DIPOLE IN A NON-UNIFORM EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD.

( E 3)
CORRECTION :
dE
p
F= – dr
where , p is the dipole moment. ( p was missing.)

POTENTIAL
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Introduction

The electric field of a source charge is described by assigning a vector

( )
→
F
→ ¿
q0
quantity E at each point in a region of space. The same field can
also be described by assigning a scalar quantity, known as potential(V) at
each point.

 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY.

Consider a system of two charges q1 and q 2 . Suppose the charge q1 is fixed

at a point A and the charge q 2 is taken from a point B to a point C along the

line ABC. Let the distance AB = r 1 and AC = r 2 .

The charge q 2 is displaced by an amount dr such that the distance from

charge q1 changes from r to r + dr .

q1 q2
→
Force experienced by charge q 2 due to q1 is F = 4 πε 0 r along AB .
2

1
 q1 q2
dW = dr
dr is 4 πε 0 r 2
Work done by F for small displacement

q 2 moves from B to C is
Total work done as the charge
r2
q1 q 2 1 1
( )
q q
∫ 4 πε1 2r2 dr −
4 πε 0 r 1 r 2
W = r1 0 =

Since, the electrostatic force is a conservative force, the relation between

change in potential energy ( U ) and work done by the electrostatic force
(W) is U = -W

q1 q2 1 1

U ) = U( r 2 ) - U( r 1 ) = -W =
−
( −
4 πε 0 r 1 r 2 )
The change in potential energy (

q1 q 2 1 1
r 2 ) - U( r 1 ) = ( −
4 πε 0 r 2 r 1 )
U(

We choose the potential energy of the two-charge system to be zero when

they are widely separated (infinite separation).

At r 1 = ∞ ; U( ∞ ) = 0

At r 2 = r ; U( r 2 ) = U( r )

The potential energy when the separation is r = U( r ) - U( ∞ )

q1 q2 1 1
4 πε 0 r ( )
−∞
q 1 q2
= 4 πε 0 r
=

The above equation is derived by assuming that one of the charges is fixed and the
other is displaced.

2
The potential energy depends only on the initial and the final points and is
independent of the path taken to go from one point to the other. This is the
fundamental characteristic of a conservative force.

 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL

Suppose a test charge

q 0 is moved in an electric field from a point A to a

point B. If the potential energy is increased by UB - UA due to this displacement,

U B −U A
the potential difference between points A and B is defined as VB - VA = q0

where VA
( )
¿
UA
q0
and VB
( )
¿
UB
q0
are the electrostatic potentials at A and B,
respectively.
Note, as before, that it is not the actual value of potential but the potential
difference that is physically significant.
If the point A is at infinity then, VA = 0

UB W
=
The potential V = q0 q 0

So, electrostatic potential (V ) at at point is defined as the work done by an

external force in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
It is a scalar quantity.
−1
S.I unit of potential is JC = volt( V )
2 −3 −1
Dimension of potential = [ ML T A ]
 RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND POTENTIAL.
→ →
Suppose, the electric field at a point is r due to a charge distribution is E and
the potential at the same point is V.
→ → →
q
Suppose, a point charge 0 is displaced slightly from the point r to r + dr .

→ →
The force on the charge is F =q 0 E .

3
Work done by the electric field during the displacement is
→ → → →

dW =
F⋅dr = q 0 E⋅dr
→ →
Change in potential energy is dU = - dW = −q 0 E⋅dr

dU
dV = → →
q 0 = − E⋅dr
→
r2
V2 → →
−∫ E ¿ dr
∫ dV →
V1 r1
= V 2  V1 =
→ →
r
where, V1 and V2 are potentials at 1 and r 2 respectively.
→
r
We choose 1 , at the reference point ( say, at infinity).

At r 1 = ∞ ; V1 = 0

At r 2 = r ; V2 = V
→
r2
→ →
−∫ E ¿dr
→ →

V (r ) =
r
1

 CALCULATION OF ELECTRIC FIELD FROM ELECTRIC POTENTIAL.

