LESSON 1  The behavioral perspective operates on the

theory that students will learn when rewarded

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: BASIC CONCEPTS for "good" behavior and punished for "bad"
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students behavior.
should be able to:  The behavioral approach has been criticized for
failing to account for attitudes, emotions,
1. Define educational psychology and explain its and intrinsic motivations for learning.
relevance; B. The Developmental Perspective
2. Differentiate and discuss the different perspectives  This perspective focuses on how children acquire
or approaches to educational psychology; new skills and knowledge as they develop. The
3. Trace the history and explain the contributions of stages of cognitive development by Jean Piaget is
some significant personalities in the development of an example of an important developmental
educational psychology; and theory looking at how children grow
4. Identify and explain the career path of educational intellectually.
psychologists.
===============================================
I. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: DEFINED
 Educational psychology is the study of how
people learn, including teaching methods,
instructional processes, and individual differences
in learning.
 It explores the cognitive, behavioral, emotional,
and social influences on the learning process.
 Educational psychologists use this understanding
of how people learn to develop instructional
strategies and help students succeed in school.
 Educational psychologists delve deep to fully
understand the learning process. Some these
topics of study in educational psychology include:
 Educational technology: Looking at how
different types of technology can help
students learn
 Instructional design: Designing effective
learning materials
 Special education: Helping students who
may need specialized instruction
 Curriculum development: Creating
coursework that will maximize learning
 Organizational learning: Studying how
people learn in organizational settings,
such as workplaces
 Gifted learners: Helping students who are
identified as gifted learners
1. Sensorimotor Stage
II. PERSPECTIVES IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
 The infant learns about the world through their
A. The Behavioral Perspective senses and through their actions (moving
 This perspective suggests that all behaviors are around and exploring its environment).
learned through conditioning. Psychologists who  A range of cognitive abilities develop such as
adhere to this perspective explains learning object permanence;
based on the principles of conditioning.
 self-recognition, deferred imitation and
representational play
 Object Permanence- the belief that
objects continue to exist even when no
longer present to the senses. This is
the main achievement during the
stage.
 self-recognition- the child realizes that
other people are separate from them
 Deferred Imitation- a process wherein
a child observes an adult doing and
completing an action and after
sometime imitates the action. The
length of time between observation
and action as well as the complexity
and accuracy of the imitation changes
as the child gets older.
 Representational Play – involves
playing with toys that represent real
people, events or situations.
 Towards the end of the stage the general
3. The Concrete Operational Stage
symbolic function begins to appear where
children show in their play that they can use one
object to stand for another.
 Language starts to appear because the children
startsto realize that words can be used to
represent objects and feelings.
 The child begins to be able to store information
that it knows about the world, recall it and label
it.
2. The Preoperational Stage
 At the beginning of this stage the child does
not use operations, so the thinking is
influenced by the way things appear rather
than logical reasoning.
 A child cannot conserve which means that the
child does not understand that quantity
remains the same even if the appearance
changes.
 The child is egocentric; he assumes that other
people see the world as he does. This
 As the pre-operational stage develops
egocentrism declines and children begin to
enjoy the participation of another child in
their games and “let’s pretend “play becomes
more important.
 Children often pretend to be people they are
not (e.g. superheroes, policeman), and may
play these roles with props that symbolize real
life objects. Children may also invent an
imaginary playmate.
 A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world
looks, not how the world is. It is not yet
capable of logical (problem solving) type of
thought.
 Children at this stage may also demonstrate
animism. This is the tendency for the child to
think that non-living objects (such as toys)
have life and feelings like a person.
 Thinking is still intuitive (based on subjective
judgements about situations) and egocentric
(centered on the child’s own view of the
world).
 At the beginning of the concrete
operational stage, the child can use
operations ( a set of logical rules) so he can
conserve quantities, he realizes that
people see the world in a different way
than he does (decentering).
 Children still have difficulties with abstract
thinking.
 During this stage, children begin to
thinking logically about concrete events.
 Children begin to understand the concept
of conservation; understanding that,
although things may change in
appearance, certain properties remain the
same.
 During this stage, children can mentally
reverse things (e.g., picture a ball of plastic
returning to its original shape).
 During this stage, children also become
less egocentric and begin to think about
how other people might think and feel.
 The stage is called concrete because
children can think logically much more
successfully if they can manipulate real
(concrete) materials or pictures of them.
 Piaget considered the concrete stage a
major turning point in the child’s cognitive
development because it marks the
 beginning of logical or operational During this time, people develop the ability to
thought. This means the child can work think about abstract concepts, and logically test
things out internally in their head (rather hypotheses.
than physically try things out in the real  This stage sees the emergence of scientific
world). thinking, formulating abstract theories and
 Children can conserve number (age 6), hypotheses when faced with a problem.
mass (age 7), and weight (age 9).
Conservation is the understanding that  By understanding how children think and learn at
something stays the same in quantity even different stages of development, educational
though its appearance changes. psychologists can better understand what
 But operational thought is only effective children are capable of at each point of their
here if the child is asked to reason about growth. This can help educators create
materials that are physically present. instructional methods and materials aimed at
Children at this stage will tend to certain age groups.
make mistakes or be overwhelmed when
asked to reason about abstract or C. THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
hypothetical problems.
 Cognitive psychology aims to understand how
people think, learn, remember, and process
4. The Formal Operational Stage information.
 The cognitive approach accounts for how factors
such as memories, beliefs, emotions, and
 The formal operational period begins at the onset
motivations contribute to the learning process.
of the adolescent stage. As adolescents enter
This theory supports the idea that a person learns
this stage, they gain the ability to think in an
as a result of his own motivation and not as a
abstract manner, the ability to combine and
result of external rewards.
classify items in a more sophisticated way, and
 Educational psychologists are interested in
the capacity for higher-order reasoning.
understanding how kids become motivated to
 Adolescents can think systematically and reason
learn, how they remember the things that they
about what might be as well as what is (not
learn, and how they solve problems, among
everyone achieves this stage).. This allows them
others.
to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction,
as well as to engage in scientific reasoning.
 Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas: e.g.
D. THE CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE
they can understand division and fractions
without having to actually divide things up, and
 This perspective focuses on how we actively
solve hypothetical (imaginary) problems.
construct our knowledge of the world.
 Concrete operations are carried out on things
Constructivism accounts for the social and
whereas formal operations are carried out on
cultural influences that affect how we learn.
ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely
 Those who take the constructivist approach
freed from physical and perceptual constraints.
believe that what a person already knows is the
 During this stage, adolescents can deal with
biggest influence on how they learn new
abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to think
information. This means that new knowledge can
about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to
only be added on to and understood in terms of
understand division and fractions).
existing knowledge.
 Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems
with many possible solutions. (e.g., if asked ‘What
E. EXPERIENTIAL PERSPECTIVE
would happen if China invades Taiwan?) They
could speculate about many possible
 This perspective emphasizes that a person's own
consequences.
life experiences influence how they understand
new information.
 Children can follow the form of a logical
argument without reference to its content.
  This approach is similar to constructivist and
cognitive perspectives in that it takes into
consideration the experiences, thoughts, and
feelings of the learner.
 This perspective allows someone to find personal
meaning in what they learn instead of feeling that
the information doesn't apply to them.
III. HISTORICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
 Educational psychology is a relatively young
subfield that has experienced a tremendous
amount of growth. Psychology did not emerge as
a separate science until the late 1800s.
 Interest in educational psychology was largely
fueled by educational philosophers.
 Educational psychology has been influenced by a
number of philosophers, psychologists, and
educators. Some thinkers who had a significant
influence include William James, Alfred Binet,
John Dewey, Jean Piaget, and Benjamin Bloom
 Johann Herbart is regarded by many as the
father of educational psychology.
 Herbart believed that a student's interest in a
topic had a tremendous influence on the
learning outcome. He believed teachers
should consider this when deciding which
type of instruction is most appropriate.
 William James made significant contributions to
