches”
Your good reputation is worth more than money.
5. “All that glitters is not gold”
Said about something that seems to be good on the surface, but might not be when you look at it
more closely.
5.“A little learning is a dangerous thing”
It may be safer not to learn something at all than to half know it.
6. "A penny saved is a penny earned"
Save your money.
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7.“Appearances are deceptive”
The way something or someone looks from outside may give us the wrong impression.
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18. “Don’t count your chickens before they hatch.”
Your plans might not work out, so don’t start thinking about what you’ll do after you succeed.
Wait until you’ve already succeeded, and then you can think about what to do next.
20.“Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise”
It is good for us to sleep early in the evening and wake early in the morning.
25.“Forewarned is forearmed”
If we know about a possible danger in advance, we have an important advantage.
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"Honesty is the best policy"
Said to advise someone that it is better to tell the truth than to lie.
30. “If you play with fire, you will get burned”
If you fool around with something that is potentially dangerous, you must expect to get harmed.
40. “Money is the root of all evil” / ‘The love of money is the root of all evil’
According to this saying, all immorality and wickedness is caused by money.
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41. “Money makes money”
If you have money, you can use it to get more money through investment.
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55. “Prevention is better than cure”
It is better to take care that a problem does not happen than to have to solve the problem
afterwards. It is easier to stop something bad from happening in the first place than to fix the
damage after it has happened.
65. “Strike while the iron is hot”/ “Don’t cast for tomorrow what you can do today”
Seize the opportunity! When we have the chance to do something, we should do it immediately.
Otherwise it may be too late.
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We often say “Talk of the devil!” or “Speak of the devil!” when somebody that we have just
been talking about suddenly appears.
67. “Tell me who you go with and I’ll tell you who you are”/ “A man is known by the
company he keeps”
If I know who your friends are, I know what your character is.
74. “They that sow the wind shall reap the whirlwind”
We must expect to suffer serious consequences as the result of our own bad actions. We get back
what we give out.
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When there are too many people trying to lead and give their opinions, it's confusing and leads to
bad results. Jobs and projects should have one or two strong leaders.
85. “You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink”
You can show people the way to find something or to do something, but you cannot force them
to act after that.
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If you do something too quickly, you will make a lot of mistakes
90. “It’s no use crying over spilt milk”
There is no point being upset about something lost which cannot be found or a mistake done
which cannot be corrected.
1. No sweat…………………..
2. Practice makes……………………………………..
3. Time and tide……………………………………
4. No man is………………………………………
5. United we stand…………………………………………….
6. A rolling stone………………………………………………
7. When in Rome…………………………………………….
8. Two heads…………………………………………………………..
9. Where there is a will…………………………………………..
10. Opportunity………………………………………………………..
II. Briefly explain the circumstances under which the following proverbs/sayings
are used:
1. Speech is silver, silence is golden
2. Strike while the iron is hot
3. Time is money
4. All that glitters is not gold
5. Nothing ventured nothing gained
A B
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1. To turn a deaf ear a. To be cheerful, joyful
2. To be in high spirits b. To disregard
3. To make up one’s mind c. To be impartial
4. To sit on the fence d. To decide
5. To hit the nail on the head e. To feel uncomfortable
6. To take a French leave f. To say/do the right thing
7. To feel like a fish out of water g. To leave without saying bye
I can say something about "Animal Farm" which describes the Politics of Russia after the
revolution. This is George Orwell's work details how the dictatorship of Stalin uprooted the
Communism from Russia and shows that the end of communism was the rein of capitalism and
religion. This revolution rooted from the world-wide depression that had began in United States
of America when the stock market crashed in October 1929. This spread throughout the world
because American exports depended on Europe. Despite this, United States of America was also
the major contributor to the world market economy and the promoter of capitalism. So, the aim
was to install capitalism in the place of Communism. It was the great hit on the whole Europe
whereby only leaders and the faithful followers or supporters of Stalin ate their fill during the
period of 1930s. Since the citizens or some of officials noticed that they were suffering, the
writer used the names of animals to describe how they revolt on the socialist empire and root it
up. When the hunger and stress were aside, the capitalists forgot about Karl Marx’s political and
social theories. But the writer, as he was criticizing the communism, mentioned that the idea
behind the promotion of capitalism was that there could not be any perfect society, no pure
socialist civilization and no way to escaping the evil grasp of capitalism. This work symbolizes
also that socialism was simply a theory which could not succeed even if the philosophy behind
was good. The evidence is that it started good under the regime of Stalin while treating all
citizens equally, but it reached a point when he left the original equality of socialism behind,
gave himself all the power and lived in luxury while citizens were suffering. He started
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suspecting one of his officials known as Trosky. He had ever argued with the latter at the extent
that Trosky exiled and the supporters of Stalin followed him up to Mexico, where he exiled and
killed him. Stalin also murdered many of the people he suspected that they were the supporters
of Trosky.