→ →
dV =−E⋅dr =−Edr cosθ=−( E cos θ )dr
→
Where,  is the angle between electric field( E ) with the direction of
→
displacement ( dr ).

4
 dV
− =E cos θ
or, dr = Component of electric field in the direction of
displacement ( dr ).

dV
−
dr is the rate of decrease of potential.

(a) When,  = 0°

dV
− =E cos 00 =E
dr .

If we move in the direction of electric field, potential decreases at the

maximum rate.

(b) When,  = 90°

dV
− =E cos 90 0=0
dr .

or, dV =0

or, V = constant.

If we move perpendicular to the direction of electric field, potential does not

vary.

In the Cartesian co-ordinate system,

⃗E= ^i E x + ^j EY + k^ E Z ^ ^ ^
and d ⃗r = i dx+ j dy+ k dz

dV =− ⃗E⋅d ⃗r = −( E x dx +EY dy+E Z dz)

For displacement in the x-direction , i.c, if we change x to x + dx, keeping y
∂V
and z constant,  dy = dz = 0 ; then Ex = − ∂ x
For displacement in the y-direction , i.c, if we change y to y+ dy, keeping y
∂V
and x constant,  dx = dz = 0 ; then then Ey = − ∂ y

5
 f f we change z to z+ dz, keeping y
For displacement in the z-direction , i.c, i
∂V
and z constant,  dy = dx = 0 ; then then, Ez = − ∂ z

x Y Z ( ) ( ) ( )
⃗E= ^i E + ^j E + k^ E = ^i − ∂V + ^j − ∂V +k − ∂V
∂x ∂y ∂z
→
∇ =−( ^i ∂ + ^j ∂ +k^ ∂ )
The “grad” or “del” vector operator ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z , which allows us to
compute the gradient in one step.
With this notation, we can calculate the electric field from the potential with
→
⃗E=−∇ V

If a scalar potential function [ e.g V(x,y,z) = A( xy + yz + zx ), A = a

constant. ] is given , electric field at any point (x,y,z) can be calculated with

∂V ^ ∂ V ^ ∂V
→
E=−( ^i + j +k )
the help of above relations as,
∂ x ∂ y ∂ z .

 POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE.

Let A and B are two points in the field of a source charge Q. Distance between

the points A and B from the charge Q are r A and r B respectively.

Q
4 πε 0 r 2
Electric field due to a point charge Q at a distance r is E =

dV
− =E
electric field( E) and potential(V) is dr
Relation between
B B B

∫ dV =−∫ Edr=− 4 Qπε ∫ dr 2

A A 0 A r

6
or, VB-VA =
(
Q 1 1
−
4 πε 0 r B r A )
If the charge is brought from infinity to a point B which is at a distance r
from the charge,

At r A = ∞ ; VA = 0

At r B = r ; VB = V

or, V - 0 = 4
Q 1 1
πε 0 r
−∞( )
Q
4 πε 0 r
V=

Plot of electrostatic potential due to positive charge :

Plot of electrostatic potential due to negative charge :

Q
4 πε 0 r 2
Electric field due to a point charge Q at a distance r is E =

7
 Q
Potential at a point due to a point charge Q is V =
4 πε 0 r

When r = ∞ , V = 0 The potential is zero at large distances.

1 1
2
For a point charge, E  r and V  r .

Figure shows the variation of E and V with r.

 Equipotential Surface.
A locus of points in space that all have the same potential is called an
equipotential surface . It may be an imaginary surface or a real, physical
surface.
 Properties of Equipotential Surface.
(a) A charge +q is taken from point A to B on the same equipotential
surface.

Work done = W = -q(VB – VA). Since, VA = VB  W = 0. Work

done in moving a charge over an equipotential surface is zero.

8
(b) dV = −Edr cos θ

Since, dV = 0 for an equipotential surface, cos = 0   = 90°. So, the

→ →
electric field ( E ) is perpendicular to dr . The electric field or, electric field
lines are always perpendicular to an equipotential surface.
The component of electric field parallel to an equipotential surface is zero as
the potential does not vary in that direction.