the development of educational psychology. His
1899 text "Talks to Teachers on Psychology" is
considered the first textbook on educational
psychology.
 Alfred Binet developed the famous IQ tests. The
tests were originally designed to help the French
government identify children who had
developmental delays and create special
education programs.
 John Dewey had a significant influence on
education.  Dewey's ideas were progressive; he
believed schools should focus on students rather
than on subjects. He advocated active learning,
arguing that hands-on experience was an
important part of the process.
 Benjamin Bloom developed an important
taxonomy designed to categorize and describe
different educational objectives. The three top-
level domains he described were cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor learning objectives.
 Throughout history, a number of additional
figures have played an important role in the
development of educational psychology. Some of
these well-known individuals include:
 John Locke: Locke is an English philosopher
who suggested the concept of tabula rasa, or
the idea that the mind is essentially a blank
slate at birth. This means that knowledge is
developed through experience and learning.
 Jean Piaget: A Swiss psychologist who is
known for his highly influential theory of
cognitive development, Jean Piaget's
influence on educational psychology is still
evident today.
 B.F. Skinner: Skinner was an American
psychologist who introduced the concept of
operant conditioning, which influences the
behaviorist perspectives. His research on
reinforcement and punishment continues to
play an important role in education.
IV. CAREERS IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Educational psychologists often work in school to
help students and teachers improve the learning
experience. Other professionals in this field work
in research to investigate the learning process
and to evaluate programs designed to foster
learning.
 Educational psychologists work with educators,
administrators, teachers, and students to analyze
how to help people learn best. This involves
finding ways to identify students who may need
extra help, developing programs for students who
are struggling, and even creating new learning
methods.
 Many educational psychologists work with
schools directly. Some are teachers or professors,
while others work with teachers to try out new
learning methods for their students and develop
new course curricula. An educational psychologist
 may become a counselor, helping students cope
with learning barriers directly.
 Other educational psychologists work in research.
They might work for a government organization
such as the Department of Education (DepEd),
influencing decisions about the best ways for
children to learn in schools across the nation
 Educational psychologists may work in a school or
university administration. They can influence
decisions on what educational methods to adopt
in order to help students learn in a way that best
suits them.
LESSON 2
TYPES OF STUDIES AND METHODS OF RESEARCH
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students should
be able to:
1. Cite and discuss the different types of studies
and methods of research adopted in
educational psychology.
2. Explain how to conduct studies using the
different research methods.
3. Conceptualize a research problem in
educational psychology using the different
research methods.
===============================================
I. TYPES OF STUDIES IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Types of studies in educational psychology can be
generally classified according to approach:
1. Quantitative study - a study that is based on
numerical data. The numerical data are
processed and analyzed to answer a research
problem or test a hypothesis.
2. Qualitative study - a study that is based on
verbal descriptions of events or situations.
Data are based on observations or narratives
provided by experts in the field and or
respondents of the study. Data are expressed
in words rather than numbers.
 Types of studies based on research methods or
design.
1. Descriptive study – a study that seeks to
explain current or prevailing situations or
events.
a. Survey – numerical data are collected
from a relatively large number of
respondents.
b. Case study – uses a qualitative
approach and is used to conduct an
in-depth analysis of the gathered data
from a single case or multiple cases. .
Interviews and observations are used
among others to gather the needed
data,
c. Ethnography – adopts a qualitative
approach and uses participant-
observation and interviews to gather
data. Studies on culture, practices
and characteristics of a group are
conducted.
d. Phenomenology – adopts a
qualitative approach and uses in-
depth interviews and observation to
gather data that are based on the
experiences of the respondents ot
participants of the study.
e. Content analysis- uses readily
available data which can be in the
form of verbal narratives or numerical
values to understand behavior or
situations, , patterns or trends.
2. Correlational Study – a study that seeks to
establish the direction and strength or
relationship or association between two or
more variables. The variables are called
independent (explanatory) variable and
dependent (criterion variable).
 The numerical index to determine the
direction and strength of the relationship
is called correlation coefficient.
 The direction of the relationship can be:
a. Direct- indicates a positive relationship; if
one variable increases, the othe will also
increase or if one variable decreases, the
other variable will also decrease.
b. Indirect- indicates a negative or inverse
relationship; if one variable increases, the
other one will decrease or vice-versa.
 The strength or magnitude of the
relationship may be described using the
following scale:
 Correlation coefficient
Level/Strength of Relationship
.90 –1.00
Very High-Perfect/ Very Strong
.70 – .89
High/Strong
40 – .69
Moderate/substantial/marked
.20 – .39
Very Low/Weak
.00 – .19
Negligible- Very Low/Very Weak
3. Experimental Study- a study that is
considered the most scientific as it is the only
study that determines real “cause-and-
effect” relationship and involves
manipulation and control of variables.
II. DATA GATHERING METHODS
1. Interview- this is the primary method used in
qualitative research. Data are gathered
through individual and or group interviews.
Interviews are recorded and then transcribed
accordingly. Themes or patterns can be
drawn from the results of an interview.
2. Observation – data are gathered using the
senses. Gathered data are considered the
most authentic because they are directly
seen or observed by the educational
psychologist.
3. Focus-Group Discussion (FGD)- data are
gathered through group discussion with
people who are experts in the field and
people who are involved in the research
problem being investigated. Discussions are
recorded and then transcribed.
4. Questionnaires- these are data gathering
tools that may be constructed by the
educational psychologist based on the
purpose of his or her study. Questionnaires
must be tested for its reliability and validity.
5. Psychometric tools- these are psychological
tests that had been subjected to rigorous
procedures in their construction. These tools
are already valid and reliable and have norms
that can be used to interpret the gathered
data.
6. Records/Documents- data are culled from
the content of documents or records.
Contents of the documents or records are
analyzed to determine themes, trends and
patterns.
LESSON 3
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF LEARNING
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students
should be able to:
1. Explain the theory of behaviorism in relation to
learning;
2. Discuss how the theory conditioning is applied
in the learning process; and
3. Elaborate the principle of connectionism as
applied to learning.
===============================================
 Behavioral theories of learning focus on the
impact of conditioning and reinforcement on the
learning process; hence, conditioning (classical
and operant), connectionism and social -cognitive
learning are the focus of interest. Generally, it
emphasizes the relationship between
environmental events and observable behavior.
 Learning refers to a relatively permanent change
in behavior as a result of practice or experience.
 Theories of learning are sets of scientific
conjectures or hypotheses that explain how
learning takes place.
A. Conditioning Theory- The conditioning theory
of learning describes a form of learning
where learning occurs as a result of
associating a condition or stimulus with a
particular reaction or response. Human
behavior is shaped by habits we pick up in
response to certain situations in life and is the
outcome of learning by conditioning theory.
There are two main types of the conditioning:
classical conditioning theory and
operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
 a conditioning in which a neutral
(conditioned) stimulus gradually gains
the ability to raise a response because
of its pairing with a natural
(Unconditioned) stimulus.
Conditioning is most effective when
frequent pairings of the UCS and CS
occurs.
  Conditioned Stimulus – a stimulus
that produces a conditioned response
 Conditioned Response – a response
produced by a conditioned stimulus
 Unconditioned Stimulus – a stimulus
that produces and an unconditioned
response.
 Unconditioned Response – a response
produced by an unconditioned
stimulus.
Reinforcement
Features of Classical Conditioning
1. Stimulus Generalization – process by which the
conditioned response transfers to other stimuli
that are similar that are similar to the original
conditioned stimulus.
2. Stimulus Discrimination – a process by which one
learns not to respond to similar stimuli in an
identical manner because of previous
experiences. This is the opposite of
generalization.
3. Extinction – a process by which a conditioned
response is lost.
4. Spontaneous recovery- the reappearance of the
conditioned response after a rest period or period
of lessened response. If the conditioned
stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no
longer associated, extinction will occur very
rapidly after a spontaneous recovery
Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
 A conditioning that emphasizes the
consequence of behavior. That is,
what happens after we do something
is important.
 Reinforcement is a powerful factor in
shaping and controlling behavior.
Parents, teachers, peers, etc… react to
our behaviors and either reinforce or
eliminate them.
 Reinforcement is a key element to explain how
and why learning occurs.
 The principle of reinforcement says that there is
an increase or decrease in the frequency of a
response when a certain consequence
immediately follows it.
 A reinforcer is an event that increases or
decreases the frequency of behavior. A reinforcer
is most effective when applied to specific
behaviors.