The good thing on the rebellion was that at least it gave time to religion. Moses, who was Mr.
Jones's especial pet, was a spy and a tale-bearer, but he was also a clever talker. He claimed to
know of the existence of a mysterious country called Sugarcandy Mountain, to which all animals
went when they died. It was situated somewhere up in the sky, a little distance beyond the
clouds, Moses said. In Sugarcandy Mountain it was Sunday seven days a week, clover was in
season all the year round, and lump sugar and linseed cake grew on the hedges. The animals
hated Moses because he told tales and did no work but some of them believed in Sugarcandy
Mountain, and the pigs had to argue very hard to persuade them that there was no such place."
Moses represents Orwell's view of the Church. To Orwell, the Church is just used as a tool by
dictatorships to keep the working class of people hopeful and productive. Orwell uses Moses to
criticize Marx's belief that the Church will just go away after the rebellion. Jones first used
Moses to keep the animals working, and he was successful in many ways before the rebellion.
The pigs had a real hard time getting rid of Moses, since the lies about Heaven they thought
would only lead the animals away from the equality of socialism. But as the pigs led by
Napoleon become more and more like Mr Jones, Moses finds his place again. After being away
for several years, he suddenly returns and picks up right where he left off. The pigs don't mind
this time because the animals have already realised that the "equality" of the revolt is a farce. So
Napoleon feeds Moses with beer, and the full circle is complete. Orwell seems to offer a very
cynical and harsh view of the Church. This proves that Animal Farm is not simply an anti-
communist work meant to lead people into capitalism and Christianity. Really Orwell found
loop-holes and much hypocrisy in both systems. It's interesting that recently in Russia the
government has begun to allow and support religion again. It almost seems that like the pigs, the
Kremlin officials of today are trying to keep their people motivated, not in the ideology of
communism, but in the "old-fashioned" hope of an after-life.
The writer accused hundreds of people of supporting the communist regime, from famous actors
in Hollywood to middle-class ordinary people. The fear of communism became a phobia in
America and anyone speaking out against the government was a suspect.
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Questions
1. Who wrote this story?
2. What does he talk about in the story?
3. In the story animals are acting like human being, what do you call this?
4. What do you understand by Sugarcandy Mountain?
5. Who does Orwell use to criticize the dictatorship in Russia at this time?
6. Is dictatorship good or bad? Explain
When we speak or write we use words. We generally use these words in groups; as in:
My uncle speaks English fluently.
A group of words like this, which makes complete sense, is called a sentence.
Examples:
John loves Mary. Sentence
Joy studies at ULK. Sentence
Mixed lemon juice and water. Not a sentence
Then the woman. Not a sentence
She wrote a message on the paper. Sentence
The words in a sentence must be in an order that makes sense. When you write, put the words in
the right order.
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The first word of a sentence begins with a capital letter.
A sentence has two parts: subject and predicate.
The subject of a sentence names someone or something. When you write, vary the subjects of
your sentences.
The predicate of a sentence tells what the subject is or does. When you write, add variety by
using a different predicate in each sentence.
Examples:
John is a good artist.
S P
Claudien paints a picture.
S P
Classification of sentences
Classification 1
Here, four kinds of sentences are distinguished:
(1) Declarative or Assertive sentences (those which make statements or assertions); as in:
Peter fought bravely.