(c) Since two electric field lines do not intersect therefore two equipotential
surfaces cannot intersect each other.

dV dV
− =E =|−E|
(d) dr or, dr = E

1 1
Eα dr α
For constant dV , dr or, E.

As the electric field E increases, dr decreases. Crowding of equipotential

surfaces in a region indicates the strength of electric field. So,
equipotential surfaces indicate region of strong or weak electric fields.

 Equipotential surfaces of an isolated point charge in space.

For a point charge, the electric field is radial and the equipotential
surfaces are concentric spheres with centre at the charge.

9
 Equipotential surfaces of an uniform electric field.

 Equipotential surfaces of an electric dipole.

 Electric field & Equipotential lines between two charged metal plates.

 Equipotential surfaces due to two identical negative/positive charges.

10
  POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF CHARGES
Consider a system consisting of N charges q1, q2, …, qN. with position vectors
⃗r 1 , ⃗r 2 ,…, ⃗r N relative to some origin. Each of these charges is a source charge

that produces its own electric potential at point P, independent of whatever

other changes may be doing.

q1
The potential at P due to the charge q1 is V1 = 4 πε 0 r 1 P , where r1P is the
distance between q1 and P.

q2
The potential at P due to the charge q2 is V2 = 4 πε 0 r 2 P , where r2P is the
distance between q2 and P.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

11
 qN
The potential at P due to the charge qN is VN = 4 πε 0 r NP , where rNP is the
distance between qN and P.

By the superposition principle, the potential V at P due to the total charge

configuration is the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the individual

Charges.

(
1 q1 q2 q3
) ( )
N
1 q
+ + +.. .. . .. .. . .. ... .. .. . .. .. .. . .
4 πε 0 r 1 P r 2 p r 3 P 4 πε 0
∑ri
i=1
V = V1 + V2 + ... + VN = = iP .

Any continuous charge distribution may be considered as a collection of

infinitesimally separated individual points. Then summation will be replaced
by integration.
1 dq
∫
4 πε 0 r , where r is the distance from
The potential at a point P is V =
each individual point in the charge distribution to the point P.
The infinitesimal charges are given by
dq = λ dl (one dimension) , where λ is linear charge density.
= σ dA (two dimensions) , where σ is the charge per unit area.

=ρ dV (three dimensions), ρ is the charge per unit volume.

 POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF CHARGES

Consider a system consisting of N charges q1, q2, …, qN. with position vectors
⃗r 1 , ⃗r 2 ,…, ⃗r N relative to some origin. Each of these charges is a source charge

that produces its own electric potential at point P, independent of whatever

other changes may be doing.

12
 q1
The potential at P due to the charge q1 is V1 = 4 πε 0 r 1 P , where r1P is the
distance between q1 and P.

q2
The potential at P due to the charge q2 is V2 = 4 πε 0 r 2 P , where r2P is the
distance between q2 and P.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

qN
The potential at P due to the charge qN is VN = 4 πε 0 r NP , where rNP is the
distance between qN and P.

By the superposition principle, the potential V at P due to the total charge

configuration is the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the individual

Charges.

(
1 q1 q2 q3
) ( )
N
1 q
+ + +.. .. . .. .. . .. ... .. .. . .. .. .. . .
4 πε 0 r 1 P r 2 p r 3 P 4 πε 0 ∑ri
i=1
V = V1 + V2 + ... + VN = = iP .

Any continuous charge distribution may be considered as a collection of

infinitesimally separated individual points. Then summation will be replaced
by integration.

13
 1 dq
∫
4 πε 0 r , where r is the distance from
The potential at a point P is V =
each individual point in the charge distribution to the point P.
The infinitesimal charges are given by
dq = λ dl (one dimension) , where λ is linear charge density.
= σ dA (two dimensions) , where σ is the charge per unit area.

=ρ dV (three dimensions), ρ is the charge per unit volume.

 POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES.