Schedules of Reinforcement
There are four schedules of reinforcement
1. Fixed Ratio (FR) – reinforcement which
depends on a definite number of responses.
E.g., Provide reinforcement every 5 correct
response or answer.
2. Variable Ratio (VR) – number of responses
needed for reinforcement varies from one
reinforcement to the next. E.g., for 5 correct
responses- reinforcement; for 7 correct
responses- reinforcement; for 3 correct
responses-reinforcement.
3. Fixed Interval (FI) – a response results in
reinforcement after a definite length of time.
E.g., Provide a token to a child he keeps quiet
for 10 minutes.
4. Variable Interval – provision of reinforcement
depends on time and a response, but the
time needed for the provision of the
reinforcement varies. E.g., teachers asks for a
response immediately, in the middle of the
class, or after class.
Punishment
 The presentation of an aversive event or the
removal of a positive event that decreases
the frequency of the response.
 The effectiveness of punishment depends
on the following;
1. Schedule of Punishment – punishment
is more effective when it is given every
time rather than intermittently if there
is a misbehavior. However, if the
punishment is discontinued, recovery of
the undesirable behavior is greater
under continuous punishment than
when it is given intermittently.
2. Intensity of Punishment- it is believed
that punishment is effective by
increasing the intensity of punishment.
However, such is not the case; if
punishment is to used, it should be
mild.
3. Timing of Reinforcement – Student
misbehavior consists of a series of
actions that make a response.
Punishment is more effective if
delivered early in the sequence of
behaviors that lead to the misbehavior.
4. Delay of Punishment – The longer the
interval between the occurrence of the
misbehavior and the punishment, the
less effective is the punishment. The
consequences of behavior, pleasant or
painful are most effective when they
immediately follow the occurrence of
the misbehavior.
Note: Punishment becomes more effective
if students know exactly why they are being
punished. Punishing an entire class for
misbehaviors of a few can only create bad
feelings and anxiety. Make sure students
understand the what and why of
punishment. A teacher must also be
consistent in implementing the punishment.
If the misbehavior is punished once, then
the student must be punished every time he
or she misbehaves-regardless of who the
offender is. Otherwise, the misbehaving
student is confused and continue to
misbehave.
5. Variation of Punishment – Varying the
punishment following a child’s
misbehavior is more effective that giving
the same punishment every time that
child misbehaves.
B. CONNECTIONISM (Edward Lee Thorndike)
 Thorndike believed that all learning is
explained by bonds or connections
that are formed between the
stimulus and response. The bonds
occur mainly through trial-and-error
method. Hence the theory was called
connectionism.