They did not attend the meeting.
I bought a package of wrapping paper today.
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(3) Imperative sentences (those which express commands, requests or
entreaties); as in:
Be quiet!
Have merry upon us.
Help me to tie this bow.
(1) Major sentences (sentences that contain at least one subject and a
finite verb); as in:
We are going.
They won.
Note
Major sentences frequently have more than this; as in:
They bought a car.
They arrived yesterday.
We are going away next week.
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Major sentences are sometimes described as regular because they divide into certain structural
patterns: a subject, finite verb, adverb or adverb clause, etc.
Such short expressions could be rephrased to become major sentences, as in ‘Traffic has been
diverted because of roadwork’, ‘The shop is closed on Sunday’, ‘The owner does not allow
dogs in her shop’ and ‘There was flooding ahead on the motorway’.
Classification 3
Sentences can also be classified as:
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The sentence ‘We wondered where he had gone and why he was upset’ is a complex
sentence since it is made up of a main clause (‘We wondered’) and two subordinate clauses
(‘where he had gone’ and ‘why he was upset’).
More examples:
If you have flown a kite, you will know that it goes up to the air when you pull it
against the wind.
We visited the house where Gandhi was born.
Practice
1. Change each sentence below into a different kind. Tell what kind you
have made it.
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(a) The contest deadline is tomorrow.
(b) How many pennies are in that bowl.
(c) Write your answer in the box.
(d) What an interesting guess you made!
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6.2 WRITING A PARAGRAPH
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences that relate to one main idea in a coherent logical sequence.
Often a paragraph contains a sentence that tells what the main idea of the paragraph is. This is
called the topic sentence. The other sentences give supporting details about the main idea.
Paragraphs can be short or long. However they always have a beginning, middle and an end.
Usefulness of a paragraph
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paragraph. The sentences that form the body of the paragraph must be closely related
to each other. Variety in the body of the paragraph should be brought using different
types and kinds of sentences. Thus, the sentences in a paragraph must follow the
principle of unity. All the sentences must be presented in a logical order or
sequence. Since they develop the idea, they are often arranged in the order of
importance.
The concluding or closing sentence must sum up the entire paragraph. It is a
reflection of the idea presented in the topic sentence. A paragraph must be brief and
one must avoid excessive or unnecessary details.
Important points to consider
Order in a paragraph
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The order of the sentences in your paragraph depends on the topic. If you are writing about an
event, you usually order your paragraphs by time. You start with what happened first, and then
tell what happened after that, in order.
If you are explaining how to do something, you put your sentences in step –by-step order.
Certain order words, such as first, then, after, next and finally, will help make your steps clear.
Think of some topic that you would like to explain and that someone else would enjoy knowing
about.
Write your first draft. Do not worry about making mistakes in spelling, punctuation,
capitalization, or handwriting. You will have time to correct them later.
Think about what to say, and find the words to say it. You may want to skip every other line.
You may need the extra space if you want to make changes later.
Read your draft with a critical eye. Ask yourself these questions:
- Are all the steps correct?
- Have all the steps been included,
- Are my instructions exact?
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- Would they be easy to follow?
Revise your draft. Cross out words or sentences that do not belong. Add details by writing words
above the lines.
Discuss your paragraph with your classmate or anyone else. Then make any further changes that
you think would make your instructions better.
Now you are ready to proofread your paper. When you proofread, you check your spelling, your
capitalization and your punctuation. You may even use a dictionary to check the spelling of any
words you are unsure of.
These questions are worth asking when proofreading:
- Have I spelled all the words correctly?
- Have I corrected my run-on sentences or sentence fragments?
- Does every sentence begin with a capital letter and end with a correct punctuation mark?
- Have I used a comma and a connecting word to join the parts of my compound
sentences?
- Have I used commas to set off appositives,
Practice
Write a paragraph on how to keep fit and healthy, or on any other topic of your own choice.
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6.3 ESSAY WRITING
What is an Essay?
An essay is a short piece of writing, by a student or any other person, that discusses,
describes or analyses a particular topic.