Case 1 : In absence of any external electric field.

Consider first the simple case of two charges q1 and q2 with position vectors
⃗r 1 and ⃗r 2 relative to some origin.

Let us calculate the work done (externally) in building up this configuration.

Consider the charges q1 and q2 initially at infinity.
Let us calculate the work done by an external agency to bring the charges to
the given locations.

Suppose, first the charge q1 is brought from infinity to the point ⃗r 1 . There is
no external field against which work needs to be done, so work done in

bringing q1 from infinity to ⃗r 1 is zero. W1 = 0

The charge q1 will also produce a potential in space.

q1
Potential at the point ⃗r 2 due to charge q1 = V1 = 4 πε 0 r 12
From the definition of potential, work done in bringing charge q2 from

infinity to the point ⃗r 2 is q2 times the potential at ⃗r 2 due to q1.

14
 q1 q 2
Work done on q2 = W2 = q2 V1 = 4 πε 0 r 12
where, r12 is the distance between points 1 and 2.
Since electrostatic force is conservative, this work gets stored in the form of
potential energy of the system.
Thus, the potential energy of a system of two charges q1 and q2 is
q1 q 2 q1 q 2
U = W1 + W2 = 0+ 4 πε 0 r 12 = 4 πε 0 r 12
If q2 was brought first to its present location and q1 brought later, the
potential energy U would be the same.
More generally, the potential energy expression, is unaltered whatever way
the charges are brought to the specified locations, because of path-
independence of work for electrostatic force.
The above expression for potential energy is true for any sign of q1and q2. If
q1q2 > 0, potential energy is positive.
This is as expected, since for like charges (q1q2 > 0), electrostatic force is
repulsive and a positive amount of work is needed to be done against this
force to bring the charges from infinity to a finite distance apart.
For unlike charges (q1 q2 < 0), the electrostatic force is attractive.
In that case, a positive amount of work is needed against this
force to take the charges from the given location to infinity. In other words,
a negative amount of work is needed for the reverse path (from infinity to
the present locations), so the potential energy is negative.
Let us calculate the potential energy of a system of three
⃗r
charges q1, q2 and q3 with position vectors ⃗r 1 , ⃗r 2 , 3 relative to some origin
respectively.

15
To bring q1 first from infinity to ⃗r 1 , no work is required. W1 = 0
q1
Potential at the point ⃗r 2 due to charge q1 = V1 = 4 πε 0 r 12

Next we bring q2 from infinity to ⃗r 2 .

q1 q 2
Work done in this step is W2 = q2V1 = 4 πε 0 r 12

Both the charges q1 and q2 produce a potential at the point

⃗r 3 is
q1 q2
given by V1 + V2= 4 πε 0 r 13 + 4 πε 0 r 23 .

Work done next in bringing q3 from infinity to the point

⃗r 3 is :
q1 q 3 q2 q 3
W3 = q3(V1 + V2 ) = 4 πε 0 r 13 + 4 πε 0 r 23 .
The total work done in assembling the charges at the given locations is
obtained by adding the work done in different steps,
q1 q 2 q1 q 3 q2 q 3
W = W1 + W2 + W3 = 0 + 4 πε 0 r 12 + 4 πε 0 r 13 + 4 πε 0 r 23 .
Thus, the potential energy of a system of three charges q1, q2 and q3 is
q1 q 2 q1 q 3 q2 q 3
U = W = 4 πε 0 r 12 + 4 πε 0 r 13 + 4 πε 0 r 23 .
Since, electrostatic force is conservative in nature(or equivalently, the path
independence of work done) the final expression for U is independent of the
manner in which the configuration is assembled.
The potential energy is characteristic of the present state of configuration,
and not the way the state is achieved.
16
The potential energy expression is easily generalised for a system of any
number of point charges.
N (N −1)
For N number of point charges, total number of pairs formed = 2
Case 2 : In presence of an external electric field.
Let, V be the potential at a point due to an external electric field. Work done
by an external agent in bringing the charge q from infinity to a point is W =
q( V -0 ) =qV.
This work done is the potential energy when the charge is placed at a point
in an external electric field.