 Thorndike formulated three major
laws of learning. These are law of
readiness, law of exercise, and law of
effect.
LESSON 4
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students should
be able to:
1. Discuss the nature of social learning theory,
2. Explain how learning occurs based on the social
learning theory; and
3. Cite and explain the processes involve in
observational learning.
===============================================
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
 The theory claims that learning takes place by
observing the behavior of other people and then
imitates them.
a. Observational Learning
 Observational learning occurs when we
imitate or model after someone who
displays the appropriate behavior and
gets reinforced for it.
Bandura’s Experiment (Bobo Doll Experiment)
 Bandura conducted an experiment
involving children who watched an
aggressive model. Bandura put together
two groups of young boys and girls and
made them watch one of three films in
which in which someone beat up a plastic
toy called Bobo doll. The first film
portrayed the aggressor being rewarded
with candy and praise for hitting the
Bobo doll.
 The second film showed the aggressor
being criticized and spanked for acting
aggressively.
 In the third film, nothing was done to the
aggressor for his behavior.
 After the film viewing, each child was
ushered to a room full of toys among
them a Bobo doll. The psychologist
observed each child through a one-way
mirror.
 The findings revealed that the children
who saw the first and third films were
more likely to imitate aggressive behavior
compared to children who watched the
second film. And boys were likely to be
more aggressive than girls.
 Effective modeling requires the following
steps:
1. Pay attention to the model’s behavior
2. Retain the information that you paid
attention to.
3. Reproduce the behavior. You must
have the motor capacity to do it.
4. Reinforce the observed behavior.
b. The Socio-cognitive Model
 Badura formulated a model of learning that
involves behavior, the person and the
environment. These three factors interact with
each other to influence the learning process.
 This model is also known as reciprocal
determination. This model postulates that
learning influences cognition (belief, thinking) and
vice versa, likewise cognitive activities influences
the learning environment while environmental
factors can change the beliefs or how a person
thinks.
 For example: A female distance education student
achievement behavior. The student divides her
 time between work and school, working during  The cognitive aspects of human behavior are
the day and studying her lessons everyday to get intelligence, perception, language, thinking/
good grades. She is positive about completing problem solving, memory and attention. These
her course and has enough confidence in her aspects should be dealt with when studying
abilities. Because she has little study time, she learning.
plans a way of spending her free time to make
studying more efficient. She joins training
programs on the use of computers and to learn a
new skill. In this sense, the environment had
influenced her learning behavior.
 Bandura claims that self-efficacy is an essential
determinant of successful learning. Self-efficacy is
the expectation that a person can handle
challenging situation and produce positive
results. The person believes that challenges can
be solved, can adjust to a situation and trusts and
believes that he or she has the ability to address
the problem.

LESSON 5
Cognitive Theories
objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students should
be able to:
a. Discuss the nature and basic concepts of the
cognitive theories of learning.
b. Identify and explain the five features of cognitive
science.
c. Discuss how cognitive psychology has evolved as a
learning perspective.
===============================================
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES
 Cognitive learning theories deal on nob-
observable behavior in the study of learning.;
hence, the theories focus on thought and
information processing systems. Information
processing refers to the ways in which the
sensory input (learning material) is transformed,
reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered and used.

Cognitive Psychology
 Cognitive psychology is the study of the structure
and components of processing of information’
 Cognitive psychologists believe learning can be
studied by dealing on non-observable behavior
such as thoughts in a scientific manner.
 Cognitive psychology is based on the framework
of Gestalt Psychologists like Max Wertheimer,
Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka who gave
emphasis on perception in the study of human
behavior. 1. FIELD THEORY (KURT LEWIN)
 The word “Gestalt” means form, pattern,  Lewin claimed that behavior is influenced by
configuration or organized whole. Gestalt forces (valences) and by the direction of
psychologists were interested on how organisms these forces (vectors).
perceive relationships among ideas and the effect  Lewin proposed of the concept of the “Life
those relationships have on learning. Space”. The life space of an individual consists
 Gestalt psychologists believe that “the whole is of everything one needs to know about a
greater than the sum of its parts.” person in order to understand his/her
 behavior in a specific psychological
environment at a specific time.
 The concept of the life space call attention to
the fact that it is not always possible to draw
accurate conclusion simply by observing overt
behavior.
2. INSIGHT LEARNING: PROBLEM SOLVING BY
INSIGHT (WOLFGANG Kohler)
 Kohler conducted an experiment called the
“Aha Experiment “to demonstrate how insight
develops and how it is used in learning and
problem solving featuring a chimpanzee
named Sultan.
 Insight means awareness and understanding
of the relationships among things in the
environment and how understanding of these
relationship enable one to learn and solve
problems.
 The more intelligent and experienced an
individual is, the more he is capable of
gaining insight.
3. MEANINGFUL LEARNING DAVID AUSUBEL)
 Ausubel made a distinction between the
following in his analysis of learning:
a. Reception vs. Discovery Learning
b. Roles and Meaningful learning
 The first distinction (reception vs. discovery)
is important because most of the students’
learning, both in and out of school, is
reception. But reception learning need not be
rote, it can be quite meaningful to students.
 In reception learning, materials may become
meaningful as students internalize them.
 In discovery learning, students learn and then
the students rearrange the learned material
to integrate it with the existing cognitive
structures.
 Ausubel define meaningful learning as the
acquisition of new meanings. This definition
implies that the material to be learned must
be potentially meaningful, that is, it is
appropriate to the student and that the
student can turn potentially meaningful
material into actual meaningfulness.
 Meaningful learning occurs when the
material to be learned is related to what
students already know.
4. DISCOVERY LEARNING (JEROME BRUNER)
 Discovery learning is a learning that involves
rearrangement and transformation of
material that leads to insight.
  In learning, students must be confronted with
problem and let them think of a solution
either independently or in groups.
 To be able to learn, students must be helped
to grasp the overall pattern of a field of
study , so that more likely, they are able to
remember what they learn and comprehend
principles that can be applied in a variety of
situations and be prepared in mastering more
complex knowledge.
 Brunner also claimed that too much emphasis
on step-by-step study procedure of studying
verbal and numerical materials, and ,
formulas that students can reproduce on cue
but unable to use or apply them outside the
classroom.
LESSON 6
LEARNER DIFFERENCES
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students
should be able to:
1. Cite and discuss theories of intelligence
2. Discuss how learners differ according to
intelligence; and
3. Explain the meaning of critical thinking and how
to develop it.
===============================================
A. MEANING OF INTELLIGENCE
 Intelligence may be defined in terms of:
(a) function - ability to understand things
accurately and quickly. Ability to solve problems.
(b) origin and – nature and nurture
controversy; fluid and crystallized intelligence (Cattel)
(c) structure – e.g. structure of the intellect
(Guilford)
B. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1. General – Factor Theory of Intelligence
(Spearman’s g)
 By Charles Spearman
 Also known an Unifactor Theory
 The most important element of intelligence is
the g factor, defined as the ability to educe
abstract relationships, Individuals differ in the
amount of “g” they possess.
 The meaning of intelligence is synonymous
with g. Specific factors, “s” are unique to each
test of intelligence tests and therefore of
lesser value than “g”.
 Although the s factors are unique to each
other, some of them appear to correlate with
each other. Theses correlated specific factors
are called group factors.
 Spearman identified the two group factors as:
a. verbal ability
b. numerical ability.
 a. Number (N)- ability to do
calculations accurately
and rapidly
b. Verbal (V) – measured by
vocabulary and other
verbal test
c. Word Fluency (W)-
measured by the number
of words related in
some ]way that can be
produced in a specific
period of time.
d. Space(S)- ability to
visualize patterns and
2. Multi-Factor Theories of Intelligence
objects when they are
 This theory holds that there are different
rotated or when they are
types of intelligence. The number of
part of a configuration
different kinds of intelligence depends on
change.
statistical methods used to derive the
e. Memory (M)- ability to
basic abilities, called factors, as well as on
memorize rote material.
the beliefs of the proponent of the
f. Reasoning (R)- primarily
theory.
inductive reasoning.
a. Thorndike’s Position
g. Perceptual Speed (P) –
 Edward Lee Thorndike is considered the
ability to note visual
“father of educational psychology” and is
details rapidly.
the proponent of the learning theory
called “connectionism”.
c. Guilford’s Position
 Thorndike claimed that mental functions
 J.P. Guilford postulated a “structure
could be classified into separate types of
of intellect” which is composed of
ability. These abilities are:
operations, products, and content.
a. Completion (C )
 Operations are basic intellectual
b. Arithmetic (A)
processes of thinking used by
c. Vocabulary (V)
individuals. These are:
d. Directions (D)
a. Cognition - discovery,
rediscovery, recognition of
information or understanding
b. Memory – retention or the
b. Thurstone’s Position ability to bring forth
 According to Louis Leon Thurstone, information learned
intelligence is represented neither by previously
“g” nor by multiple connections, as c. Divergent Production –
claimed by Thorndike but a number searching for multiple,
of “primary abilities” which are creative, or novel solutions to
independent of each other. These a problem
primary abilities are:
 d. Convergent Production –
searching for correct solution
to a problem
e. Evaluation- placing a value
judgment on knowledge and
thought
 Content refers to the type of
material or content on which
operations are performed . These
are:
a. Figural- concrete material as
perceived through the
senses.
3. Hierarchical Models
b. Symbolic- letters, digits, and
 Phillip Vernon attempted to
other conventional signs
reconcile the different views on
c. Semantic – verbal meaning
intelligence by proposing a
or ideas
hierarchical model of intelligence.
d. Behavioral- knowledge
 At the top of the hierarchy is the
regarding other persons.
broadest factor analogous to
 Products refer to the results of
Spearman’s “g”. The major group
performing operations on content.
factors constitute the next line of
It indicates the form of thought
specificity and include verbal-
produced by the individual.
educational factors and a spatial-
a. Units- production of a single
mechanical factor. These factors
word, definition, or isolated
can be further subdivided into
bit of information
minor group factors such as verbal
b. Classes- production of a
and numerical; and mechanical
concept or the noting of
reasoning, spatial, and manual
similarities
abilities.
c. Relations- production of an
analogy, an opposite, or any
other form of relationship
d. Systems- production of
internally consistent set of
classifications of various
4. CATTELL’S FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED
forms or content
INTELLIGENCE
e. Transformation- production
 Fluid Intelligence - more biological or
of change of meaning,
genetically determined and consequently
arrangement, or
non-verbal and culture free. It changes
organization.
less over short time periods and is more
f. Implications- production of
affected by brain injury.
information beyond the given
 Crystallized Intelligence- develops from
data
the application of fluid intelligence to a
specific or environment context. It is used
more on tasks where habits become
fixed.
 5. TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