Types of Essays
Distinguishing between types of essays is simply a matter of determining the writer’s goal.
Does the writer want to tell about a personal experience, describe something, explain an
issue, or convince the reader to accept a certain point of view?
Given these purposes, we can distinguish four major types of essays:
- Narrative essays
In a narrative essay, the writer tells a story about a real-life experience. He narrates an
event, or series of events (e.g. accident, natural disaster, life of a given hero,…).
- Descriptive essays
In a descriptive essay, the writer describes a person, place or object or even memory of
special significance (e.g. Rwanda, Gorilla, elephant, …)
- Expository essays
In an expository essay, the writer explains or defines a topic, using facts, statistics and
examples, of a short theme, idea or issue (e.g. Democracy in Rwanda).
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- Persuasive or opinion essays
In a persuasive essay, the writer tries to convince the reader to adopt his position on an issue
or point of view (e.g. Computer technology has made life easier).
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If you do not decide on the line of thoughts of your essay, it will probably be badly arranged
and full of repetitions and irrelevancies.
Structure of an essay
Any essay should contain an introduction, a body made up of several paragraphs, and a
conclusion. Each of these parts has a specific function. Let us look at each of these parts in
turn.
a. The introduction
This, in a short essay, must be very brief. It would be absurd to have the porch bigger than the
building itself. It may be simply a short paragraph. But it should always be
arresting/attractive or interesting and pertinent to the subject. The introduction may consist of
a definition or a quotation, proverb, a very brief story or a general remark, leading up to the
subject or specification of key points the reader is going to find in the essay.
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This is an organization / series of paragraphs that build your argument. It is really the essay
itself – the house to which the introduction is the front door or entrance and the conclusion the
back or exit.
Concl
us.
BODY
Intro.
.
It should be noted that each new idea should be developed in its own paragraph.
e.g. Topic : Advantages of living in the countryside
- Cooperation among people (paragraph1)
- Low cost-of-living (paragraph 2)
- No pollution (paragraph 3)
When you are ready to begin a new main idea, make sure you start a new paragraph. Usually,
one sentence in the paragraph tells what the main idea is. That sentence is called the topic
sentence. It is often the first sentence of the paragraph. All the other sentences in the
paragraph add details (i.e. evidence, explanation or comment) about the main idea. They are
called supporting details.
Note:
Do not fail to use logical connectors to link your ideas. For example, to contrast an idea
already discussed, you can use however, nevertheless, despite…., in spite of….., etc. To
add a new idea, you can use secondly, thirdly, etc. However, it sounds unnatural to say
fourthly, fifthly, sixthly, etc. You should instead use more to this, what is more, besides,
in addition, additionally, moreover, furthermore, etc.
Use these connectors at the start of a sentence.
c. The Conclusion
As the introduction should arouse interest, the conclusion should satisfy it. An effective and
satisfying end to an essay is as important as an arresting beginning. An abrupt or feeble
ending may spoil the whole effect of the essay.
Note that a good conclusion may consist of:
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- a summing up of the arguments of the essay;
- final conclusion drawn from the subject-matter ;
- your position/point of view
- a suitable quotation put by a famous person or author. It can even be a proverb
- a sentence that strikingly expresses the main point you want to drive home (-
suggestions/ recommendations).
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(9) Use short sentences, common words that you know well and avoid very informal
words.
USEFUL PHRASES
The following will help you organize your essay and make your argument clear.
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To begin,…
To begin with,…
In the first place,…( not firstly of all,…)
Let us begin by looking at,…
First of all, let us consider
The first thing that should be noted is…
It is worth stating from the outset that…
If you want to continue discussing one side of the question, start like this:
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In summary,..
In conclusion,..
This brings us to the conclusion that…
To conclude, it seems likely that…
In short,…
To be short,…
Without being long,…
In a nutshell,…
To be brief,…
In brief,..
Briefly,..
In a word,..
Express your personal opinion.