Consider a system of two charges q1 and q2 located at with position vectors ⃗r1

and ⃗r 2 relative to some origin in an external electric field. V1 and V2 are the
potentials at those positions.

Work done at ⃗r1 in bringing q1 from infinity = W1 = q1( V1 – 0 ) = q1V1

Potential at ⃗r 2 = V2 = Potential due to external electric field + Potential due

q1
to the presence of charge q1 = V1 + 4 πε 0 r 12 , where, r12 is the distance
between q1 and q2.
q1
Work done at ⃗r1 in bringing q2 from infinity= W2 = q2V2 = q2 ( V1 + 4 πε 0 r 12 )

Thus, Potential energy of the system. = the total work done in assembling
the configuration.
q1 q1 q 2
U = W = W1 + W2 = q1V1 + q2 ( V1 + 4 πε0 r 12 ) = q1V1 + q2 V1 + 4 πε 0 r 12 .
 Electric potential due to a charged ring.

A charge +Q is uniformly distributed over the circumference of a ring of

radius R. P is a axial point at a distance r from the centre of the ring
where we have to calculate the potential.

17
 Potential at P due to an elemental charge dq is given by,

1 dq
dV =
4 πε 0 1
2 2 2
( R +r )

Hence, electric potential at P due to the uniformly charged ring is given

Q Q
1 dq 1 1 1 Q
∫ 4 πε 1 4 πε 0 1∫ dq 4 πε 0 1
0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2
by, V = ( R +r ) = ( R +r ) = ( R +r )

1 Q
V =
4 πε 0 R
Potential at the centre of the ring : r = 0

Q
If  is the linear charge density of the ring, then  = 2 πR .

1 2 πRλ Rλ
1
4 πε 0 1
2 2 2
2 2 2
V = ( R +r ) = 2 ε 0 ( R + r ) .

Plot of potential(V) due to the uniformly charged ring with distance

between the observation point and the centre of the ring (r) :

 Electric potential due to a uniformly charged spherical shell.

18
Case 1 : At an external point. ( r > R )

The charge Q on the sphere behaves as if concentrated at the centre.

1 Q
V=
4 πε 0 r

Case 2 : At a point on the surface . ( r = R )

1 Q
r = R V = 4 πε 0 R

Case 3 : At a point inside the sphere . ( r < R )

dV
− =E
dr

charged spherical shell is zero.

Electric field at any point inside
dV
E=− =0
 dr

Or, V = constant.

19
 Potential at every point inside the shell is same and equal to the potential at
1 Q
the surface. V =
4 πε 0 R

Plot of potential(V) due to the uniformly charged spherical shell with

distance between the observation point and the centre of the shell (r) :

Question : A small sphere of radius r and charge q is enclosed by a

spherical shell of radius R and charge Q. Show that if q is positive, charge
will necessarily flow from the sphere to the shell (when the two are
connected by a wire) no matter what the charge Q on the shell is.

Answer : Consider a small sphere of radius r placed inside a large spherical

shell of radius R. Let the spheres are given charges q and Q, respectively.
By induction total charge on the outer surface of large sphere = Q +q
1 Q+q
Total potential on the outer sphere = VR = 4 πε 0 R
( )
20
 1 q
Potential on the inner sphere due to its own charge is = V1 = 4 πε 0 r
()
As the potential at every point inside a charged sphere is the same as that
on its surface, so potential on the inner sphere due to charge Q on the outer
1 Q
sphere is = V2 = 4 πε 0 R
( )
1 Q
Total potential on the inner sphere Vr = V1 + V2 = 4 πε 0 R
( ) 1 q
()
+ 4 πε 0 r

= 4 πε 0
(
1 Q q
R
+
r )
q 1 1
−
Hence, the potential difference is Vr – VR = 4 πε 0 r R
( )
As q is positive, the difference Vr – VR is positive. Vr > VR .The inner sphere
is always at a higher potential.
Now if the two spheres are connected by a conducting wire, the charge q will
flow entirely to the outer sphere, irrespective of the charge Q already
present on the outer sphere.
[ This is the principle of the van de Graaff generator which is a machine capable of
building up potential difference of a few million volt .]