This theory was developed by Robert Sternberg.

The theory holds that there are three important parts of
intelligence: (1) componential, (2) experiential, and (3)
contextual

a. Componential Intelligence - measured by

intelligence tests. People who score high in
componential intelligence may get good
grades in school but they may not be
outstanding in thinking of new, original ideas
or in every-day street-smart intelligence.
b. Experiential Intelligence - focuses on how
people perform on tasks with which they have
either no previous experience or great
experience. A person with high experiential
intelligence can solve a new problem easily
even with no prior experience. Also, he or she
can figure out how familiar tasks can be
performed more automatically.
c. Contextual Intelligence - intelligence in
everyday life- street smarts. Contextual
intelligence requires adapting to, selecting,
and shaping one’s real- world environment (or
context). Part of contextual intelligence is
practical intelligence. This skill involves
knowing the pathway to success in your
culture or environment. Another part of
contextual intelligence is social intelligence:
the ability to understand others and interact
successfully with them.
6. GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES
 Gardner’s Theory of is based on his belief
that that the brain has evolved separate
systems for different adaptive abilities,
talents, or mental skills that he calls
“intelligences”.
COGNITIVE TESTS
 Cognitive Tests measures mental capacity
( intelligence), aptitude and achievement Tests
A. ACHIEVEMENT TEST
 Achievement tests measure the level of
knowledge, skill, or accomplishment in an area or
endeavor. Achievement tests are designed to
measure the degree of learning that has taken
place as a result of exposure to a relatively
defined learning experience.
 The basic function of achievement tests is to
determine how much the learners know about
certain topics or how well they can perform
certain skills. Achievement testing involves the
assessment of achieved competence.
 Achievement tests may be standardized
nationally, regionally, locally or it may not be
standardized at all.
Teacher-Made Tests
 Designed by teachers to measure
achievement of students in terms of
current educational objectives of a
certain school or teacher.
 Tests are designed in accordance with
the teacher’s syllabi or the school’s
educational program.