WRITING PRACTICE
Write a short essay on any of the following topics:
1. Poverty reduction strategies in Rwanda
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9. The role of cooperative movements in socio-economic
development
Reading Text: Principles for a Successful Life (by Ron Kurtus; revised 6 February 2006)
A successful life is a satisfying life. It is one where you are healthy, happy and fulfilled in your
existence. Most people would like to lead such a life, but many think it is not easy to do. In fact,
it is not that difficult. Much of what happens to you in your life is a result of your philosophy or
way of thinking and the principles you follow, as well as your attitude toward things.
Have a positive philosophy: In order to lead a good, well or satisfying life, you need a positive
philosophy toward the major components in your life. These components are your attitude,
health (Physical, Emotional and Spiritual), communications, sensing the world and social
interactions, knowledge and activities (vocation and leisure).
Be good in each: You can be good and attain satisfaction in each of these items, leading to a
happy and healthy life. Your attitude can make your life satisfying, if you enjoy life, you are
accountable for your own well being, you think in terms of taking care of your whole person—
your body, mind and spirit. The following are ways to attain wellness in the different types of
health. Physical health: Good physical health can make your life satisfying, if you are
physically active, eat frugally, and minimize medical invasiveness. Emotional health: Good
emotional health can make your life satisfying, if you handle stress well, you are aware of your
feelings and appreciate the talents you have. Spiritual health: Good spiritual health can make
your life satisfying, if you are forgiving, you are grateful and you are at peace.
Communication: The following are ways to attain wellness in the areas of communication.
Sensing the world: Effective sensing of the world around you, can make your life more
satisfying, if you are observant, curious and use all your senses. Social interactions: Good social
interactions can make your life satisfying, if you have respect for other people, try to have
everyone win and live for today. Intellect: Good intellect can make your life satisfying, if you
think mindfully; you are creative and continually grow. Vocation: A good vocation can make
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your life satisfying, if you have a purpose, help others and you are concerned about future
generations.
COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
1. What type of philosophy do I need to have?
2. How do attitude, health and wealth fit in?
3. What do I need to do to get started?
4. What is important in having a positive attitude?(choose one of these alternatives)
5. How can observation and using your senses make your life more satisfying?
6. Besides making money, what is important about a good vocation?
Although in recent times, communication has become much easier with the help of phones,
computers and faster travel options, it is important to learn the art of letter writing.
TYPES OF LETTERS
Letters can be classified into many kinds on the basis of their purpose. Letters can be informal or
formal. Now let us look at each of the two in turn.
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Often, this is true. There are some situations, however, when the pleasure that a letter can bring
to your friend or relative is worth the little bit of extra effort it takes to write it.
Suppose that your grandmother is ill. You sit down and write a friendly letter telling her that you
hope she will feel better soon. You include news about yourself and your family, too. Your
grandmother can read and reread the words you wrote especially to her as often as she wants.
She can share your letter with others, and she can save it.
In a nutshell, letters can be preserved and read any time in future. Reading such letters can bring
back memories of special people or important events.
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Parts of an informal/ friendly letter
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Looking again at the typical friendly letter above, you will notice that a friendly letter has 6
parts: the heading, greeting, body, closing, signature and sender’s name. The heading is
made up of the sender’s address and the date.
-The date is written immediately under the sender’s address after leaving a gap of one or two
lines.
Alternative methods of writing the date are:
2/12/2014
December 2, 2014
2nd December 2014
December 2nd, 2014
- The salutation is put at the beginning of the line after a gap of one or two lines and followed
by a comma. The salutation is equivalent to “hello”. For people we know well we can use the
form Dear John. For close relations Dearest James can be used.
- The main body of the letter will, of course, depend on the person it is being sent to.
Remember that letter-writing is similar to conversation, and we should adopt the style we should
use if we were talking to the person we are writing to. The writing style of a friendly letter is
casual and informal. Anyway, there are different degrees of informality. For example, an
informal letter to one’s brother would be much more informal than a letter to one’s uncle.
The body or message of the letter includes the main purpose of writing the letter and the message
the writer wishes to convey. The body includes one or more paragraphs. The first paragraph of
the body usually introduces the main message and states the reason for writing the letter.
Remember to indent paragraphs, i.e. move in the first word of each paragraph.