 Potential Difference Between Two points in electric field

Potential difference between two points in electric field can be defined as
work done in displacing a unit positive charge from one point to another
against the electric forces.

If a unit +ve charge is displaced from a point A to B as shown work required

B
→ →
∫ E⋅dx
can be given as VB – VA = – A

21
If a charge q is shifted from point A to B, work done against electric forces
can be given as W = q (VB – VA)
For the situation work done by electric forces is asked, W = q (VA – VB)
If VB < VA, then charges must have tendency to move toward B (low
potential point) it implies that electric forces carry the charge from high
potential to low potential points.
Hence, in the direction of electric field always electric potential decreases.
 Commonly used units of electrostatic energy.
Electron volt( eV ) : It is the energy gained by an electron when
accelerated through a potential difference of 1V.

Thus, if an electron with charge q = 1.6×10–19 C is accelerated by

a potential difference of ΔV = 1 volt, it would gain energy of
qΔV = 1.6 ×10–19J.

1eV = (1.6 × 10−19 C)(1 V) = (1.6 × 10−19 C)(1 J/C) = 1.6 x −19
J
1keV = 103 eV = 1.6 x −16
J
1MeV = 106 eV = 1.6 x −13
J
1GeV = 109 eV = 1.6 x −10
J
1TeV = 1012 eV = 1.6 x −7
J
 Conservation of Energy

The total energy of a system is conserved if there is no net addition (or

subtraction) due to work or heat transfer. For conservative forces, such as
the electrostatic force, conservation of energy states that mechanical energy
is a constant.

Mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of a
system; that is, K + U = constant.
A loss of U for a charged particle becomes an increase in its K.

Conservation of energy is stated in equation form as K + U = constant

or, Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf

where i and f stand for initial and final conditions.

22
Suppose, a free electron accelerated from rest through a potential difference
of V volt.

This is a system with only conservative forces. Assuming the electron is

accelerated in a vacuum, and neglecting the gravitational force, all of the
electrical potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
2
mv
Ki = 0, Kf = 2 and Ui = qV, Uf = 0.
Conservation of energy states that, Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
2
mv
qV = = 2
or,

Assignment :

1. If a point charge is taken from A to C and then from C to B on a circle drawn

with another point charge +q placed at its centre. Then along which path more
work is done. [Same]

2. Some equipotential surfaces are shown in figure. What can you say about the
magnitude and the direction of the electric field ?

. [200 V/m making an angle 120° with the X-axis. ]

23
3. A cube of side b has a charge q at each of its vertices. Determine the potential
and electric field due to this charge array at the centre of the cube.
16 q
E=0∧V =
[ √3 πε 0 b ]
4. How much work has to be done in assembling three particles having charges
20C, 30C and 40C at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side 10cm?[ 234 J ]
5. The electric potential V at any point (x,y,z)m in space is given by V = 4X 2 volt.
Calculate the electric field at the point (1,0.2)m.
−8 −8
6. Two point charges 10×10 C and −4×10 C are separated by a distance of 70cm
−8
in air. (i) Find at what distance from the charge 10×10 C would the electric
potential be zero. (ii)Also calculate the electrostatic potential energy of the
system.
7. The electric potential function for a electric field directed parallel to the X-axis is
shown in the graph. Draw the graph of electric field strength.

8. a)Infinite number of charges, each equal to q are placed on the X-axis at

x=r , x=2r ,x=4r ......................... and so on. Calculate the electric field and potential
q q
E= ∧V =
3 πε 0 r 2 2 πε 0 r
at origin O. [ ]

(b) Calculate the electric field and potential at origin O if the consecutive charges
q q
E= ∧V =
5 πε 0 r 2 6 πε 0 r
have opposite sign. [ ]

24