Summative and Formative Evaluation

1. Summative evaluation – calls for administering an

achievement test at the end of a unit or course of
 study to determine whether the students have
attained the objectives of instruction.
2. Formative evaluation - testing and other methods
of assessing educational progress take place
continuously during the process of instruction.
Purposes of Achievement Testing
1. Assessment of Achieved Competence
2. Diagnosis of Strengths and Weaknesses
3. Assignment of Grades
4. Certification and Promotion
5. Advanced Placement and Credit by Examination
6. Curriculum and Program Evaluation
7. Accountability
8. Information for educational policy
B. APTITUDE TEST
 Aptitude is a measure of future
performance. The most important
characteristic of an aptitude test is its
ability to predict success prior to
instruction or training.
 A person’s aptitudes are assessed for
purposes of academic and career or
occupational counseling and placement.
 Aptitude measures are of value only if they
correlate highly with criteria.
 Aptitude measures must have high
predictive validity.
 Aptitude tests are called Tests of Special
Abilities.
 Examples of Aptitude Tests are the
Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) and the
General aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
Reasons For Using Aptitude Tests
 Selecting Individuals
 Placing individuals
 Feedback
General and Specific Abilities
1. General aptitude- represents a composite of
cognitive abilities that can be used to
forecast achievement and other behaviors in
a wide range of situations.
2. Specific aptitude – represents a special or
specific ability that can be enhanced
through training.
C. INTELLIGENCE TEST
D. TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS
1. Group Intelligence Tests
 Intelligence tests that that can be
administered to many examinees at a
time.
 Some group intelligence tests are the
following:
1. Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)
 The RPM is a nonverbal group test
typically used in educational settings. It is
a test used in measuring abstract
reasoning and regarded as a non-verbal
estimate of fluid intelligence. It is the
most common and popular test
administered to groups ranging from 5-
year-olds to the elderly. The test was
originally developed by John C. Raven in
1936.
2. Culture Fair Intelligence Test
 The Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT)
was created by Raymond Cattell in 1949
as an attempt to measure cognitive
abilities devoid of sociocultural and
environmental influences. It is available
in 3 scales: Scale 1 for Children, Scale 2
for “normal” adults and Scale 3 for
Superior Adults.
 It is composed of four subtests: Series,
Classification, Matrices, and Topology
(Conditions)
3. SRA Verbal Form
 The SRA Verbal Test is a test of general
ability, and measures an individual's
adaptability and flexibility in problem
solving. Due to its verbal nature, it was
recommended only to be used with
people who are familiar with the English
language. The results could be utilized in
personnel placement or in educational
placement.
 The educational interpretation provides 3
scores: the L score (total linguistics score),
the Q score (quantitative - math), and the
T score (total score).
4. MD-5 (MacKenie Davey & Co.)
  The test was first developed in 1972 and
is described as a test of mental ability for
staff selection and placement at
managerial and supervisory levels. Its
prime concern is with the abilities to
deduce relationships and to apply the
rules governing them.
5. Purdue Non-language Test (PNLT)
 The PNLT aims to measure mental
ability. It is an abstract reasoning test
applicable to all and can be used
effectively to people with different
cultural backgrounds.
6. Neo Mental Ability Test
 A measure of verbal mental ability
intended mainly for people who finished
high school or college. It can be used for
in the educational setting such as in
placement, counseling and screening of
students. It can also be used in the
selection and placement of personnel in
the industrial setting.
7. Panukat ng Katalinuhang Pilipino (PKP)
 The PKP was developed to measure the
mental ability of Filipinos whose aged 16
and Above.
 The test is intended for use in school,
business and industry as well as other
situations where assessment of
intelligence of adult Filipinos is called for.
 Its subtests are:
a. Talasalitaan (Vocabulary) – measures
ability to deal with words as used in a
sentence.
b. Ugnayan (Analogy) – measures skill
in perceiving relationships.
c. Kakayahan sa Bilang (Numerical
Ability) – measures basic
mathematical concepts and
processes in various problem-solving
situation within the sphere of Filipino
experiences.
 David Wechsler designed a series of individual
intelligence tests to measure the intelligence
of people from pre-school through adulthood.
 The test intended for pre-school is called
Wechsler Pre-school and Primary Scale of
Intelligence (WPPSI) which has undergone a
series of revision. Latest edition is the WPPSI
III.
 The test intended for elementary and
secondary school students is the Wechsler
Intelligence Scale (WISC) which has also
undergone a series of revision. Latest version
is the WISC IV.
 The Wechsler test intend for adults is the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). The
latest revision is known as the WAIS-IV.
b. Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS)
 The SBIS V (latest edition ) was designed
to assess intelligence of examinees as
young as 2-year old and as old as 85 or
older.
 Psychometric soundness indicate very
high reliability (internal consistency &
test-retest) as well as content and
predictive validity.
 The test is composed of 10 subtests
under five (5) factors.
INTERPRETING INTELLIGENCE
 Results of intelligence tests are interpreted based
on a norm. This norm can be in the form of
Deviation IQ (DIQ) and Percentiles.
 The Wechsler Scale and the SBIS propose similar
levels of intelligence but there are slight
variations in the terminologies.
 Generally, in interpreting intelligence , the
following may be used:
IQ LEVEL % of Percentile
Population