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- The closing is equivalent to “bye”. It is written in the middle of the page a line or two below
the last line of the main body of the letter. Yours sincerely can be used for most personal
letters. Yours is also common. Yours ever can be used when writing to a person you
have known a long time. For a close relation one can use:
Yours affectionately,
Your ever admiring friend,
Love,
Note that a comma is used after the letter-closing.
Note that in a personal letter we do not include the address of the person to whom the letter is
being sent.
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WRITING PRACTICE
1 . Write a first letter to your pen-friend telling her/him about yourself, your family, and your
interests or hobbies. Add any information you wish.
2. Write a letter to anybody at home, telling him/her about how you are getting on with courses
at university.
3. Write a letter your pen-friend telling him/her about your country.
4. Write a letter to your pen-friend telling him about ULK, your university. Everything
considered, request her/him to tell you about her/his university as well.
5. Write a letter to your uncle who has promised to help you financially when you continue your
studies beyond their present level. Tell him of your plans for the next three years and state what
you expect your financial needs will be.
6. Write a letter to your parents and tell them that you have arrived safely at school despite a lot
of problems you faced on the way. Explain the problems and how they were solved.
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One way in which a formal letter is different from a friendly letter is its form. A formal letter has
two parts that an informal letter does not have notably the receiver’s address and the subject
matter. Another way in which a formal letter differs from an informal letter is its writing style.
The language, or style, of a formal letter is formal and polite. The letter should be brief and to the
point, including all necessary details but not unnecessary personal information. In other words, it
should be businesslike.
Gisenyi Sector
Rubavu District
Western Province
Tel.: 0788800115
Dear Sir,
Re: Complaining
I am writing to complain about the new car I bought from your company last week.
As a matter of fact, it has not been working since the second day after buying it. I read the
manual instructions carefully and also tried replacing the batteries. However, it still does not
work.
I would be most grateful if you could help me find out why the car stopped working and whether
I can get it repaired or replaced.
Yours sincerely,
Francis MB
Points on formal letters:
- The writer’s address and the date. The remarks made for the friendly letter apply here.
- The name and address of the person to receive the letter should appear on the left-
hand side of the paper next to the margin one or two lines lower than the date. The
commas at the end of each line are optional. The reason for including the name or
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position and address of the person to receive the letter is that a business letter can be
considered a legal document and there should be n o doubt about whom it is intended for.
The letter may be taken out of its envelope by the clerk, and if there is there is no
indication on the letter itself of the person it is addressed to, there may be may be
confusion.
- The salutation. Unless we have met the Manager and he is well known to us, we should
begin the letter Dear Sir or, more formally Sir. If we are writing to a company and not to
an individual, we use Dear Sirs or, using the American style, Gentleman.
- The main body of the letter does not contain informal and meaningless English. In a
business letter, as indeed in all letters, we should aim to write clear and simple English.
Naturally one’s style is not conversational, but this does not mean that it should be
artificial and stilted.
- The ending of the letter
Since you usually do not know the person who will read your letter, the closing should be
polite and formal rather than friendly and personal. In business letters use closings such
as Faithfully yours or Yours truly, not Your friend or Love.
- The signature should, of course, be neat and legible. What you write depends on the
customs of your own country. In most cases this will be your first name followed by your
surname or family name.
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Formal letters can do many different jobs such as ordering something, requesting information,
and requesting action about a problem. You have to find which topic is appropriate to your letter.
You may ask yourself such questions as:
1. Am I going to write to ask for information about something?
2. Am I going to write to order something?
3. Am I going to write to complain about something?
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Step Five: Make a final copy.
Make a final copy of your business letter, either typed or written in ink. Check to make sure you
have copied correctly.
Gisenyi Sector
Rubavu District
Western Province
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Tel.: 0788800115
I am interested in applying for the Sales Executive position recently advertised in The New York
Times. The marketing skills I have developed from my past work experience and educational
background support my candidacy for the announced position.
As you can see from my resume, the internship I had with XYZ Corporation, provided me an
opportunity to gain practical experience with account maintenance and cold-calling new
accounts. I have also worked as a waiter for the past four years, learning firsthand how to
effectively deal with customers and their demands. I have been formally commended by
management several times and have been rewarded with the title of "Employee of the Month"
several times.