130 + Very Superior 2.2 98 &

2. Individual Intelligence Tests above
 Intelligence tests that can be administered 120 – Superior 6.7 91 - 97
only to one examinee at a time are the 129
Wechler Scales and the Stanford-Binet 110 – High (Above) 16.1 75 - 90
Intelligence Scale. 119 Average
a. Wechsler Scales 90 – Average 50.0 25 - 74
109
80 – 99 Low (Below) 16.1 9 – 24
 Average
70 – 79 Border Line 6.7 2- 8
Below Extremely 2.2 Below 2
70 Low (Mentally
Deficient)
LESSON 7
LEARNER DIFFERENCES: PERSONALITY AND
INTEREST
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students should
be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of personality based on
theoretical orientation;
2. Cite and discuss some personality tests.
3. Explain the nature of interest.
===============================================
PERSONALITY
 Personality came from the Greek word “ Persona”
which means mask.
 Personality inventories are constructed to
measure theoretical beliefs, affective states and
perceptions.
 Personality inventories consist of items
concerning personal characteristics, thoughts,
feelings, and behavior.
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
1. Type Theories – adhere to the notion
that there are fixed categories of types of
people.
2. Trait Theories - views personality as
consisting of dynamic organization of
traits that determine a person’s unique
adjustment to the environment.
3. Psychoanalytic theory – believes that
personality develops through a series of
psychosexual stages and that it is a result
of the interaction among the three
components of personality, the id, ego
and super ego.
4. Phenomenological theories –
personality is understood by analyzing
the immediate, personal subjective
experiences of a person. Personality is
understood based on how the person
responds to the world in terms of his or
her unique, private perception of it.
5. Social Learning Theory- views
personality as developed through
observation, modeling and
reinforcement.
PERSONALITY INVENTORIES
 Self-report inventories consist of questionnaire-
type statements requiring a limited form of
response such as might be found in true-false or
multiple-choice items.
 Personality inventories are constructed using
three general techniques:
a. Rational technique- refers to the
selection of items that appear to
measure some personality traits.
This approach attempts to logically
sample items from some universe of
behaviors.
b. Empirical technique – refers to the
construction of items that
discriminate among various criterion
groups ( e.g. normal, neurotic,
psychotic)
c. Factor analysis- refers to the
selection of items based on
correlations among the items. This
approach is used for both selection
of items and factor labeling.
 Some popular personality inventories are
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI), Edwards Personal Preference Schedule
(EPPS) and the 16 Personality Factor Test (16 PFT).
16 F TEST
 Developed by Raymund B. Cattell
and company.
 Based on the Trait theory of
Personality.
 Cattel and his Associates used
factor analysis to discover and
measure the source traits of
human personality. The
questionnaire measures 3
response styles, 16 primary traits
and 5 global factors.
  The 16PF Test can be used: avoids conflict, critical, vocal
a. For vocational guidance to submissive and pushy
identify occupations for which F. LIVELINESS Restrained, Happy-go-
the individual is suited for. introspective, lucky, cheerful,
serious but and lively,
b. For personnel selection and
sometimes expressive,
career development. boring, less impulsive,
c. For clinical diagnosis, playful attention-
prognosis and therapy seeking
planning. The 16PF helps G. RULE Non- Conscientious,
clinicians with a normal-range CONSCIOUS conforming, hardworking,
measurement of anxiety, NESS disregards rules, persevering
unconventional, and rule
adjustment and behavioral
careless bound, can be
problems. inflexible and
d. For identification of righteous
personality factors that may H. SOCIAL Shy, socially Adventurous,
predict martial compatibility BOLDNESS timid, easily less afraid of
and satisfaction. intimidated, social
e. For identifying students with may experience situations,
“stage fright”. uninhibited
potential academic, emotional,
and initiates
and social problems. social contact,
thick-skinned.
I. SENSITIVITY Tough-minded Tender-minded
The 16 Primary Factors and self-reliant, and sensitive,
rough, no- aesthetic,
FACTOR LOW STEN HIGH STEN nonsense, intuitive,
SCORE SCORE objective subjective and
(1 – 3) (8 – 10) more refined in
A. WARMTH Reserved, Outgoing, likes tastes
distant, people, easy L. VIGILANCE Trusting and Vigilant but
cautious and going and accepting; suspicious and
prefers working warmhearted expects fair distrusting;
alone treatment, skeptical and
B. REASONING Less intelligent, More loyalty and feels
concrete intelligent, good intentions misunderstood
thinker, lower abstract from others or taken
reasoning thinker, fast advantage of.
ability learner, higher M. Practical and Imaginative
reasoning ABSTRACTEDNESS conventional; and absent-
ability down-to-earth, minded; ideas
C. EMOTIONAL Emotionally less Emotionally grounded are impractical
STABILITY stable, easily more stable, N. PRIVATENESS Genuine and Discreet and
upset, easily high frustration unpretentious, non-disclosing,
frustrated, tolerance, naïve and self- personally
reactive and emotionally revealing guarded,
easily affected calm and shrewd and
by feelings relaxed, polished.
proactive Q1. OPENNESS TO Conservative Liberal and
E. DOMINANCE Cooperative, Domineering, CHANGE and traditional; experimenting,
humble, forceful, bossy likes routine free-thinking,
obedient, and stubborn, and predictable critical and
 life. analytical  The test has a scale to measure the
Q2. SELF- Group-oriented Independent- consistency of the responses on
RELIANCE and minded and preferred personality variables
dependent; a resourceful; ( consistency scale)
joiner and likes prefers to  Raw scores are converted into
to do things make percentile and T-scores.
with others decisions on
his own and
individualistic. PERSONALITY INDICATORS
Q3. Careless of Perfectionist, VARIABLE
PERFECTIONISM social rules, lax does not leave Achievement To do one’s best to be
and tolerates anything to (Ach) successful; to accomplish
disorder; leaves chance, socially tasks requiring skill and
more things to precise, effort.
chance; disciplined and Deference (Def) To get suggestions form
comfortable in organized others; to find out what
disorganized others think; to follow
settings. instructions; to do what
Q4. TENSION Cool and Irritable and is expected.
relaxed; patient impatient; Order (Ord) To have clear and
and not easily driven and organized work.
affected by easily affected Autonomy (Aut) To be able to come and
tension by tension, go as desired; to say
restless when what one thinks about
made to wait things.
Affiliation (Aff) To be loyal to friends; to
THE EPPS form new friendships ; to
share things with friends;
 The EPPS was designed for research and to write letters to
counseling purposes to provide convenient friends.
measure of 15 relatively normal personality Intraception (Int) To analyze one’s motives
variables. It consists of 225 pairs of statements and feelings; to absorb
pertaining to individual likes and feelings. and understand what
 The EPPS was based on the theory of Henry others feel; to analyze
Murray on Manifest Needs. other people’s behavior.
 The EPPS can be administered individually or to a Succorance (Suc) To have others provide
large group and can be manually or machine help when in trouble; to
scored. seek encouragement
 In the inventory, the personality variables are from others; to have a
presented in pairs. The respondent is asked to great deal of affection
select which between the personality variables is from others; to have
more reflective of his preference or choice. others feel sorry if one
gets sick.
Example: Dominance (Dom) To argue one’s point of
view; to be a group
1. A. To be loyal to friends leader; to be elected
B. To be treated with chairperson of a
kindness committee.
2. A. To be the leader of a Abasement (Aba) To feel guilty when one
group does something wrong;
B. To accomplish a task to accept blame when
requiring skill and effort things go wrong; to feel
the need for
 punishment; to feel  There are 7 validity scales, 10 clinical scales, 15
timid in the presence of content scales, 12 component scales.
superior.
Nurturance (Nur) To help friends who are
in trouble; to treat Clinical Scales
others with kindness and
sympathy.
CODE SCALE DESCRIPTION
Change(Chg) To do new things and
1 Hypochondriasis Indicates abnormal concern
different things; to travel
(Hs) with bodily functions
and meet new friends; to
experience novelty and
2 Depression Indicates extreme
change in daily routine;
(D) pessimism, feelings of
to experience and try
hopelessness, and slowing
new things.
of thought and action
Endurance (End) To keep a job until
3 Conversion Shows patients using
finished; to complete a
Hysteria (Hy) physical or mental
job undertaken; to work
symptoms as a way of
hard at a given task.
unconsciously avoiding
Heterosexuality To go out with members
conflicts and responsibilities