I would like an opportunity to discuss your specific needs and my overall abilities regarding the
announced position. You can contact me at (718) 234-6767. You can email me at
alex.wilson@___mail.com. Thanking you for considering me for this position.
Sincerely,
Alex Wilson
WRITING PRACTICE
The minister of Defense invites applicants from university leavers who wish to train as army
officers. Only students aged under 30 and with sound knowledge of English should apply.
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Special importance should be attached to leadership qualities and physical fitness. Apply
Minister of Defense.
2. Write an application letter for the post of Marketing Officer in KCB/Muhanga Branch as
advertised in yesterday’s The New Times. The letter should be addressed to KCB
Managing Director/Kigali.
Conversations and discussions are different from one another. In conversations, people talk about
several topics or subjects. What is talked about is not decided ahead of time; instead, the
conversation unfolds spontaneously. One person mentions something that sparks an idea or
memory in another participant, and the conversation shifts to something else.
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In discussions, people usually share information and opinions about one topic or problem in
order to decide something. The subject of the discussion is decided beforehand, and the
participants stick to that topic.
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Roger: I vote for bringing our own food. Then we will each get to
eat what we like.
Sylvan: I agree with Roger.
Group: Me, too.
Steve: We also have to decide where to have the picnic.
Sue: What about Akagera National Park?
Mr. Mugabo: What about it, Sue?
Sue: Well, it was great for last year’s picnic. Let’s have it there
again.
Edith: Wow!
Anny: Akagera National Park is nice, but there’s also Iwawa. Its
playing fields are better than Akagera’s. Besides, we can
have a view of Kivu Lake there. What do you think, Mike?
Mike: Anny’s right about the fields and lake view, but visiting
Iwawa is very demanding. We would need a pass from
Marine Regiment, as well as one or two well-equipped boats
to take us to the island.
Tom: What about the food?
John: Oh, Tom. Weren’t you listening? We have already decided
that we would bring our own food.
Mr. Mugabo: Is everyone agreed then about Akagera and bringing
your own food? Good. Then, it seems that you have
solved the two main problems-the place and the food.
Questions:
1. What was the purpose of the discussion?
2. Did each speaker keep to the topic?
3. How do you know that the participants listened to one another?
4. Who did not?
5. What do you thing would have happened if everyone had not
agreed about the place and the food?
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PRACTICE EXERCISE
Form a group with five or six classmates to have a ten-minute discussion. Decide on a topic, or
choose one of the following topics:
- What can be done to create an English environment on our campus?
- How can your class raise money to help vulnerable people?
- What should be done for ULK students to be much more proficient?
This is a story about three children who attend the same secondary school in a town called
Dorado somewhere in Africa. Their parents are farmers who live thirty kilometers from the town.
There is no secondary school nearby and that is why the children have to live away from home.
Peter, the oldest, is nearly sixteen. Freda and Paula are twins. They are thirteen and a half, but
Freda does very well at school and is in a higher class than her sister although they are the same
age. Paula has always been sensible and practical.
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The three children stay with their uncle Bill and his wife Patience. Uncle Bill has a good job-
something to do with selling parts for cars- and he and Auntie Patience seem to have no
problems, either in getting money or in spending it.
The three children see very little of their aunt and uncle. Peter nicknamed them “Boeings”
because-like aeroplanes- they are always zooming off somewhere. Patience Boeing zooms off to
meet friends and buy clothes; Bill Boeing zooms off to make deals and drink beer. They
regularly land in the evening and it is the two girls who prepare, serve and wash up after each
meal. Peter helps chop firewood and runs errands for his aunt and uncle. Before going out in the
morning, Patience Boeing usually comes up with a list of orders for the day. These are mixed in
with complaints about what the children have done( or not done)the day before.
“I don’t think they would notice if I grew two heads,” said Paula sadly once, “as long as their
food was in time.” “Don’t complain,” said Peter. “We eat food too, they pay our fees and we
have a roof over our heads.”
The three children live in a room behind the main house. It has very small windows with bars on
them (at one time it had been a storeroom), but there is a room for three beds and the children
boxes. Each has a key and they can come and go as they like. The Boeings never seem to care
much about what they do, but Peter is strict with his sisters. They have to be back by six to do
their homework and their housework in the main house, where they is electric light, and they
have to be in bed as soon as the washing-up is finished after dinner.
Comprehension questions
1. Where do the children live? Why do they live there?
2. Why do the children think their aunt and their uncle have no problems?
3. What do the children have to do in the house every day?
4. Where do the children sleep?
5. Who is strict with the girls? Why?
A debate is a discussion in which people or groups state different opinions about a given subject.
A debate is, basically, an argument. But that is not to say that it is an undisciplined shouting
match between parties that passionately believe in a particular point of view. In fact, the opposite
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is true. You will often be in a position when you will have to argue the opposite of what you
believe in.
In any debate you will either be a proposer (supporting the motion) or opposer (discrediting the
points for the motion by providing contradicting evidence).
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When debating, you should never raise your voice. You should mind your tone. The louder you
talk, the louder your opponent talks, and the end result is a yelling match.
- Ask questions
When your opponent states a fact, probe deeper in to the fact with questions such as: “Can you
give me an example?”, “Another way of looking at what you’ve said is….., does this seem
reasonable?”
- Be silent
After making a strong argument, stay calm. Let your opponent do all the talking, especially if he
lacks the facts to oppose you. He will bluster and fumble, giving you a variety of new weapons
with which to attack him/her.
Useful expressions:
During the debate, expressions such as ‘Thank you Mr. /Madam ………’, ‘Mr. X has just
asserted……’, ‘That’s fine as it goes, but…’, ‘I (strongly) disagree to what Miss… has just
said’ are quite common.
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If you would allow me to continue……..
When closing:
I declare the debate closed. Thank you ladies and gentlemen.
That concludes our debate for today. Thank you.
Well, I think that covers everything.
That’s all for today. Thank you.
When voting:
As there is a tie, I would like to remind you that you have to vote.
Those for the motion, please.
Those against.
Any abstention?
The motion is carried unanimously.
The motion has been rejected by 6 votes to 9.
Point to remember
-The speakers in a debate- both the proposers and the opposers- are required to make notes of the
proceedings in order to give accurate responses when called upon to do so.
-The audience too must engage themselves in intelligent listening. Each individual in the
audience must take notes of what is being said so that ‘points of information’ coming from the
audience are relevant.
-The secretary’s duty is to jot down every important point brought up by every speaker during
the debate. Thus, the secretary needs to write quickly and accurately; he may need
conventionalized symbols and abbreviations to meet his demand. At the end of the debate the
secretary is expected to summarize the points and announce the winner. In case of a tie, then
voting becomes necessary and the secretary conducts this. When the proposition side wins, we
say the motion is carried, and the motion is lost when the opposition side wins.
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Speaking Practice
Prepare and hold a debate on one of the following motions:
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4. Shifting from Francophone to Anglophone system in Rwandan Education has brought
more harm than good.
5. Town life and life in the countryside: Which is better according to you?
6. With the Internet and portable phones, our world is nowadays considered a small village.
7. What’s your position about sex equality policy?
8. Polygamy: should it be legalized in a country like Rwanda?
9. Urban children have more educational advantages over rural children.
10. Is money the source of happiness?
11. What’s your position about family planning policy in Rwanda?
12. The productive effort in a country like Rwanda should be focused more on Agricultural
production than on industrial production.
13. School children should be impeded from watching television.
14. Should children be educated about sexuality in family?
15. Pros and cons of social networking websites.
16. Pros and cons of peer pressure ( Is peer pressure beneficial or harmful?)
17. Money motivates people more than any factor at workplace.
18. Population growth: pros and cons
19. Should cell phones be allowed in secondary schools?
20. Are single-sex schools more effective than their co-ed counterparts?
21. Pros and cons of online education
22. Internet: pros and cons
23. The integration of Rwanda into the EAC: advantages and disadvantages
24. It is better for a man to get married when he is old enough.
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