(Het) of the opposite sex; to
4 Psychopathic Shows repeated and flagrant
engage in activities with
Deviate (Pd) disregard for social custom,
the opposite sex; to
emotional shallowness, and
listen or tell jokes about
an in ability to learn from
sex; to be in love with
punishing experiences.
someone of the opposite
5 Masculinity- Differentiates between men
sex.
Femininity and women characteristics.
Aggression (Agg) To attack contrary point
(MF)
of view; to tell others
6 Paranoia Shows abnormal
what one thinks; to
(Pa) suspiciousness and
criticize others publicly;
delusions of grandeur or
to blame others when
persecution
things go wrong; to read
7 Psychasthenia Shows obsessions,
newspaper accounts of
(Pt) compulsions, abnormal
violence.
fears, guilt and
indecisiveness.
EPPS INTERPRETATION
8 Schizophrenia Shows bizarre or unusual
(Sc) thoughts or behavior ,
PERCENTILE INTERPRETATION T Scores
withdrawal and experiences
97 & Above VERY HIGH 70 & Above
of delusions and
85 – 96 HIGH 60 – 69
hallucinations.
17 – 8 4 AVERAGE 41 – 59
9 Hypomania showing emotional
4 – 16 LOW 31 – 40 (Ma) excitement, overactivity,
3 & Below VERY LOW 30 & Below and flight of ideas.
0 Social Introversion Shows shyness, little
MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY interest in people, and
insecurity
 Designed to be more suitable for nonclinical as
well as clinical uses. INTEREST AND ATTITTUDE
 The MMPI-2 consists of 567 True-False items that
A. INTEREST
takes about 90 minutes to complete.
Meaning of Interest
  An interest is a preference for one activity over  Literary
another.  Musical
 Interest involves the selection and ranking of  Social Service
activities along a like-dislike dimension.  Clerical
 Interest involves activities of behaviors engaged
in by individuals.
B. ATTITUDE
 Interests are expressed by action verbs such as
reading a book or playing musical instruments. Meaning of Attitude
 A learned predisposition to respond positively or
Types Of Interest negatively to an attitude object. An attitude
1. Expressed Interest- an individual simply states a object could be an idea, a process, group,
preference for one activity over another. situation, institution, a specific object or person.
2. Manifest Interest – an individual voluntarily  A favorable attitude indicates a positive
participates in an activity. predisposition towards the attitude object, while
an unfavorable attitude reflects a negative
3. Inventoried Interest- those that are measured by
predisposition towards the attitude object.
tests that compare interests in different activities  An attitude cannot be directly observed but must
be inferred from overt behavior, both verbal and
Reasons for Using Interest Inventories
non-verbal.
 Selection  An attitude is most frequently associated with
 Placement social stimuli and with emotionally charged
 Career Counseling responses. It often involves value judgment.
 Program Evaluation
Characteristics of Attitude
EXAMPLES OF STANDARDIZED INTEREST INVENTORIES  Attitudes vary in (1) direction, (2) intensity,
(3) pervasiveness, (4) consistency, and (5)
1. Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) salience.
 Measures the following the general  The direction of an attitude refers to whether
occupational themes an individual views a class of objects with
 Realistic (mechanically- favor or disfavor. Students who have a
minded, strong) favorable attitude towards school are
positively directed to schooling whereas
 Investigative (scientific,
students who are negatively directed tend to
introspective) have an unfavorable attitude and avoid
 Artistic (Self-expressive, school.
impulsive)  The intensity of an attitude refers to the
 Social (sociable, humanistic) strength of the predisposition an individual
 Enterprising (concern for has towards the attitude object. An individual
might have a slightly favorable attitude
power, energetic)
towards a school policy whereas another
 Conventional (systematic, might be strongly antagonistic .
conforming)  The pervasiveness of an attitude refers to the
range of the predisposition towards the
2. Kuder General Interest Survey- measures 10 attitude object. One person might strongly
general interest areas dislike one or two aspects of schooling
 Outdoor whereas another might dislike almost
 Mechanical everything about schooling.
 Computational  The consistency of the attitude refers to the
 Scientific reliability of the individual’s predisposition
towards the attitude object. Respondents
 Persuasive
may claim that all politicians are dishonest
 Artistic
 but at the same time agree that a particular
politician has few or no faults.
 The salience of the attitude refers to the
degree of spontaneity or readiness to express
an opinion.. Salient attitudes are those in
which the individual places great importance
or about which the person has a great deal of
knowledge.
Components of Attitude
There are three components of an attitude.
These are:
1. Affective- consists of emotional reaction to
the attitude object.
2. Behavioral- consists of observable
behavior directed towards the attitude object.
3. Cognitive- is made up of beliefs and
thoughts about the attitude object.
Methods of Measuring Attitudes
1. Guttman Scale- developed by Louis Guttman. The
scaling procedure is also known as Scalogram Analysis.
 The purpose of scalogram analysis is to
determine whether responses to selected
items measure a given attitude that fall on a
single dimension.
 If the statements constitute a true
unidimensional Guttman scale, the
respondent who endorses a particular item
also endorses every item having a lower
scale value. In other words, on a Guttman
scale, items are arranged in an order so that
an individual who agrees with a particular
item also agrees with items of lower rank-
order.  adjectives related to an attitude object on a 7-point scale.
 Scalogram analysis produces a cumulative,
ordinal scale. The extent to which a true
scale is obtained is indicated by the
reproducibility coefficient.
 An example of the Guttman Scale is the
Social Distance Scale.
Social Distance Scale - developed by Emory
Bogardus (1925) and is one of the earliest types
of attitude measurement.
 It determines the social distance that an
individual places between himself and
members of various ethnic or racial
groups.
 Bogardus postulated that the greater the
amount of social distance created, the
less favorable was the attitude toward a
specific group.
 There are 5 categories of acceptance and
rejection (0 to 5) presented in serial
order. However, differences between
successive categories do not represent
equal amount of social distance. Social
distance scales yield ordinal
measurements.
NATIONALITY Social Distance
I am willing to permit a
0 1 2 3
American
Chinese
Russian
French
British
Spaniard
Vietnamese
Code Social Distance
0 To be a part of my family
through marriage
1 To be part of my group as
personal friend
2 To be a part of my
community as neighbor
3 To be a co-employee in my
work place
4 To be a citizen of my country
5 To be a visitor in my country
2. Semantic Differential Scale- developed by Osgood,
Suci, and Tanenbaum( 1957). It presents pairs of polar
The client is asked to rate the attitude object on each of
these bipolar scales. It is a type of a rating scale designed
to measure the connotative meaning of objects, events,
and concepts. The connotations are used to derive the
attitude towards the given object, event or concept.
 Factor analysis  of large collections of semantic
differential scales yielded three recurring
attitudes that people use to evaluate words and phrases:
evaluation, potency, and activity. Evaluation loads highest
on the adjective pair 'good-bad'. The 'strong-weak'
adjective pair defines the potency factor. Adjective pair
'active-passive' defines the activity factor. 
The Average Retarded Child is . . .
 Adjectiv 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Adjectiv OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students will be
e e able to:
Nice Awful a. Explain the meaning of critical thinking;
Strong Weak b. Discuss how critical thinking is developed; and
Clean Dirty c. Cite and explain the characteristics of creative
Healthy Sickly people.
Honest Dishones THINKING
t  Thinking refers to the purposeful mental
Good Bad manipulation of words and images.
 Forming concepts, solving problems, decision-
3. Likert Scale–developed by Rensis. The Likert Scale is
making are processes that reflects thinking.
based on a Method of Summated Ratings. The Likert
Scaling technique assigns a scale value to each of five
responses. Thus, the instrument yields a total score for CREATIVE AND CRITICAL THINKING
each respondent.
 Statements favoring the attitude object are
scored as:

Response Scale Value

Reverse Scoring

Strongly Agree (SA) 5

1
Agree (A) 4
2
Undecided(U) 3
3
Disagree(D) 2
4
Strongly Disagree(SD) 1
5

Example:

Item SD D U A SA
1. Educational psychology is an
interesting subject.
2. Educational psychology is a
worthwhile and necessary
subject for psychology majors
3. I like attending my
educational psychological class
4. I feel nervous in my class in
educational psychology
assessment. *
 Reverse Scoring

LESSON 8
CRITICAL and CREATIVE THINKING